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<li id="toc-Classical_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Classical world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Visual arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innovation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innovation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Innovation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_personifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_personifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>National personifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_personifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Personification</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="تجسيد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجسيد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA" title="নরত্বারোপ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নরত্বারোপ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Увасабленне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Увасабленне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Увасабленьне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Увасабленьне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Олицетворение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Олицетворение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personificaci%C3%B3" title="Personificació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Personificació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikace" title="Personifikace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Personifikace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikation" title="Personifikation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Personifikation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikatsioon" title="Personifikatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Personifikatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personificaci%C3%B3n" title="Personificación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Personificación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personigo" title="Personigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Personigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertsonifikazio" title="Pertsonifikazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pertsonifikazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%AE%DB%8C%D8%B5_(%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C)" title="تشخیص (آرایه ادبی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تشخیص (آرایه ادبی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personnification" title="Personnification – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Personnification" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%B1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Անձնավորում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անձնավորում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikacija" title="Personifikacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Personifikacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personiguro" title="Personiguro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Personiguro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pers%C3%B3nugerving" title="Persónugerving – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Persónugerving" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personificazione" title="Personificazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Personificazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გაპიროვნება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გაპიროვნება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifik%C4%81cija" title="Personifikācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Personifikācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikacija" title="Personifikacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Personifikacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megszem%C3%A9lyes%C3%ADt%C3%A9s" title="Megszemélyesítés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Megszemélyesítés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Персонификација – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Персонификација" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Персонификациясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Персонификациясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personificatie" title="Personificatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Personificatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%93%AC%E4%BA%BA%E5%8C%96" title="擬人化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="擬人化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikasjon" title="Personifikasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Personifikasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lekamleggjering" title="Lekamleggjering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lekamleggjering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personificacion" title="Personificacion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Personificacion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashxis" title="Tashxis – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tashxis" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikation" title="Personifikation – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Personifikation" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikacja" title="Personifikacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Personifikacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifica%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Personificação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Personificação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personificare" title="Personificare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Personificare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Персонификация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Персонификация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikimi" title="Personifikimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Personifikimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personification" title="Personification – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Personification" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%85" title="تجسيم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تجسيم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifik%C3%A1cia" title="Personifikácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Personifikácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poosebljenje" title="Poosebljenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Poosebljenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%95%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86" title="بەکەسکردن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەکەسکردن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Персонификација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Персонификација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikacija" title="Personifikacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Personifikacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henkil%C3%B6itym%C3%A4" title="Henkilöitymä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Henkilöitymä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikation" title="Personifikation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Personifikation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personipikasyon" title="Personipikasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Personipikasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="บุคลาธิษฐาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บุคลาธิษฐาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C5%9Fhis_(edebiyat)" 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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Representation of a thing or abstraction as a person</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the representation of a thing or abstraction as a person. For the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities, see <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa,_America,_Europe_and_Asia,_and_Africa_Figure,_possibly_ca._1775_(CH_18429549-7)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Africa%2C_America%2C_Europe_and_Asia%2C_and_Africa_Figure%2C_possibly_ca._1775_%28CH_18429549-7%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Africa%2C_America%2C_Europe_and_Asia%2C_and_Africa_Figure%2C_possibly_ca._1775_%28CH_18429549-7%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Africa%2C_America%2C_Europe_and_Asia%2C_and_Africa_Figure%2C_possibly_ca._1775_%28CH_18429549-7%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Africa%2C_America%2C_Europe_and_Asia%2C_and_Africa_Figure%2C_possibly_ca._1775_%28CH_18429549-7%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Africa%2C_America%2C_Europe_and_Asia%2C_and_Africa_Figure%2C_possibly_ca._1775_%28CH_18429549-7%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-Africa%2C_America%2C_Europe_and_Asia%2C_and_Africa_Figure%2C_possibly_ca._1775_%28CH_18429549-7%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3443" data-file-height="1664" /></a><figcaption>Set of <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> figures of personifications of the <a href="/wiki/Four_continents" title="Four continents">four continents</a>, German, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1775</span>, from left: Asia, Europe, <a href="/wiki/Africa_(goddess)" title="Africa (goddess)">Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Personification_of_the_Americas" title="Personification of the Americas">America</a>. Of these, Africa has retained her classical attributes. Formerly <a href="/wiki/James_Hazen_Hyde" title="James Hazen Hyde">James Hazen Hyde</a> collection.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Personification</b> is the representation of a thing or abstraction as a person. It is, in other words, considered an embodiment or an incarnation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a>, many things are commonly personified. These include numerous types of places, especially cities, <a href="/wiki/National_personification" title="National personification">countries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, elements of the natural world such as the trees or <a href="/wiki/Deities_and_personifications_of_seasons" title="Deities and personifications of seasons">four seasons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Four_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Four elements">four elements</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anemoi" title="Anemoi">four cardinal winds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">five senses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and abstractions such as virtues, especially the four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">seven deadly sins</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the nine <a href="/wiki/Muses" title="Muses">Muses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Personifications_of_death" title="Personifications of death">death</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goujon,_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Goujon%2C_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG/220px-Goujon%2C_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Goujon%2C_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG/330px-Goujon%2C_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Goujon%2C_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG/440px-Goujon%2C_les_quatre_saisons_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3828" data-file-height="2470" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean_Goujon" title="Jean Goujon">Jean Goujon</a>, <i>The Four Seasons</i>, reliefs on the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Carnavalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hôtel Carnavalet">Hôtel Carnavalet</a>, Paris, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1550s</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In many <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> early religions, <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a> had a strong element of personification, suggested by descriptions such as "god of". In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">ancient Greek religion</a>, and the related <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman religion">ancient Roman religion</a>, this was perhaps especially strong, in particular among the minor deities.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many such deities, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tyche" title="Tyche">tyches</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutelary deities">tutelary deities</a> for major cities, survived the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, now as symbolic personifications stripped of religious significance. An exception was the winged goddess of victory, <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nike_(mythology)" title="Nike (mythology)">Nike</a>, who developed into the visualisation of the Christian angel.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, personifications lack much in the way of narrative <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Classical_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical myth">classical myth</a> at least gave many of them parents among the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">major Olympian deities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconography</a> of several personifications "maintained a remarkable degree of continuity from late antiquity until the 18th century".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Female personifications tend to outnumber male ones,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at least until modern <a href="/wiki/National_personification" title="National personification">national personifications</a>, many of which are male. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg/220px-Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg/330px-Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg/440px-Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2009" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli" title="Sandro Botticelli">Sandro Botticelli</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Calumny_of_Apelles_(Botticelli)" title="Calumny of Apelles (Botticelli)">Calumny of Apelles</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1494</span>–95), with 8 personification figures: (from left) Hope, Repentance, Perfidy, innocent victim, Calumny, Fraud, Rancour, Ignorance, the king, Suspicion.</figcaption></figure> <p>Personifications are very common elements in <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a>, and historians and theorists of personification complain that the two have been too often confused, or discussion of them dominated by allegory. Single images of personifications tend to be titled as an "allegory", arguably incorrectly.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 20th century personification seemed largely out of fashion, but the semi-personificatory <a href="/wiki/Superhero" title="Superhero">superhero</a> figures of many <a href="/wiki/Comic_book" title="Comic book">comic book</a> series came in the 21st century to dominate popular cinema in a number of <a href="/wiki/Superhero_film" title="Superhero film">superhero film</a> franchises. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Gombrich" title="Ernst Gombrich">Ernst Gombrich</a>, "we tend to take it for granted rather than to ask questions about this extraordinary predominantly feminine population which greets us from the porches of cathedrals, crowds around our public monuments, marks our coins and our banknotes, and turns up in our cartoons and our posters; these females variously attired, of course, came to life on the medieval stage, they greeted the Prince on his entry into a city, they were invoked in innumerable speeches, they quarreled or embraced in endless epics where they struggled for the soul of the hero or set the action going, and when the medieval versifier went out on one fine spring morning and lay down on a grassy bank, one of these ladies rarely failed to appear to him in his sleep and to explain her own nature to him in any number of lines".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_world">Classical world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg/220px-Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg/330px-Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg/440px-Wien_Hofburg_Constantia_et_Fortitudine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="1014" /></a><figcaption><i>Constance</i> and <i>Fortitude</i> in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. Early modern statues with classical <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconography</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Personification as an artistic device is easier to discuss when belief in the personification as an actual spiritual being has died down;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this seems to have happened in the ancient Graeco-Roman world, probably even before <a href="/wiki/Christianisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation">Christianisation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other cultures, especially <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, many personification figures still retain their religious significance, which is why they are not covered here. For example, <a href="/wiki/Bharat_Mata" title="Bharat Mata">Bharat Mata</a> was devised as a Hindu goddess figure to act as a national personification by intellectuals in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a> from the 1870s, but now has some actual <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Hindu temples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Personification is found very widely in classical literature, art and drama, as well as the treatment of personifications as relatively minor deities, or the rather variable category of <a href="/wiki/Daemon_(classical_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daemon (classical mythology)">daemons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In classical Athens, every geographical division of the state for local government purposes had a personified deity which received some cultic attention, as well as <i>Demos</i>, a male personification for the governing assembly of free citizens, and <i><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></i>, a female one for the ruling council. These appear in art but are often hard to identify if not labelled.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Personification_in_the_Bible" title="Personification in the Bible">Personification in the Bible</a> is mostly limited to passing phrases which can probably be regarded as literary flourishes,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the important and much-discussed exception of <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_(personification)" title="Wisdom (personification)">Wisdom</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs" title="Book of Proverbs">Book of Proverbs</a>, 1–9, where a female personification is treated at some length, and makes speeches.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> can be regarded as personification figures, although the text does not specify what all personify.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to James J. Paxson in his book on the subject "<i>all</i> personification figures prior to the sixth century A.D. were ... female";<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but major rivers have male personifications much earlier, and are more often male, which often extends to "Water" in the <a href="/wiki/Four_Elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Elements">Four Elements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The predominance of females is at least partly because <a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin grammar</a> gives nouns for abstractions the female gender.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pairs of <a href="/wiki/Winged_victories" class="mw-redirect" title="Winged victories">winged victories</a> decorated the <a href="/wiki/Spandrel" title="Spandrel">spandrels</a> of Roman <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arches</a> and similar spaces, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_coinage" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman coinage">ancient Roman coinage</a> was an especially rich source of images, many carrying their name, which was helpful for medieval and Renaissance antiquarians. Sets of tyches representing the major cities of the empire were used in the <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most imaginable virtues and virtually every <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> was personified on coins at some point, the provinces often initially seated dejected as "CAPTA" ("taken") after its conquest, and later standing, creating images such as <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> that were often revived in the Renaissance or later.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a> (2nd century AD) records a detailed description of a lost painting by <a href="/wiki/Apelles" title="Apelles">Apelles</a> (4th century BC) called the <i>Calumny of Apelles</i>, which some Renaissance painters followed, <a href="/wiki/Calumny_of_Apelles_(Botticelli)" title="Calumny of Apelles (Botticelli)">most famously Botticelli</a>. This included eight personifications of virtues and vices: Hope, Repentance, Perfidy, Calumny, Fraud, Rancour, Ignorance, Suspicion, as well as two other figures.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, which in some manifestations proposed systems involving numbers of spirits,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato" title="Allegorical interpretations of Plato">naturally conducive to personification and allegory</a>, and is an influence on the uses of it from classical times through various revivals up to the <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg/220px-Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg/330px-Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg/440px-Lydgate-siege-troy-wheel-fortune-detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Queen of Fortune</a>", helped by four other personifications, turns <a href="/wiki/Rota_Fortunae" title="Rota Fortunae">her wheel</a>. English miniature for <a href="/wiki/John_Lydgate" title="John Lydgate">John Lydgate</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Troy_Book" title="Troy Book">Troy Book</a></i>, 15th-century.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Andrew Escobedo, "literary personification marshalls inanimate things, such as passions, abstract ideas, and rivers, and makes them perform actions in the landscape of the narrative."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He dates "the rise and fall of its [personification's] literary popularity" to "roughly, between the fifth and seventeenth centuries".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late antique philosophical books that made heavy use of personification and were especially influential in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> included the <i><a href="/wiki/Psychomachia" title="Psychomachia">Psychomachia</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Prudentius" title="Prudentius">Prudentius</a> (early 5th century), with an elaborate plot centered around battles between the virtues and vices,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Consolation_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Consolation of Philosophy">The Consolation of Philosophy</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 524</span>) by <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>, which takes the form of a dialogue between the author and "Lady Philosophy". <a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Fortuna</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rota_Fortunae" title="Rota Fortunae">Wheel of Fortune</a> were prominent and memorable in this, which helped to make the latter a favourite medieval trope.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both authors were Christians, and the origins in the pagan classical religions of the standard range of personifications had been left well behind. </p><p>A medieval creation was the <a href="/wiki/Four_Daughters_of_God" title="Four Daughters of God">Four Daughters of God</a>, a shortened group of virtues consisting of: Truth, Righteousness or Justice, Mercy, and Peace. There were also the <a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">seven virtues</a>, made up of the four classical <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">prudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">temperance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courage</a> (or fortitude), these going back to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>, with the three <a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">theological virtues</a> of <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">faith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">hope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charity_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity (virtue)">charity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">seven deadly sins</a> were their counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg/220px-Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg/330px-Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg/440px-Petrarch-2-chastity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1786" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>Two of the <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumphal car">triumphal cars</a>, carrying Chastity and Love, from a lavish <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> (early 16th century) of <a href="/wiki/Petrach" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrach">Petrach</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Triumphs" title="Triumphs">Triomphi</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The major works of <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English literature</a> had many personification characters, and often formed what are called "personification allegories" where the whole work is an allegory, largely driven by personifications. These include <i><a href="/wiki/Piers_Plowman" title="Piers Plowman">Piers Plowman</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">William Langland</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1370</span>–90), where most of the characters are clear personifications named as their qualities,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several works by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_House_of_Fame" title="The House of Fame">The House of Fame</a></i> (1379–80). However, Chaucer tends to take his personifications in the direction of being more complex characters and give them different names, as when he adapts part of the French <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_de_la_Rose" title="Roman de la Rose">Roman de la Rose</a></i> (13th century). The English <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">mystery plays</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">morality plays</a> have many personifications as characters, alongside their biblical figures. <a href="/wiki/Frau_Minne" title="Frau Minne">Frau Minne</a>, the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a> in German medieval literature, had equivalents in other vernaculars. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Italian literature</a> <a href="/wiki/Petrach" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrach">Petrach</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Triumphs" title="Triumphs">Triomphi</a></i>, finished in 1374, is based around a procession of personifications carried on "cars", as was becoming fashionable in courtly festivities; it was illustrated by many different artists.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a> has several personification characters, but prefers using real persons to represent most sins and virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan literature</a> many of the characters in <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>'s enormous epic <i><a href="/wiki/The_Faerie_Queene" title="The Faerie Queene">The Faerie Queene</a></i>, though given different names, are effectively personifications, especially of virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" title="The Pilgrim's Progress">The Pilgrim's Progress</a></i> (1678) by <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a> was the last great personification allegory in English literature, from a strongly Protestant position (though see Thomson's <i>Liberty</i> below). A work like <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Triumph_of_Life" title="The Triumph of Life">The Triumph of Life</a></i>, unfinished at his death in 1822, which to many earlier writers would have called for personifications to be included, avoids them, as does most Romantic literature,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> apart from that of <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leading critics had begun to complain about personification in the 18th century, and such "complaints only grow louder in the nineteenth century".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Andrew Escobedo, there is now "an unstated scholarly consensus" that "personification is a kind of frozen or hollow version of literal characters", which "depletes the fiction".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Visual arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus,_Cupid,_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery,_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus%2C_Cupid%2C_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery%2C_London.jpg/220px-Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus%2C_Cupid%2C_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery%2C_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus%2C_Cupid%2C_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery%2C_London.jpg/330px-Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus%2C_Cupid%2C_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery%2C_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus%2C_Cupid%2C_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery%2C_London.jpg/440px-Angelo_Bronzino_-_Venus%2C_Cupid%2C_Folly_and_Time_-_National_Gallery%2C_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3349" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Venus,_Cupid,_Folly_and_Time" title="Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time">Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time</a></i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1544</span>–45, <a href="/wiki/Agnolo_Bronzino" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnolo Bronzino">Agnolo Bronzino</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Personifications, often in sets, frequently appear in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">medieval art</a>, often illustrating or following literary works. The virtues and vices were probably the most common, and the virtues appear in many large sculptural programmes, for example the exteriors of <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral" title="Amiens Cathedral">Amiens Cathedral</a>. In painting, both virtues and vices are personified along the lowest zone of the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Scrovegni_Chapel" title="Scrovegni Chapel">Scrovegni Chapel</a> by <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1305</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are the main figures in <a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Lorenzetti" title="Ambrogio Lorenzetti">Ambrogio Lorenzetti</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Allegory_of_Good_and_Bad_Government" title="The Allegory of Good and Bad Government">Allegory of Good and Bad Government</a></i> (1338–39) in the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Pubblico" title="Palazzo Pubblico">Palazzo Pubblico</a> of <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>. In the <i>Allegory of Bad Government</i> Tyranny is enthroned, with Avarice, Pride, and Vainglory above him. Beside him on the magistrate's bench sit Cruelty, Deceit, Fraud, Fury, Division, and War, while Justice lies tightly bound below.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Mantegna_Tarocchi" title="Mantegna Tarocchi">Mantegna Tarocchi</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1465</span>–75) are sets of fifty educational cards depicting personifications of social classes, the planets and heavenly bodies, and also social classes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new pair, once common on the portals of large churches, are <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_and_Synagoga" title="Ecclesia and Synagoga">Ecclesia and Synagoga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Death envisaged as a skeleton, often with a <a href="/wiki/Scythe" title="Scythe">scythe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hour-glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Hour-glass">hour-glass</a>, is a late medieval innovation, that became very common after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. However, it is rarely seen in <a href="/wiki/Funerary_art" title="Funerary art">funerary art</a> "before the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When not illustrating literary texts, or following a classical model as Botticelli does, personifications in art tend to be relatively static, and found together in sets, whether of statues decorating buildings or paintings, prints or media such as porcelain figures. Sometimes one or more virtues take on and invariably conquer vices. Other paintings by Botticelli are exceptions to such simple compositions, in particular his <i><a href="/wiki/Primavera_(painting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Primavera (painting)">Primavera</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus" title="The Birth of Venus">The Birth of Venus</a></i>, in both of which several figures form complex allegories.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An unusually powerful single personification figure is depicted in <i><a href="/wiki/Melencolia_I" title="Melencolia I">Melencolia I</a></i> (1514) an <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a> by <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Venus,_Cupid,_Folly_and_Time" title="Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time">Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1545</span>) by <a href="/wiki/Agnolo_Bronzino" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnolo Bronzino">Agnolo Bronzino</a> has five personifications, apart from Venus and Cupid.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all these cases, the meaning of the work remains uncertain, despite intensive academic discussion, and even the identity of the figures continues to be argued over.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg/220px-Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg/330px-Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg/440px-Ariel_between_Wisdom_and_Gaiety.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2246" data-file-height="1171" /></a><figcaption><i>Ariel between Wisdom and Gaiety</i> with the Latin inscription <i>obsculta</i>, a word that doesn't mean just 'listen', but also 'obey' by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Gill" title="Eric Gill">Eric Gill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_House" title="Broadcasting House">Broadcasting House</a>, 1932.</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 300 BC, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum" title="Demetrius of Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a> is the first writer on <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> to describe prosopopoeia, which was already a well-established device in rhetoric and literature, from <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a>'s lengthy <i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i> gives a comprehensive account, and a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a> of common personifications; no more comprehensive account was written until after the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance humanist">Renaissance humanists</a> to deal with the subject at length were <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_copia" class="mw-redirect" title="De copia">De copia</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Mosellanus" title="Petrus Mosellanus">Petrus Mosellanus</a> in <i>Tabulae de schematibus et tropis</i>, who were copied by other writers throughout the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the late 16th century theoretical writers such as <a href="/wiki/Karel_van_Mander" title="Karel van Mander">Karel van Mander</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Schilder-boeck" title="Schilder-boeck">Schilder-boeck</a></i> (1604) began to treat personification in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a>. At the same time the <a href="/wiki/Emblem_book" title="Emblem book">emblem book</a>, describing and illustrating emblematic images that were largely personifications, became enormously popular, both with intellectuals and artists and craftsmen looking for motifs.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous of these was the <i>Iconologia</i> of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Ripa" title="Cesare Ripa">Cesare Ripa</a>, first published unillustrated in 1593, but from 1603 published in many different illustrated editions, using different artists. This set at least the identifying attributes carried by many personifications until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 20th century into the 21st, the past use of personification has received greatly increased critical attention, just as the artistic practice of it has greatly declined. Among a number of key works, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Allegory_of_Love" title="The Allegory of Love">The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/1936_in_literature" title="1936 in literature">1936</a>), by <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> was an exploration of <a href="/wiki/Courtly_love" title="Courtly love">courtly love</a> in medieval and Renaissance literature.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Innovation">Innovation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Innovation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obchod_a_tolerance,_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Obchod_a_tolerance%2C_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg/220px-Obchod_a_tolerance%2C_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Obchod_a_tolerance%2C_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg/330px-Obchod_a_tolerance%2C_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Obchod_a_tolerance%2C_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg/440px-Obchod_a_tolerance%2C_Brno_-_Lu%C5%BE%C3%A1nky.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Sculptures <i>Trade</i> (male) and <i>Tolerance</i> (female) in <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The classical repertoire of virtues, seasons, cities and so forth supplied the majority of subjects until the 19th century, but some new personifications became required. The 16th century saw the new <a href="/wiki/Personification_of_the_Americas" title="Personification of the Americas">personification of the Americas</a> and made the <a href="/wiki/Four_continents" title="Four continents">four continents</a> an appealing new set, four figures being better suited to many contexts than three. The 18th-century discovery of Australia was not so quickly followed by an addition to the set, if only for reasons of geometry; Australia is not included in the continents at the corners of the <a href="/wiki/Albert_Memorial" title="Albert Memorial">Albert Memorial</a> (1860s). This does have a set of three-figure groups representing <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, typical of the requirements for large public schemes of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A rather late example is the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_U.S._Custom_House" title="Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House">Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House</a> in New York City (1901–07), which has large groups for the four continents by the entrance, and 12 figures personifying seafaring nations from history high on the facade. </p><p>The invention of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Movable type printing">movable type printing</a> saw <i>Dame Imprimerie</i> ("Lady Printing Press") introduced to the pageants of <a href="/wiki/Lyons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyons">Lyons</a>, a major printing center, along with "Typosine", a new muse of printing.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large gilt-bronze statue by <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Beatrice_Longman" title="Evelyn Beatrice Longman">Evelyn Beatrice Longman</a>, something of a specialist in "allegorical" statues, was commissioned by <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a> for the top of their New York headquarters. Since 1916 it has been titled at different times as the <i>Genius of Telegraphy</i>, <i>Genius of Electricity</i>, and since the 1930s <i><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_Communication" title="Spirit of Communication">Spirit of Communication</a></i>. Shakespeare's spirit <a href="/wiki/Ariel_(The_Tempest)" title="Ariel (The Tempest)">Ariel</a> was adopted by the sculptor <a href="/wiki/Eric_Gill" title="Eric Gill">Eric Gill</a> as a personification of broadcasting, and features in his sculptures on <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_House" title="Broadcasting House">Broadcasting House</a> in London (opened 1932).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_personifications">National personifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: National personifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_GB_France.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Germany_GB_France.gif/220px-Germany_GB_France.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Germany_GB_France.gif/330px-Germany_GB_France.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Germany_GB_France.gif/440px-Germany_GB_France.gif 2x" data-file-width="4353" data-file-height="5682" /></a><figcaption>Cartoon on the <a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/John_Bernard_Partridge" class="mw-redirect" title="John Bernard Partridge">John Bernard Partridge</a>, 1904; <a href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</a> stalks off with a defiant <a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a> and turns his back on <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">the Kaiser</a>, who pretends not to care.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_personification" title="National personification">National personification</a></div> <p>A number of national personifications stick to the old formulas, with a female in classical dress, carrying attributes suggesting power, wealth, or other virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Libertas" title="Libertas">Libertas</a>, the Roman goddess of <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, had been important under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and was somewhat uncomfortably co-opted by the empire;<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was not seen as an innate right, but as granted to some under Roman law.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She had appeared on the coins of the assassins of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, defenders of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman republic">Roman republic</a>. The medieval republics, mostly in Italy, greatly valued their liberty, and often use the word, but produce very few direct personifications. With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> and new states, many nationalist personifications included a strong element of liberty, perhaps culminating in the <i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></i>. The long poem <i>Liberty</i> by the Scottish <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> (1734), is a lengthy <a href="/wiki/Monologue" title="Monologue">monologue</a> spoken by the "<a href="/wiki/Liberty_(personification)" title="Liberty (personification)">Goddess of Liberty</a>", describing her travels through the ancient world, and then English and British history, before the resolution of the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 confirms her position there.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson also wrote the lyrics for <i><a href="/wiki/Rule_Britannia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule Britannia">Rule Britannia</a></i>, and the two personifications were often combined as a personified "British Liberty",<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to whom a large monument was erected in the 1750s on his estate at <a href="/wiki/Gibside" title="Gibside">Gibside</a> by <a href="/wiki/George_Bowes_(MP_for_County_Durham)" title="George Bowes (MP for County Durham)">a Whig magnate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But, sometimes alongside these formal figures, a new type of national personification has arisen, typified by <a href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</a> (1712) and <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1812</span>). Both began as figures in more or less satirical literature but achieved their prominence when taken into <a href="/wiki/Political_cartoon" title="Political cartoon">political cartoons</a> and other visual media. The post-revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a> in France, official since 1792, is something of a mixture of styles, sometimes formal and classical, at others a woman of the streets of Paris personified.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Maiden" title="Dutch Maiden">Dutch Maiden</a> is one of the earliest of these figures, and was mainly visual from the start, her efforts to repulse unwelcome Spanish advances shown in 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Popular_print" title="Popular print">popular prints</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_sculpture" title="Allegorical sculpture">Allegorical sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascot" title="Mascot">Mascot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moe_anthropomorphism" title="Moe anthropomorphism">Moe anthropomorphism</a>; personification style mainly used in anime and manga</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathetic_fallacy" title="Pathetic fallacy">Pathetic fallacy</a>, the literary device involving ascribing human emotion and conduct to non-human objects in the natural world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_naming" title="Tropical cyclone naming">Tropical cyclone naming</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/personification">"Definition of PERSONIFICATION"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. 1 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+PERSONIFICATION&rft.date=2024-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpersonification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersonification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 128–130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 336–337</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 6–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 321</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 216; the example here is the Muses, daughters of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mnemosyne" title="Mnemosyne">Mnemosyne</a>, herself the personification of Memory.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 128, speaking of the Four Seasons, but the same is true for example of the personification of Africa (same page).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 5; Gombrich, 1 (of PDF)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 2–13; Paxson, 5–6. See also Escobedo, Ch. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gombrich, 1 (of PDF)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 6–7; Escobedo, Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although given the persistence of ideas from Neoplatonism and folk religion this cannot be entirely certain. See, for example Gombrich 5–6 (on pdf)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scroll.in/article/805247/history-lessons-how-bharat-mata-became-the-code-word-for-a-theocratic-hindu-state">"History lesson: How 'Bharat Mata' became the code word for a theocratic Hindu state"</a>. 17 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+lesson%3A+How+%27Bharat+Mata%27+became+the+code+word+for+a+theocratic+Hindu+state&rft.date=2016-03-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscroll.in%2Farticle%2F805247%2Fhistory-lessons-how-bharat-mata-became-the-code-word-for-a-theocratic-hindu-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersonification" class="Z3988"></span>; Blurton, T. Richard, <i>Hindu Art</i>, p. 185, 1994, British Museum Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B7141%2B1442%2B1" title="Special:BookSources/0+7141+1442+1">0 7141 1442 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Escobedo, Ch. 1 on daemons</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, 93–105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"the mountains and the hills before you shall break forth into singing, and all the trees of the field shall clap their hands", <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Book of Isaiah</a>, 55:12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sinnott, Alica M., <i>The Personification of Wisdom</i>, 2017, Taylor & Francis, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1351884360" title="Special:BookSources/1351884360">1351884360</a>, 9781351884365. Subject of the whole book, but see Ch. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mounce, Robert H., <i>The Book of Revelation</i>, 1998, 139–146, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802825370" title="Special:BookSources/0802825370">0802825370</a>, 9780802825377, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=06VR1JzzLNsC&pg=PA139">google books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150920/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=06VR1JzzLNsC&lpg=PA139">Archived</a> 2022-12-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 128, 265</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gombrich, 2 (of PDF)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_354" class="mw-redirect" title="Calendar of 354">Calendar of 354</a> and the slightly later <a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Treasure" title="Esquiline Treasure">Esquiline Treasure</a> provide examples, though the choice of 4th city varies between <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sear, 36–42, 46–48, 49–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lightbown, Ronald, <i>Sandro Botticelli: Life and Work</i>, 234, 1989, Thames and Hudson</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Luc_Brisson" title="Luc Brisson">Luc Brisson</a>, Seamus O'Neill, Andrei Timotin, <i>Neoplatonic Demons and Angels</i>,1–5, 2018, Brill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004374981" title="Special:BookSources/9004374981">9004374981</a>, 9789004374980, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a-t5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">google books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150939/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a-t5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 2022-12-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Escobedo, Ch. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Escobedo, Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 336, with much more in Paxson.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 127–128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 336; see "Further reading" for some recent examples of the very extensive literature on these.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 99–101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 73–77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 121–122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"All the commonplace figures of poetry, tropes, allegories, personifications, with the whole heathen mythology, were instantly discarded" according to <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">William Hazlitt</a> in "On the Living Poets" in <i>Lectures on the English Poets</i>, 1818</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard, John, <i>Infernal Poetics: Poetic Structures in Blake's Lambeth Prophecies</i>, 22–24, 1984, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0838631762" title="Special:BookSources/0838631762">0838631762</a>, 9780838631768, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s7Ci3jo8xwAC&pg=PA22">google books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Escobedo, Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Escobedo, Ch. 1. He does not share this view. In particular, personifications mostly remain tied to a single character trait, that of embodying their quality.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartt, 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartt, 116–119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spangeberg K.L (ed), <i>Six Centuries of Master Prints</i>, Cincinnati Art Museum, 1993, no 5,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0931537150" title="Special:BookSources/0931537150">0931537150</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rowe, Nina, <i>The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City: Synagoga and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century</i>, 2011, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-19744-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-19744-9">0-521-19744-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19744-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19744-1">978-0-521-19744-1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uXysfjHbIJMC&pg=PA47">google books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150921/https://books.google.com/books?id=uXysfjHbIJMC&pg=PA47">Archived</a> 2022-12-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartt, 332–333</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartrum, 188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartt, 662</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartrum, 188, says <i>Melencolia I</i> "must be the most written-about image in the history of art", but at least the Botticellis must run it close.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 16–19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 13–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, 337</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxson, 1–2 and <i>passim</i>; Escobedo, Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These were all given consideration at the highest levels. The designs for the continents had "changes [which] may (although there is no evidence of it) reflect the promptings of 'statesmanlike' discretion. Participation in the guidance of America's progress was relinquished by the figure of Canada and it was left wholly to the United States. In the group of Europe, the link of olive leaves between France and England was dropped, as was the gesture indicating England's reception of the Bible of the Reformation from Germany, and each of the national figures was more isolated. In 'Africa', Egypt, instead of listening to the counsels of Britain, herself instructed Nubia." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47524">'Albert Memorial: The memorial'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141104015748/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47524">Archived</a> 2014-11-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Survey of London: volume 38: South Kensington Museums Area</i> (1975), 159–176. Accessed: 22 May 2019</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melion and Remakers, 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson, Nicola, <i>Building the BBC: a return to form</i>, 28, 2004, BBC</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heuer, 48–50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sear, 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, David Hackett, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3jIOnguMi0EC&pg=PT22"><i>Liberty and Freedom: A Visual History of America's Founding Ideas</i></a>, around p. 22, 2004, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199883076" title="Special:BookSources/0199883076">0199883076</a>, 9780199883073</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Higham, 59; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xw4UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA7">text of <i>Liberty</i> online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Higham, 59–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Green, Adrian, in <i>Northern Landscapes: Representations and Realities of North-East England</i>, 136-137, 2010, Boydell & Brewer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/184383541X" title="Special:BookSources/184383541X">184383541X</a>, 9781843835417, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ST8aBPUSRxwC&pg=PA136">google books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150940/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ST8aBPUSRxwC&pg=PA136">Archived</a> 2022-12-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/gibside/features/column-to-liberty">"Column to Liberty"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190529170756/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/gibside/features/column-to-liberty">Archived</a> 2019-05-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, National Trust.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heuer, 43–44, 48–50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hubert de Vries, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hubert-herald.nl/NederlandseMaagd.htm">"The Dutch Virgin: Symbols of State of the Netherlands"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181213224437/http://www.hubert-herald.nl/NederlandseMaagd.htm">Archived</a> 2018-12-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Personifications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Personifications">Personifications</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giulia_Bartrum" title="Giulia Bartrum">Bartrum, Giulia</a>, <i>Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy</i>, British Museum Press, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0714126330" title="Special:BookSources/0714126330">0714126330</a></li> <li>Escobedo, Andrew, <i>Volition's Face: Personification and the Will in Renaissance Literature</i>, 2017, University of Notre Dame Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0268101698" title="Special:BookSources/0268101698">0268101698</a>, 9780268101695, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GJUHDgAAQBAJ">google books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Gombrich" title="Ernst Gombrich">Gombrich, Ernst</a>, "Personification", in R. R. Bolgar (ed.), <i>Classical Influences in European Culture AD 500–1500</i>, 1971, Cambridge UP, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gombricharchive.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/showdoc20.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li>Hall, James, <i>Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art</i>, 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0719541476" title="Special:BookSources/0719541476">0719541476</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Hartt" title="Frederick Hartt">Hartt, Frederick</a>, <i>History of Italian Renaissance Art</i>, (2nd edn.)1987, Thames & Hudson (US Harry N Abrams), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500235104" title="Special:BookSources/0500235104">0500235104</a></li> <li>Heuer, Jennifer, "Gender and Nationalism" in <i>Nations and Nationalism: A Global Historical Overview</i>, Eds Guntram H. Herb, David H. Kaplan, 2008, ABC-CLIO, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851099085" title="Special:BookSources/1851099085">1851099085</a>, 9781851099085, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2UoQ-ueHjdEC&pg=PA48">google books</a></li> <li>Higham, John (1990). "Indian Princess and Roman Goddess: The First Female Symbols of America", <i>Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society</i>. 100: 50–51, JSTOR or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517731.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li>Melion, Walter, Remakers, Bart, <i>Personification: Embodying Meaning and Emotion</i>, 2016, BRILL, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004310436" title="Special:BookSources/9004310436">9004310436</a>, 9789004310438, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_OcCwAAQBAJ">google books</a></li> <li>Paxson, James J., <i>The Poetics of Personification</i>, 1994, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521445396" title="Special:BookSources/0521445396">0521445396</a>, 9780521445399, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rJDSbIkK3KEC">google books</a></li> <li>Sear, David, <i>Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume 2</i>, 46–48, 49–51, 2002, Spink & Son, Ltd, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1912667231" title="Special:BookSources/1912667231">1912667231</a>, 9781912667239, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhuWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">google books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_C._Smith" title="Amy C. Smith">Smith, Amy C.</a>, <i>Polis and Personification in Classical Athenian Art</i>, 2011, BRILL, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004194177" title="Special:BookSources/9004194177">9004194177</a>, 9789004194175, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DZj9YGF12N8C">google books</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Personification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Jennifer O’Reilly: <i>Studies in the Iconography of the Virtues and Vices in the Middle Ages.</i> New York/London 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Stafford" title="Emma Stafford">Emma Stafford</a>: <i>Worshipping virtues. Personification and the Divine in Ancient Greece.</i> London 2000.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Stafford" title="Emma Stafford">Emma Stafford</a>, Judith Herrin (eds.): <i>Personification in the Greek world. From Antiquity to Byzantium.</i> Aldershot/Hampshire 2005.</li> <li>Tucker, Shawn R., <i>The Virtues and Vices in the Arts: A Sourcebook</i>, 2015, Wipf and Stock Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1625647182" title="Special:BookSources/1625647182">1625647182</a>, 9781625647184</li> <li>Bart Ramakers, Walter Melion, eds., <i>Personification: Embodying Meaning and Emotion</i>, 2016, BRILL, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004310438" title="Special:BookSources/9789004310438">9789004310438</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_OcCwAAQBAJ">google books</a></li></ul> <div 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Figures_of_speech" title="Template:Figures of speech"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Figures_of_speech" title="Template talk:Figures of speech"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Figures_of_speech" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Figures of speech"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Figures_of_speech" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figures of speech</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Schemes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliteration" title="Alliteration">Alliteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anadiplosis" title="Anadiplosis">Anadiplosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(rhetoric)" title="Anaphora (rhetoric)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimetabole" title="Antimetabole">Antimetabole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">Antithesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aposiopesis" title="Aposiopesis">Aposiopesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assonance" title="Assonance">Assonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asyndeton" title="Asyndeton">Asyndeton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiasmus" title="Chiasmus">Chiasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_(rhetoric)" title="Climax (rhetoric)">Climax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climax_(rhetoric)#Anticlimax" title="Climax (rhetoric)">Anti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_consonance" title="Literary consonance">Consonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epanalepsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Epanalepsis">Epanalepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphrase" title="Epiphrase">Epiphrase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistrophe" title="Epistrophe">Epistrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epizeuxis" title="Epizeuxis">Epizeuxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendiadys" title="Hendiadys">Hendiadys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeoteleuton" title="Homeoteleuton">Homeoteleuton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypallage" title="Hypallage">Hypallage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaton" title="Hyperbaton">Hyperbaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysteron_proteron" title="Hysteron proteron">Hysteron proteron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocolon" title="Isocolon">Isocolon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallelism_(rhetoric)" title="Parallelism (rhetoric)">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyptoton" title="Polyptoton">Polyptoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysyndeton" title="Polysyndeton">Polysyndeton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoonerism" title="Spoonerism">Spoonerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symploce" title="Symploce">Symploce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmesis" title="Tmesis">Tmesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeugma_and_syllepsis" title="Zeugma and syllepsis">Zeugma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Tropes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">Allegory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allusion" title="Allusion">Allusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiphrasis" title="Antiphrasis">Antiphrasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonomasia" title="Antonomasia">Antonomasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">Aphorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostrophe_(figure_of_speech)" title="Apostrophe (figure of speech)">Apostrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catachresis" title="Catachresis">Catachresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecphonesis" title="Ecphonesis">Ecphonesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekphrasis" title="Ekphrasis">Ekphrasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epanorthosis" title="Epanorthosis">Epanorthosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbole" title="Hyperbole">Hyperbole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adynaton" title="Adynaton">Adynaton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysphemism" title="Dysphemism">Dysphemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">Euphemism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis_(figure_of_speech)" title="Meiosis (figure of speech)">Meiosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innuendo" title="Innuendo">Innuendo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">Irony</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophasis" title="Apophasis">Apophasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcasm" title="Sarcasm">Sarcasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litotes" title="Litotes">Litotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">Metaphor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonymy" title="Metonymy">Metonymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxymoron" title="Oxymoron">Oxymoron</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Personification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleonasm" title="Pleonasm">Pleonasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procatalepsis" title="Procatalepsis">Procatalepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">Pun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antanaclasis" title="Antanaclasis">Antanaclasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_question" title="Rhetorical question">Rhetorical question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simile" title="Simile">Simile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synecdoche" title="Synecdoche">Synecdoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tautology_(language)" title="Tautology (language)">Tautology</a></li></ul> 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