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id="toc-Christian_missionary_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_missionary_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Christian missionary activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_missionary_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_Boxers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_Boxers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Origins of the Boxers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_Boxers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Qing forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boxer_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boxer_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Boxer War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Boxer_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Boxer War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Boxer_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intensifying_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intensifying_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Intensifying crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intensifying_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seymour_Expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seymour_Expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Seymour Expedition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seymour_Expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_within_the_Qing_imperial_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_within_the_Qing_imperial_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Conflict within the Qing imperial court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_within_the_Qing_imperial_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_of_the_Beijing_legations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_the_Beijing_legations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Siege of the Beijing legations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_the_Beijing_legations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infighting_among_officials_and_commanders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infighting_among_officials_and_commanders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Infighting among officials and commanders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infighting_among_officials_and_commanders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gaselee_Expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaselee_Expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Gaselee Expedition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaselee_Expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_court_flight_to_Xi'an" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_court_flight_to_Xi'an"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Qing court flight to Xi'an</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_court_flight_to_Xi'an-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Russian invasion of Manchuria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacre_of_missionaries_and_Chinese_Christians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacre_of_missionaries_and_Chinese_Christians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Massacre of missionaries and Chinese Christians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massacre_of_missionaries_and_Chinese_Christians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allied_occupation_and_atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_occupation_and_atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Allied occupation and atrocities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_occupation_and_atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indemnity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indemnity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Indemnity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indemnity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Long-term consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_the_Boxers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_the_Boxers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Analysis of the Boxers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_the_Boxers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_portrayal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_portrayal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Media portrayal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_portrayal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_accounts_and_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_accounts_and_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>General accounts and analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_accounts_and_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missionary_experience_and_personal_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missionary_experience_and_personal_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Missionary experience and personal accounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missionary_experience_and_personal_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allied_intervention,_the_Boxer_War,_and_the_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_intervention,_the_Boxer_War,_and_the_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Allied intervention, the Boxer War, and the aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_intervention,_the_Boxer_War,_and_the_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_accounts_and_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_accounts_and_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Contemporary accounts and sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_accounts_and_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Boxer Rebellion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">74 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokseropstand" title="Bokseropstand – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bokseropstand" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86" title="ثورة الملاكمين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثورة الملاكمين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llevantamientu_de_los_b%C3%B3xers" title="Llevantamientu de los bóxers – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llevantamientu de los bóxers" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boks%C3%A7ular_%C3%BCsyan%C4%B1" title="Boksçular üsyanı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Boksçular üsyanı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="بوکسر آیاقلانماسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بوکسر آیاقلانماسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Іхэтуаньскае паўстанне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іхэтуаньскае паўстанне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Паўстаньне баксэраў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Паўстаньне баксэраў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag%27alsa_kan_mga_Boxer" title="Pag'alsa kan mga Boxer – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pag'alsa kan mga Boxer" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Боксерско въстание – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Боксерско въстание" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emsavadeg_ar_Vokserien" title="Emsavadeg ar Vokserien – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Emsavadeg ar Vokserien" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D1%83%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ихэтуань буһалгаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ихэтуань буһалгаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel%C2%B7li%C3%B3_dels_b%C3%B2xers" title="Rebel·lió dels bòxers – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rebel·lió dels bòxers" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxersk%C3%A9_povst%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Boxerské povstání – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Boxerské povstání" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokseropstanden" title="Bokseropstanden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bokseropstanden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxeraufstand" title="Boxeraufstand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Boxeraufstand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusikav%C3%B5itlejate_m%C3%A4ss" title="Rusikavõitlejate mäss – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rusikavõitlejate mäss" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BE%CE%AD%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%9C%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BE%CE%B5%CF%81" title="Εξέγερση των Μπόξερ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εξέγερση των Μπόξερ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantamiento_de_los_b%C3%B3xers" title="Levantamiento de los bóxers – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Levantamiento de los bóxers" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boksista_ribelo" title="Boksista ribelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Boksista ribelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxerren_matxinada" title="Boxerren matxinada – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Boxerren matxinada" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="شورش مشت‌زن‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شورش مشت‌زن‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boksarauppreistur" title="Boksarauppreistur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Boksarauppreistur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volte_des_Boxers" title="Révolte des Boxers – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolte des Boxers" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ir%C3%AD_Amach_na_mBocsar" title="Éirí Amach na mBocsar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Éirí Amach na mBocsar" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantamento_dos_b%C3%B3xers" title="Levantamento dos bóxers – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Levantamento dos bóxers" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%98%ED%99%94%EB%8B%A8_%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99" title="의화단 운동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="의화단 운동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9" title="बॉक्सर विद्रोह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बॉक्सर विद्रोह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boksa%C4%8Dki_ustanak" title="Boksački ustanak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Boksački ustanak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemberontakan_Boxer" title="Pemberontakan Boxer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemberontakan Boxer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxarauppreisnin" title="Boxarauppreisnin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Boxarauppreisnin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribellione_dei_Boxer" title="Ribellione dei Boxer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ribellione dei Boxer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מרד הבוקסרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מרד הבוקסרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangramanan_Boxer" title="Pangramanan Boxer – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pangramanan Boxer" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uasi_wa_Mabondia" title="Uasi wa Mabondia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uasi wa Mabondia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serhildana_Boxer" title="Serhildana Boxer – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serhildana Boxer" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80%D2%AF%D0%BB%D2%AF%D1%88%D2%AF" title="Ихэтуань көтөрүлүшү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ихэтуань көтөрүлүшү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seditio_Pugilum" title="Seditio Pugilum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Seditio Pugilum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokseru_sacel%C5%A1an%C4%81s" title="Bokseru sacelšanās – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bokseru sacelšanās" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boksinink%C5%B3_sukilimas" title="Boksininkų sukilimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Boksininkų sukilimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokszerl%C3%A1zad%C3%A1s" title="Bokszerlázadás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bokszerlázadás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Боксерско востание – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Боксерско востание" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="ثورة البوكسر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثورة البوكسر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemberontakan_Yihetuan" title="Pemberontakan Yihetuan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemberontakan Yihetuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Ихэтуанийн бослого – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ихэтуанийн бослого" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%BD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="လက်သီးအုံကြွမှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လက်သီးအုံကြွမှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokseropstand" title="Bokseropstand – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bokseropstand" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%A9%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%A3%E3%81%AE%E4%B9%B1" title="義和団の乱 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="義和団の乱" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokseroppr%C3%B8ret" title="Bokseropprøret – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bokseropprøret" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rev%C3%B2uta_dei_Boxers" title="Revòuta dei Boxers – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Revòuta dei Boxers" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ixetuan_qo%CA%BBzg%CA%BBoloni" title="Ixetuan qoʻzgʻoloni – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ixetuan qoʻzgʻoloni" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%A4" title="ਬਾਕਸਰ ਬਗ਼ਾਵਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਾਕਸਰ ਬਗ਼ਾਵਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA" title="باکسر بغاوت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="باکسر بغاوت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA" title="باکسر بغاوت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="باکسر بغاوت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powstanie_bokser%C3%B3w" title="Powstanie bokserów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Powstanie bokserów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levante_dos_Boxers" title="Levante dos Boxers – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Levante dos Boxers" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83scoala_Boxerilor" title="Răscoala Boxerilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Răscoala Boxerilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Ихэтуаньское восстание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ихэтуаньское восстание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Boxer Rebellion" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxersk%C3%A9_povstanie" title="Boxerské povstanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Boxerské povstanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boksarska_vstaja" title="Boksarska vstaja – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Boksarska vstaja" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Боксерски устанак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Боксерски устанак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokserski_ustanak" title="Bokserski ustanak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bokserski ustanak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boksarikapina" title="Boksarikapina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Boksarikapina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxarupproret" title="Boxarupproret – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Boxarupproret" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="பாக்சர் கிளர்ச்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாக்சர் கிளர்ச்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2" title="กบฏนักมวย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กบฏนักมวย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_Ayaklanmas%C4%B1" title="Boxer Ayaklanması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Boxer Ayaklanması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Боксерське повстання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Боксерське повстання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA" title="باکسر بغاوت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1899–1901 anti-imperialist uprising in China</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the rock band from London, see <a href="/wiki/The_Boxer_Rebellion_(band)" title="The Boxer Rebellion (band)">The Boxer Rebellion (band)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Boxer Rebellion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg/220px-Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg/330px-Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg/440px-Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="572" data-file-height="616" /></a></span><br />A company of <a href="/wiki/Boxer_movement" title="Boxer movement">Boxers</a> in 1901</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>18 October 1899 – 7 September 1901</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">North China, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow Sea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> victory</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="Russia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></span></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="Japan"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></span></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="France"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></span></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></span></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="United States"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></span></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="Italy"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></span></dd> <dd><span data-sort-value="Austria-Hungary"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></span></dd></dl> <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span data-sort-value="Netherlands"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span data-sort-value="Spain"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></span></li><li><span data-sort-value="Belgium"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div> <hr /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual Protection of Southeast China">Mutual Protection of Southeast China</a> <span class="nowrap">(after 1900)</span></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yihetuan_flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yihetuan_flag.svg/20px-Yihetuan_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yihetuan_flag.svg/30px-Yihetuan_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yihetuan_flag.svg/40px-Yihetuan_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="6803" data-file-height="6803" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Boxer_movement" title="Boxer movement">Boxer movement</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> <span class="nowrap">(before 1900)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <dl><dt>Legations</dt> <dd></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"><img alt="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Claude_MacDonald" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude MacDonald">Claude MacDonald</a></dd> <dt>Seymour Expedition</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"><img alt="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Seymour_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Edward Seymour (Royal Navy officer)">Edward Seymour</a></dd> <dt>Gaselee Expedition</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"><img alt="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Gaselee" title="Alfred Gaselee">Alfred Gaselee</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Linevich" title="Nikolai Linevich">Nikolai Linevich</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan"><img alt="Empire of Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Yasumasa" title="Fukushima Yasumasa">Fukushima Yasumasa</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan"><img alt="Empire of Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_%281868%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Yamaguchi_Motomi" title="Yamaguchi Motomi">Yamaguchi Motomi</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic"><img alt="French Third Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Henri-Nicolas_Frey" title="Henri-Nicolas Frey">Henri-Nicolas Frey</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281896%E2%80%931908%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Adna_Chaffee" title="Adna Chaffee">Adna Chaffee</a></dd> <dt>Occupation Force</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Waldersee" title="Alfred von Waldersee">Alfred von Waldersee</a></dd> <dt>Manchuria occupation</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Kuropatkin" title="Aleksey Kuropatkin">Aleksey Kuropatkin</a></dd> <dd><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Rennenkampf" title="Paul von Rennenkampf">Paul von Rennenkampf</a></span></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_CER_%281897%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_CER_%281897%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_CER_%281897%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_CER_%281897%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_CER_%281897%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_CER_%281897%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Mishchenko" title="Pavel Mishchenko">Pavel Mishchenko</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual Protection of Southeast China">Mutual Protection of Southeast China</a></dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Liu_Kunyi" title="Liu Kunyi">Liu Kunyi</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhidong" title="Zhang Zhidong">Zhang Zhidong</a></dd></dl></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <dt>Imperial government</dt> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="border=no"><img alt="border=no" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/25px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/38px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/50px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Guangxu" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Guangxu">Emperor Guangxu</a></dd> <dd><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="border=no"><img alt="border=no" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/25px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/38px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/50px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a></span></dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="border=no"><img alt="border=no" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/25px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/38px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/50px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Yuxian_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yuxian (Qing dynasty)">Yuxian</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></dd> <dt>Commander-in-chief</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ronglu" title="Ronglu">Ronglu</a></dd> <dt>Hushenying</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Zaiyi" title="Zaiyi">Zaiyi</a></dd> <dt>Tenacious Army</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nie_Shicheng" title="Nie Shicheng">Nie Shicheng</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></dd> <dt>Resolute Army</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ma_Yukun" title="Ma Yukun">Ma Yukun</a></dd> <dt>Gansu Army</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><img alt="Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a></dd></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Expedition" title="Seymour Expedition">Seymour Expedition</a>: <span class="nowrap">2,100–2,188</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition" title="Gaselee Expedition">Gaselee Expedition</a>: <span class="nowrap">18,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/China_Relief_Expedition" title="China Relief Expedition">China Relief Expedition</a>: <span class="nowrap">2,500<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></li><li>Russian troops: <span class="nowrap">58,000<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 100,000<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 200,000<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Boxers: <span class="nowrap">100,000–300,000</span></li><li>Qing troops: <span class="nowrap">100,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA248_248]_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA248_248]-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>32,000 Chinese Christians and 200 Western missionaries (northern China)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li><li>100,000 total deaths<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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Expedition">1st intervention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langfang" title="Battle of Langfang">Langfang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Taku_Forts_(1900)" title="Battle of the Taku Forts (1900)">Taku Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_Amur_anti-Chinese_pogroms" title="1900 Amur anti-Chinese pogroms">Blagoveshchensk massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiyuan_massacre" title="Taiyuan massacre">Taiyuan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin" title="Battle of Tientsin">Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beicang" title="Battle of Beicang">Beicang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition" title="Gaselee Expedition">2nd intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yangcun" title="Battle of Yangcun">Yangcun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peking_(1900)" title="Battle of Peking (1900)">Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beitang" title="Battle of Beitang">Beitang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhaiguan_(1900)" title="Battle of Shanhaiguan (1900)">Shanhaiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></b> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Boxer Rebellion</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">義和團運動</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">义和团运动</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Militia united in righteousness movement</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Yìhétuán yùndòng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span lang="zh-Bopo">ㄧˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄏㄜˊ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄊㄨㄢˊ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄩㄣˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄉㄨㄥˋ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>I<sup>4</sup>-ho<sup>2</sup>-t'uan<sup>2</sup> yün<sup>4</sup>-tung<sup>4</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Yì-hé-tuán yùn-dòng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[î.xɤ̌.tʰwǎn ŷn.tʊ̂ŋ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Manchu name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠴᡳᠣᠸᠠᠨ<br />ᠰᡝᡵᡝ<br />ᡝᡥᡝ<br />ᡥᡡᠯᡥᠠ ᡳ<br />ᡶᠠᠴᡠᡥᡡᠨ</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ciowan sere ehe hūlha i facuhūn</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/9px-Manju_gisun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/14px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/19px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="27" data-file-height="111" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> text.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Manchu" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu alphabet</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>The <b>Boxer Rebellion</b>, also known as the <b>Boxer Uprising</b>, was an anti-foreign, <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-imperialist">anti-imperialist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian">anti-Christian</a> uprising in North China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Righteous_and_Harmonious_Fists" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists">Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists</a>, known as the "Boxers" in English due to many of its members having practised <a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Chinese martial arts</a>, which at the time were referred to as "Chinese boxing". It was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> of foreign powers. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>, villagers in North China feared the expansion of foreign <a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_influence#China" class="mw-redirect" title="Spheres of influence">spheres of influence</a> and resented the extension of privileges to <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a>, who used them to shield their followers. In 1898, North China experienced several natural disasters, including the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> flooding and droughts, which Boxers blamed on foreign and Christian influence. Beginning in 1899, the movement spread across <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>, destroying foreign property such as railroads, and attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Christians">Chinese Christians</a>. The events came to a head in June 1900, when Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners". </p><p>Diplomats, missionaries, soldiers, and some Chinese Christians took refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Legation_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="Legation Quarter">Legation Quarter</a>, which the Boxers besieged. The Eight-Nation Alliance—comprising American, Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian troops—moved into China to lift the siege and on 17 June stormed the <a href="/wiki/Dagu_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Dagu Fort">Dagu Fort</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a>, who had initially been hesitant, supported the Boxers and on 21 June issued <a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">an imperial decree</a> that was a de facto declaration of war on the invading powers. Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favouring conciliation, led by <a href="/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Prince Qing</a>. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu general <a href="/wiki/Ronglu" title="Ronglu">Ronglu</a>, later claimed he acted to protect the foreigners. Officials in the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Pact_of_the_Southeastern_Provinces" title="Mutual Defense Pact of the Southeastern Provinces">southern provinces</a> ignored the imperial order to fight against foreigners. </p><p>The Eight-Nation Alliance, after initially being turned back by the Imperial Chinese military and Boxer militia, brought 20,000 armed troops to China. They defeated the Imperial Army in Tianjin and arrived in Beijing on 14 August, relieving the 55-day <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_International_Legations" title="Siege of the International Legations">Siege of the International Legations</a>. Plunder and looting of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with summary execution of those suspected of being Boxers in retribution. The <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a> of 7 September 1901 provided for the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxers, for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, and for 450 million <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a> of silver—more than the government's annual tax revenue—to be paid as <a href="/wiki/Indemnity" title="Indemnity">indemnity</a> over the course of the next 39 years to the eight invading nations. The Qing dynasty's handling of the Boxer Rebellion further weakened their control over China, and led to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_missionary_activity">Christian missionary activity</h3></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">John King Fairbank</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The opening of the country in the 1860s facilitated the great effort to Christianize China. Building on old [French] foundations, the Roman Catholic establishment totaled by 1894 some 750 European missionaries, 400 native priests, and over half a million communicants. By 1894 the newer Protestant mission effort supported over 1300 missionaries, mainly British and American, and maintained some 500 stations-each with a church, residences, street chapels, and usually a small school and possibly a hospital or dispensary-in about 350 different cities and towns. Yet they had made fewer than 60,000 Chinese Christian converts.</p></blockquote> <p>There was limited success in terms of converts and establishing schools in a nation of about 400 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The missions faced escalating anger directed at the threat of cultural imperialism. The main result was the Boxer Rebellion, in which missions were attacked and thousands of Chinese Christians were massacred to destroy Western influences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_the_Boxers">Origins of the Boxers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer_Rebellion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Boxer_Rebellion.png/170px-Boxer_Rebellion.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Boxer_Rebellion.png/255px-Boxer_Rebellion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Boxer_Rebellion.png/340px-Boxer_Rebellion.png 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="1123" /></a><figcaption>Movement of Boxers and Alliance forces during the Boxer Rebellion</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Righteous_and_Harmonious_Fists" class="mw-redirect" title="Righteous and Harmonious Fists">Righteous and Harmonious Fists</a> arose in the inland sections of the northern coastal province of <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a region which had long been plagued by social unrest, religious sects, and martial societies. American Christian missionaries were probably the first people who referred to the well-trained, athletic young men as the "Boxers", because of the martial arts which they practised and the weapons training which they underwent. Their primary practice was a type of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_spirit_possession" title="Chinese spirit possession">spiritual possession</a> which involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations, and incantations to deities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson20097_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson20097-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opportunities to fight against Western encroachment were especially attractive to unemployed village men, many of whom were teenagers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA114_114]_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA114_114]-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of the West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA54_xii,_54–59,_96,_ff.]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA54_xii,_54–59,_96,_ff.]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability against cannons, rifle shots, and knife attacks. The Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers would descend out of heaven to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA114_114]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA114_114]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1895, despite ambivalence toward their heterodox practices, <a href="/wiki/Yuxian_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yuxian (Qing dynasty)">Yuxian</a>, a Manchu who was the then prefect of <a href="/wiki/Cao_Prefecture" title="Cao Prefecture">Cao Prefecture</a> and would later become provincial governor, cooperated with the <a href="/wiki/Big_Swords_Society" title="Big Swords Society">Big Swords Society</a>, whose original purpose was to fight bandits.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen1997_pp._19–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German Catholic missionaries of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Divine_Word" title="Society of the Divine Word">Society of the Divine Word</a> had built up their presence in the area, partially by taking in a significant portion of converts who were "in need of protection from the law".<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen1997_pp._19–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On one occasion in 1895, a large bandit gang defeated by the Big Swords Society claimed to be Catholics to avoid prosecution. "The line between Christians and bandits became increasingly indistinct", remarks historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen_(historian)" title="Paul Cohen (historian)">Paul Cohen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen1997_pp._19–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some missionaries such as <a href="/wiki/Georg_Maria_Stenz" title="Georg Maria Stenz">Georg Maria Stenz</a> also used their privileges to intervene in lawsuits. The Big Swords responded by attacking Catholic properties and burning them.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen1997_pp._19–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of diplomatic pressure in the capital, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders but did not punish anyone else. More martial secret societies started emerging after this.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen1997_pp._19–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement with a united purpose. Martial folk-religious societies such as the <a href="/wiki/Baguadao" title="Baguadao">Baguadao</a> ('Eight Trigrams') prepared the way for the Boxers. Like the Red Boxing school or the <a href="/wiki/Plum_Flower_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Plum Flower tradition">Plum Flower tradition</a>, the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, Zhu Hongdeng (Red Lantern Zhu), started as a wandering healer, specialising in skin ulcers, and gained wide respect by refusing payment for his treatments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidky4_whmgIZcCpgPA30_27–30]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidky4_whmgIZcCpgPA30_27–30]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhu claimed descent from <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> emperors, since his surname was the surname of the Ming imperial family. He announced that his goal was to "Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">扶清滅洋</span></span> <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">fu Qing mie yang</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA115_115]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA115_115]-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The enemy was seen as foreign influence. They decided the "primary devils" were the Christian missionaries while the "secondary devils" were the Chinese converts to Christianity, which both had either to repent, be driven out or killed.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsboxerrebelliondr00dianpage25_25]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsboxerrebelliondr00dianpage25_25]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes">Causes</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/220px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/330px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/440px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3118" data-file-height="4267" /></a><figcaption>A French political propaganda cartoon depicting China as a pie about to be carved up by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> (United Kingdom), <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> (Germany), <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Nicholas_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsar Nicholas II">Tsar Nicholas II</a> (Russia), <a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a> (France) and a samurai (Japan), while the Boxer leader <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a> protests</figcaption></figure> <p>The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-imperialist movement which sought to expel foreigners from China and end the system of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_concessions_in_China" title="Foreign concessions in China">foreign concessions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">treaty ports</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebellion had multiple causes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Escalating tensions caused Chinese to turn against "foreign devils" who engaged in the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a> in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Western success at controlling China, growing anti-imperialist sentiment, and extreme weather conditions sparked the movement. A drought followed by floods in Shandong province in 1897–98 forced farmers to flee to cities and seek food.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson20099_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson20099-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major source of discontent in northern China was missionary activity. The Boxers opposed German missionaries in Shandong and in the German concession in <a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a>, signed in 1860 after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a>, had granted foreign missionaries the freedom to preach anywhere in China and to buy land on which to build churches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick198777_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick198777-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was strong public indignation over the dispossession of Chinese temples that were replaced by Catholic churches which were viewed as deliberately anti-<a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further cause of discontent among Chinese people were the destruction of Chinese burial sites to make way for German railroads and telegraph lines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to Chinese protests against German railroads, Germans shot the protestors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021271_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021271-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic conditions in Shandong also contributed to rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Northern Shandong's economy focused significantly on cotton production and was hampered by the importation of foreign cotton.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traffic along the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> was also decreasing, further eroding the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area had also experienced periods of drought and flood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major precipitating incident was anger at the German Catholic Priest Georg Stenz, who had allegedly serially raped Chinese women in Juye County, Shandong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attack known as the <a href="/wiki/Juye_Incident" title="Juye Incident">Juye Incident</a>, Chinese rebels attempted to kill Stenz in his missionary quarters,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but failed to find him and killed two other missionaries. The German Navy's <a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Squadron" title="East Asia Squadron">East Asia Squadron</a> dispatched to occupy <a href="/wiki/Jiaozhou_Bay" title="Jiaozhou Bay">Jiaozhou Bay</a> on the southern coast of the Shandong peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA363_123]_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA363_123]-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 1897, Wilhelm <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire#The_empire_under_Kaiser_Wilhelm_(1890–1914)" title="German colonial empire">declared his intent to seize territory in China</a>, which triggered a "scramble for <a href="/wiki/Concession_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concession (territory)">concessions</a>" by which Britain, France, Russia and Japan also secured their own <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a> in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–130_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–130-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany gained exclusive control of developmental loans, mining, and railway ownership in Shandong province. Russia gained influence of all territory north of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dallin2013_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dallin2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plus the previous tax exemption for trade in <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> economic powers similar to Germany's over <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengtian Province">Fengtian</a>, Jilin and <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a>. France gained influence of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, Japan over <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>. Britain gained influence of the whole <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> valley<sup id="cite_ref-LoUpshur2008_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LoUpshur2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (defined as all provinces adjoining the Yangtze, as well as Henan and Zhejiang<sup id="cite_ref-Dallin2013_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dallin2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), parts of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces and part of Tibet.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Only Italy's request for Zhejiang was declined by the Chinese government.<sup id="cite_ref-LoUpshur2008_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LoUpshur2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These do not include the lease and concession territories where the foreign powers had full authority. The Russian government militarily occupied their zone, imposed their law and schools, seized mining and logging privileges, settled their citizens, and even established their municipal administration on several cities.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1898, a group of Boxers attacked the Christian community of Liyuantun village where a temple to the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a> had been converted into a Catholic church. Disputes had surrounded the church since 1869, when the temple had been granted to the Christian residents of the village. This incident marked the first time the Boxers used the slogan "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners" (<span lang="zh">扶清滅洋</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fu Qing mie yang</span></i>) that later characterised them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987143–144,_163_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987143–144,_163-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Boxers called themselves the "Militia United in Righteousness" for the first time in October 1899, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Senluo_Temple" title="Battle of Senluo Temple">Battle of Senluo Temple</a>, a clash between Boxers and Qing government troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987253_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987253-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using the word "Militia" rather than "Boxers", they distanced themselves from forbidden martial arts sects and tried to give their movement the legitimacy of a group that defended orthodoxy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick198732_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick198732-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Violence toward missionaries and Christians drew sharp responses from diplomats protecting their nationals, including Western seizure of harbors and forts and the moving in of troops in preparation for all-out war, as well as taking control of more land by force or by coerced long-term leases from the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2012222–223_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2012222–223-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1899, the French minister in Beijing helped the missionaries to obtain an edict granting official status to every order in the Roman Catholic hierarchy, enabling local priests to support their people in legal or family disputes and bypass the local officials. After the German government took over Shandong, many Chinese feared that the foreign missionaries and possibly all Christian activities were imperialist attempts at "carving the melon", i.e., to colonise China piece by piece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick198768–95_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick198768–95-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Chinese official expressed the animosity towards foreigners succinctly, "Take away your missionaries and your opium and you will be welcome."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200912_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200912-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1899, the Boxer Rebellion developed into a mass movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The previous year, the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a>, in which progressive Chinese reformers persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a> to engage in modernizing efforts, was suppressed by <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202312–13_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202312–13-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing political elite struggled with the question of how to retain its power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202313_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202313-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing government came to view the Boxers as a means to help oppose foreign powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202313_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202313-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The national crisis was widely perceived as caused by "foreign aggression" inside,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997114_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997114-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though afterwards a majority of Chinese were grateful for the actions of the alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu2021_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu2021-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Qing government was corrupt, common people often faced extortions from government officials and the government offered no protection from the violent actions of the Boxers.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu2021_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu2021-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Qing_forces">Qing forces</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">military of the Qing dynasty</a> had been dealt a severe blow by the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> and this had prompted military reform that was still in its early stages when the Boxer rebellion occurred and they were expected to fight. The bulk of the fighting was conducted by the forces already around <a href="/wiki/Zhili" title="Zhili">Zhili</a> with troops from other provinces only arriving after the main fighting had ended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell1955107–113_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell1955107–113-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Estimates of Qing strength 1898–1900<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell1955107–113_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell1955107–113-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Army </th> <th>The Boards of <p>War/Revenue (field troops only) </p> </th> <th>Russian General <p>Staff (field troops only) </p> </th> <th>E.H. Parker <p>(Zhili alone) </p> </th> <th>The London Times <p>(Zhili alone) </p> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Total </th> <td>360,000 </td> <td>205,000 </td> <td>125,000–130,000 </td> <td>110,000–140,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The failure of the Qing forces to withstand the Allied forces was not surprising given the limited time for reform and the fact that the best troops of China were not committed to the fight, remaining instead in Huguang and Shandong. The officer corps was particularly deficient; many lacked basic knowledge of strategy and tactics, and even those with training had not actively commanded troops in the field. In addition, the regular soldiers were noted for their poor marksmanship and inaccuracy, while cavalry was ill-organised and was not used to its full extent. Tactically, the Chinese still retained their belief in the superiority of defence, often withdrawing as soon as they were flanked, a tendency attributable to their lack of combat experience and training as well as a lack of initiative from commanders who would rather retreat than counterattack. However, accusations of cowardice were minimal; this was a marked improvement from the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, as Chinese troops did not flee en masse as before. If led by courageous officers, the troops would often fight to the death as occurred under Nie Shicheng and Ma Yukun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell1955116–118_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell1955116–118-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, Chinese artillery was well-regarded, and caused far more casualties than the infantry at Tientsin, and proving themselves superior to Allied artillery in counter-battery fire. The infantry, for their part, were commended for their good usage of cover and concealment in addition to their tenacity in resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell1955116–118_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell1955116–118-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Boxers also targeted Jewish groups in the region destroying their reputation and leading to Britain temporarily vacating their civilian workers from the front lines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Boxer_War">Boxer War</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intensifying_crisis">Intensifying crisis</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Muslim_Kansu_Braves_1900_Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Chinese_Muslim_Kansu_Braves_1900_Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/170px-Chinese_Muslim_Kansu_Braves_1900_Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Chinese_Muslim_Kansu_Braves_1900_Boxer_Rebellion.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Chinese Muslim troops from <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Gansu_Braves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gansu Braves">Gansu Braves</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In January 1900, with a majority of conservatives in the imperial court, Cixi changed her position on the Boxers and issued edicts in their defence, causing protests from foreign powers. Cixi urged provincial authorities to support the Boxers, although few did so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021272_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021272-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spring of 1900, the Boxer movement spread rapidly north from Shandong into the countryside near Beijing. Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. American Minister <a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Conger" title="Edwin H. Conger">Edwin H. Conger</a> cabled Washington, "the whole country is swarming with hungry, discontented, hopeless idlers".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200942_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200942-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 30 May the diplomats, led by British Minister <a href="/wiki/Claude_Maxwell_MacDonald" title="Claude Maxwell MacDonald">Claude Maxwell MacDonald</a>, requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend the legations. The Chinese government reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day a multinational force of 435 navy troops from eight countries debarked from warships and travelled by train from the <a href="/wiki/Taku_Forts" title="Taku Forts">Taku Forts</a> to Beijing. They set up defensive perimeters around their respective missions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200942_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200942-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 5 June 1900, the railway line to Tianjin was cut by Boxers in the countryside, and Beijing was isolated. On 11 June, at <a href="/wiki/Yongdingmen" title="Yongdingmen">Yongdingmen</a>, the secretary of the Japanese legation, Sugiyama Akira, was attacked and killed by the forces of General <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a>, who were guarding the southern part of the Beijing walled city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston200070_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston200070-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Armed with <a href="/wiki/Mauser" title="Mauser">Mauser</a> rifles but wearing traditional uniforms,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwWvl9O4Gn1UC_126]_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwWvl9O4Gn1UC_126]-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dong's troops had threatened the foreign legations in the fall of 1898 soon after arriving in Beijing,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA207_207_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA207_207-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so much that <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Marines">United States Marines</a> had been called to Beijing to guard the legations.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested Ottoman caliph <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> to find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Abdul Hamid agreed to the Kaiser's request and sent Enver Pasha (not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Enver_Pasha" title="Enver Pasha">later Young Turk leader</a>) to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 11 June, the first Boxer was seen in the <a href="/wiki/Peking_Legation_Quarter" title="Peking Legation Quarter">Peking Legation Quarter</a>. The German Minister <a href="/wiki/Clemens_von_Ketteler" title="Clemens von Ketteler">Clemens von Ketteler</a> and German soldiers captured a Boxer boy and inexplicably executed him.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, thousands of Boxers burst into the walled city of Beijing that afternoon and burned many of the Christian churches and cathedrals in the city, burning some victims alive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage70_70]_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage70_70]-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American and British missionaries took refuge in the Methodist Mission, and an attack there was repulsed by US Marines. The soldiers at the British Embassy and German legations shot and killed several Boxers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200944–56_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200944–56-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kansu Braves and Boxers, along with other Chinese, then attacked and killed Chinese Christians around the legations in revenge for foreign attacks on Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seymour_Expedition">Seymour Expedition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Expedition" title="Seymour Expedition">Seymour Expedition</a></div> <p>As the situation grew more violent, the Eight Powers authorities at Dagu dispatched a second multinational force to Beijing on 10 June 1900. This force of 2,000 sailors and marines was under the command of Vice Admiral <a href="/wiki/Edward_Hobart_Seymour" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Hobart Seymour">Edward Hobart Seymour</a>, the largest contingent being British. The force moved by train from Dagu to Tianjin with the agreement of the Chinese government, but the railway had been severed between Tianjin and Beijing. Seymour resolved to continue forward by rail to the break and repair the railway, or progress on foot from there, if necessary, as it was only 120 km from Tianjin to Beijing. The court then replaced Prince Qing at the Zongli Yamen with Manchu Prince Duan, a member of the imperial <a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> clan (foreigners called him a "Blood Royal"), who was anti-foreigner and pro-Boxer. He soon ordered the Imperial army to attack the foreign forces. Confused by conflicting orders from Beijing, General <a href="/wiki/Nie_Shicheng" title="Nie Shicheng">Nie Shicheng</a> let Seymour's army pass by in their trains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonhard12_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonhard12-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After leaving Tianjin, the force quickly reached <a href="/wiki/Langfang" title="Langfang">Langfang</a>, but the railway was destroyed there. Seymour's engineers tried to repair the line, but the force found itself surrounded, as the railway in both behind directions was destroyed. They were attacked from all sides by Chinese irregulars and imperial troops. Five thousand of Dong Fuxiang's <a href="/wiki/Gansu_Braves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gansu Braves">Gansu Braves</a> and an unknown number of Boxers won a costly but major victory over Seymour's troops at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langfang" title="Battle of Langfang">Battle of Langfang</a> on 18 June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeonhard18_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonhard18-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidky4_whmgIZcCpgPA49_49]_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidky4_whmgIZcCpgPA49_49]-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Seymour force could not locate the Chinese artillery, which was raining shells upon their positions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1901vol._2,_pp._393,_441–448_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1901vol._2,_pp._393,_441–448-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Chinese troops employed mining, engineering, flooding, and simultaneous attacks. The Chinese also employed <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">pincer movements</a>, ambushes, and sniping with some success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1901vol._2,_p._446_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1901vol._2,_p._446-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On 18 June, Seymour learned of attacks on the Legation Quarter in Beijing, and decided to continue advancing, this time along the <a href="/wiki/Beihe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Beihe River">Beihe River</a>, toward <a href="/wiki/Tongzhou,_Hebei" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongzhou, Hebei">Tongzhou</a>, 25 km (16 mi) from Beijing. By 19 June, the force was halted by progressively stiffening resistance and started to retreat southward along the river with over 200 wounded. The force was now very low on food, ammunition, and medical supplies. They happened upon <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Hsi-Ku_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Hsi-Ku Arsenal">The Great Hsi-Ku Arsenal</a>, a hidden Qing munitions cache of which the Eight Powers had had no knowledge until then. </p><p>There they dug in and awaited rescue. A Chinese servant slipped through the Boxer and Imperial lines, reached Tianjin, and informed the Eight Powers of Seymour's predicament. His force was surrounded by Imperial troops and Boxers, attacked nearly around the clock, and at the point of being overrun. The Eight Powers sent a relief column from Tianjin of 1,800 men (900 Russian troops from Port Arthur, 500 British seamen, and other assorted troops). On 25 June the relief column reached Seymour. The Seymour force destroyed the Arsenal: they spiked the captured field guns and set fire to any munitions that they could not take (an estimated £3 million worth). The Seymour force and the relief column marched back to Tientsin, unopposed, on 26 June. Seymour's casualties during the expedition were 62 killed and 228 wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000100–104_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000100–104-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_within_the_Qing_imperial_court">Conflict within the Qing imperial court</h3></div> <p>Meanwhile, in Beijing, on 16 June, Empress Dowager Cixi summoned the imperial court for a mass audience and addressed the choice between using the Boxers to evict the foreigners from the city, and seeking a diplomatic solution. In response to a high official who doubted the efficacy of the Boxers, Cixi replied that both sides of the debate at the imperial court realised that popular support for the Boxers in the countryside was almost universal and that suppression would be both difficult and unpopular, especially when foreign troops were on the march.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC_289–290_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC_289–290-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_of_the_Beijing_legations">Siege of the Beijing legations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_International_Legations" title="Siege of the International Legations">Siege of the International Legations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg/390px-Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg" decoding="async" width="390" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg/585px-Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg/780px-Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1074" /></a><figcaption>Locations of foreign diplomatic legations and front lines in Beijing during the siege</figcaption></figure> <p>On 15 June, Qing imperial forces deployed electric <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">naval mines</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Beihe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Beihe River">Beihe River</a> to prevent the Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> With a difficult military situation in Tianjin and a total breakdown of communications between Tianjin and Beijing, the allied nations took steps to reinforce their military presence significantly. On 17 June, Allied forces under Russian Admiral <a href="/wiki/Yevgeni_Ivanovich_Alekseyev" title="Yevgeni Ivanovich Alekseyev">Yevgeni Alekseyev</a> took the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, and from there brought increasing numbers of troops on shore. When Cixi received an ultimatum that same day demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial affairs to foreigners,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she defiantly stated before the entire <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a>, "Now they [the Powers] have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why don't we fight to the death?"<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was at this point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a>, which began the siege. Cixi stated that "I have always been of the opinion, that the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge has come", and said that millions of Chinese would join the cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great benefits" on China.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On receipt of the news of the attack on the <a href="/wiki/Dagu_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Dagu Fort">Dagu Forts</a> on 19 June, Empress Dowager Cixi immediately sent an order to the legations that the diplomats and other foreigners depart Beijing under escort of the Chinese army within 24 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next morning, diplomats from the besieged legations met to discuss the Empress's offer. The majority quickly agreed that they could not trust the Chinese army. Fearing that they would be killed, they agreed to refuse the Empress's demand. The German Imperial Envoy, Baron <a href="/wiki/Clemens_von_Ketteler" title="Clemens von Ketteler">Clemens von Ketteler</a>, was infuriated with the actions of the Chinese army troops and determined to take his complaints to the royal court. Against the advice of the fellow foreigners, the baron left the legations with a single aide and a team of porters to carry his sedan chair. On his way to the palace, von Ketteler was killed on the streets of Beijing by a Manchu captain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage82_82]_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage82_82]-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His aide managed to escape the attack and carried word of the baron's death back to the diplomatic compound. At this news, the other diplomats feared they also would be murdered if they left the legation quarter and they chose to continue to defy the Chinese order to depart Beijing. The legations were hurriedly fortified. Most of the foreign civilians, which included a large number of missionaries and businessmen, took refuge in the British legation, the largest of the diplomatic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston200287_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston200287-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese Christians were primarily housed in the adjacent palace (Fu) of <a href="/wiki/Prince_Su" title="Prince Su">Prince Su</a>, who was forced to abandon his property by the foreign soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston200279_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston200279-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer2y.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Boxer2y.jpg/220px-Boxer2y.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Boxer2y.jpg/330px-Boxer2y.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Boxer2y.jpg/440px-Boxer2y.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1149" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Representative Allied army and naval personnel</figcaption></figure> <p>On 21 June, Cixi issued <a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">an imperial decree</a> stating that hostilities had begun and ordering the regular Chinese army to join the Boxers in their attacks on the invading troops. This was a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de facto</i></span> declaration of war, but the Allies also made no formal declaration of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2008_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2008-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regional governors in the south, who commanded substantial modernised armies, such as <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a> at Guangzhou, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> in Shandong, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhidong" title="Zhang Zhidong">Zhang Zhidong</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgq1miGno-4CpgPA74_74–75]_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgq1miGno-4CpgPA74_74–75]-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at Wuhan, and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Kunyi" title="Liu Kunyi">Liu Kunyi</a> at Nanjing, formed the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Pact_of_the_Southeastern_Provinces" title="Mutual Defense Pact of the Southeastern Provinces">Mutual Defense Pact of the Southeastern Provinces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They refused to recognise the imperial court's declaration of war, which they declared a <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">luan-ming</i></span> (illegitimate order) and withheld knowledge of it from the public in the south. Yuan Shikai used his own forces to suppress Boxers in Shandong, and Zhang entered into negotiations with the foreigners in Shanghai to keep his army out of the conflict. The neutrality of these provincial and regional governors left the majority of Chinese military forces out of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsü2000395–398_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsü2000395–398-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The republican revolutionary Sun Yat-sen even took the opportunity to submit a proposal to Li Hongzhang to declare an independent democratic republic, although nothing came of the suggestion.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legations of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, Russia and Japan were located in the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Legation_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="Beijing Legation Quarter">Beijing Legation Quarter</a> south of the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>. The Chinese army and Boxer irregulars besieged the Legation Quarter from 20 June to 14 August 1900. A total of 473 foreign civilians, 409 soldiers, marines and sailors from eight countries, and about 3,000 Chinese Christians took refuge there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200984–85_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200984–85-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the command of the British minister to China, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Maxwell_MacDonald" title="Claude Maxwell MacDonald">Claude Maxwell MacDonald</a>, the legation staff and military guards defended the compound with small arms, three machine guns, and one old muzzle-loaded cannon, which was nicknamed the <i>International Gun</i> because the barrel was British, the carriage Italian, the shells Russian and the crew American. Chinese Christians in the legations led the foreigners to the cannon and it proved important in the defence. Also under siege in Beijing was the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Saviour,_Beijing" title="Church of the Saviour, Beijing">Northern Cathedral</a> (<i>Beitang</i>) of the Catholic Church. The cathedral was defended by 43 French and Italian soldiers, 33 Catholic foreign priests and nuns, and about 3,200 Chinese Catholics. The defenders suffered heavy casualties from lack of food and from mines which the Chinese exploded in tunnels dug beneath the compound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200985,_170–171_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200985,_170–171-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of Chinese soldiers and Boxers besieging the Legation Quarter and the Beitang is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA72_72]_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zaiyi's bannermen in the <a href="/wiki/Tiger_and_Divine_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiger and Divine Corps">Tiger and Divine Corps</a> led attacks against the Catholic cathedral church.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On 22 and 23 June, Chinese soldiers and Boxers set fire to areas north and west of the British Legation, using it as a "frightening tactic" to attack the defenders. The nearby <a href="/wiki/Hanlin_Academy" title="Hanlin Academy">Hanlin Academy</a>, a complex of courtyards and buildings that housed "the quintessence of Chinese scholarship ... the oldest and richest library in the world", caught fire. Each side blamed the other for the destruction of the invaluable books it contained.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1900_China_war,_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/1900_China_war%2C_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg/220px-1900_China_war%2C_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/1900_China_war%2C_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg/330px-1900_China_war%2C_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/1900_China_war%2C_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg/440px-1900_China_war%2C_burning_of_the_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption>1900, soldiers burned down the Temple, <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> – <i>The destruction of a Chinese temple on the bank of the Pei-Ho</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Forestier" title="Amédée Forestier">Amédée Forestier</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the failure to burn out the foreigners, the Chinese army adopted an anaconda-like strategy. The Chinese built barricades surrounding the Legation Quarter and advanced, brick by brick, on the foreign lines, forcing the foreign legation guards to retreat a few feet at a time. This tactic was especially used in the Fu, defended by Japanese and Italian sailors and soldiers, and inhabited by most of the Chinese Christians. Fusillades of bullets, artillery and firecrackers were directed against the Legations almost every night—but did little damage. Sniper fire took its toll among the foreign defenders. Despite their numerical advantage, the Chinese did not attempt a direct assault on the Legation Quarter although in the words of one of the besieged, "it would have been easy by a strong, swift movement on the part of the numerous Chinese troops to have annihilated the whole body of foreigners ... in an hour".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1901vol._2,_pp._393,_316–317_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1901vol._2,_pp._393,_316–317-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> American missionary <a href="/wiki/Francis_Dunlap_Gamewell" title="Francis Dunlap Gamewell">Francis Dunlap Gamewell</a> and his crew of "fighting parsons" fortified the Legation Quarter,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but impressed Chinese Christians to do most of the physical labour of building defences.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Germans and the Americans occupied perhaps the most crucial of all defensive positions: the <a href="/wiki/Tartar_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Tartar Wall">Tartar Wall</a>. Holding the top of the 45 ft (14 m) tall and 40 ft (12 m) wide wall was vital. The German barricades faced east on top of the wall and 400 yd (370 m) west were the west-facing American positions. The Chinese advanced toward both positions by building barricades even closer. "The men all feel they are in a trap", said the US commander Capt. <a href="/wiki/John_Twiggs_Myers" title="John Twiggs Myers">John Twiggs Myers</a>, "and simply await the hour of execution".<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 30 June, the Chinese forced the Germans off the Wall, leaving the American Marines alone in its defence. In June 1900, one American described the scene of 20,000 Boxers storming the walls:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoarkJohnsonFurstenburgCline_Cohen2020_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoarkJohnsonFurstenburgCline_Cohen2020-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoarkJohnsonFurstenburgCline_Cohen2020_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoarkJohnsonFurstenburgCline_Cohen2020-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Their yells were deafening, while the roar of gongs, drums, and horns sounded like thunder ... They waved their swords and stamped on the ground with their feet. They wore red turbans, sashes, and garters over blue cloth ... They were now only twenty yards from our gate. Three or four volleys from the <a href="/wiki/Lebel_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebel rifle">Lebel rifles</a> of our marines left more than fifty dead on the ground.</p></blockquote> <p>At the same time, a Chinese barricade was advanced to within a few feet of the American positions, and it became clear that the Americans had to abandon the wall or force the Chinese to retreat. At 2 am on 3 July 56 British, Russian and American marines and sailors, under the command of Myers, launched an assault against the Chinese barricade on the wall. The attack caught the Chinese sleeping, killed about 20 of them, and expelled the rest of them from the barricades.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Chinese did not attempt to advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Sir Claude MacDonald said 13 July was the "most harassing day" of the siege.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1959157–158_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1959157–158-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese and Italians in the Fu were driven back to their last defence line. The Chinese detonated a mine beneath the French Legation pushing the French and Austrians out of most of the French Legation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1959157–158_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1959157–158-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 16 July, the most capable British officer was killed and the journalist <a href="/wiki/George_Ernest_Morrison" title="George Ernest Morrison">George Ernest Morrison</a> was wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American Minister <a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Conger" title="Edwin H. Conger">Edwin H. Conger</a> established contact with the Chinese government and on 17 July, and an armistice was declared by the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConger1909135_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConger1909135-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (October 2022)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infighting_among_officials_and_commanders">Infighting among officials and commanders</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BoxerSoldiers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/BoxerSoldiers.jpg/220px-BoxerSoldiers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/BoxerSoldiers.jpg/330px-BoxerSoldiers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/BoxerSoldiers.jpg/440px-BoxerSoldiers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Boxer soldiers</figcaption></figure> <p>General <a href="/wiki/Ronglu" title="Ronglu">Ronglu</a> concluded that it was futile to fight all of the powers simultaneously and declined to press home the siege.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen199754_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199754-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zaiyi wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from attacking.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Ronglu forced Dong Fuxiang and his troops to pull back from completing the siege and destroying the legations, thereby saving the foreigners and making diplomatic concessions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8hiGU_tJEocCpgPA54_54]_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8hiGU_tJEocCpgPA54_54]-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ronglu and Prince Qing sent food to the legations and used their bannermen to attack the Gansu Braves of Dong Fuxiang and the Boxers who were besieging the foreigners. They issued edicts ordering the foreigners to be protected, but the Gansu warriors ignored it, and fought against bannermen who tried to force them away from the legations. The Boxers also took commands from Dong Fuxiang.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ronglu also deliberately hid an Imperial Decree from <a href="/wiki/Nie_Shicheng" title="Nie Shicheng">Nie Shicheng</a>. The Decree ordered him to stop fighting the Boxers because of the foreign invasion, and also because the population was suffering. Due to Ronglu's actions, Nie continued to fight the Boxers and killed many of them even as the foreign troops were making their way into China. Ronglu also ordered Nie to protect foreigners and save the railway from the Boxers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA235_235_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA235_235-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because parts of the railway were saved under Ronglu's orders, the foreign invasion army was able to transport itself into China quickly. Nie committed thousands of troops against the Boxers instead of against the foreigners, but was already outnumbered by the Allies by 4,000 men. He was blamed for attacking the Boxers, and decided to sacrifice his life at Tietsin by walking into the range of Allied guns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2002499_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2002499-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Xu_Jingcheng" title="Xu Jingcheng">Xu Jingcheng</a>, who had served as the envoy to many of the same states under siege in the Legation Quarter, argued that "the evasion of extraterritorial rights and the killing of foreign diplomats are unprecedented in China and abroad".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Xu and five other officials urged Empress Dowager Cixi to order the repression of Boxers, the execution of their leaders, and a diplomatic settlement with foreign armies. The Empress Dowager was outraged, and sentenced Xu and the five others to death for "willfully and absurdly petitioning the imperial court" and "building subversive thought". They were executed on 28 July 1900 and their severed heads placed on display at <a href="/wiki/Caishikou_Execution_Grounds" title="Caishikou Execution Grounds">Caishikou Execution Grounds</a> in Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reflecting this vacillation, some Chinese soldiers were quite liberally firing at foreigners under siege from its very onset. Cixi did not personally order imperial troops to conduct a siege, and on the contrary had ordered them to protect the foreigners in the legations. Prince Duan led the Boxers to loot his enemies within the imperial court and the foreigners, although imperial authorities expelled Boxers after they were let into the city and went on a looting rampage against both the foreign and the Qing imperial forces. Older Boxers were sent outside Beijing to halt the approaching foreign armies, while younger men were absorbed into the Muslim Gansu army.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With conflicting allegiances and priorities motivating the various forces inside Beijing, the situation in the city became increasingly confused. The foreign legations continued to be surrounded by both Qing imperial and Gansu forces. While Dong's Gansu army, now swollen by the addition of the Boxers, wished to press the siege, Ronglu's imperial forces seem to have largely attempted to follow Cixi's decree and protect the legations. However, to satisfy the conservatives in the imperial court, Ronglu's men also fired on the legations and let off firecrackers to give the impression that they, too, were attacking the foreigners. Inside the legations and out of communication with the outside world, the foreigners simply fired on any targets that presented themselves, including messengers from the imperial court, civilians and besiegers of all persuasions.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dong Fuxiang was denied artillery held by Ronglu which stopped him from levelling the legations, and when he complained to Empress Dowager Cixi on 23 June, she dismissively said that "Your tail is becoming too heavy to wag." The Alliance discovered large amounts of unused Chinese <a href="/wiki/Krupp_gun" title="Krupp gun">Krupp guns</a> and shells after the siege was lifted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1959226_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1959226-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gaselee_Expedition">Gaselee Expedition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition" title="Gaselee Expedition">Gaselee Expedition</a></div> <p>Foreign navies started building up their presence along the northern China coast from the end of April 1900. Several international forces were sent to the capital, with varying success, and the Chinese forces were ultimately defeated by the Alliance. Independently, the Netherlands dispatched three cruisers in July to protect its citizens in Shanghai.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British Lieutenant-General <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Gaselee" title="Alfred Gaselee">Alfred Gaselee</a> acted as the commanding officer of the Eight-Nation Alliance, which eventually numbered 55,000. Japanese forces, led by <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Yasumasa" title="Fukushima Yasumasa">Fukushima Yasumasa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yamaguchi_Motomi" title="Yamaguchi Motomi">Yamaguchi Motomi</a> and numbering over 20,840 men, made up the majority of the expeditionary force.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French forces in the campaign, led by general <a href="/wiki/Henri-Nicolas_Frey" title="Henri-Nicolas Frey">Henri-Nicolas Frey</a>, consisted mostly of inexperienced Vietnamese and Cambodian conscripts from <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "First Chinese Regiment" (<a href="/wiki/Weihaiwei_Regiment" title="Weihaiwei Regiment">Weihaiwei Regiment</a>) which was praised for its performance, consisted of Chinese collaborators serving in the British military.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable events included the seizure of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dagu_Forts_(1900)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)">Dagu Forts</a> commanding the approaches to Tianjin and the boarding and capture of four Chinese destroyers by British Commander <a href="/wiki/Roger_Keyes" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Keyes">Roger Keyes</a>. Among the foreigners besieged in Tianjin was a young American mining engineer named <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>, who would go on to become the 31st President of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200996_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200996-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The international force captured <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> on 14 July. The international force suffered its heaviest casualties of the Boxer Rebellion in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin" title="Battle of Tientsin">Battle of Tientsin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009130,_138_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009130,_138-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Tianjin as a base, the international force marched from Tianjin to Beijing (about 120 km (75 mi)), with 20,000 allied troops. On 4 August, there were approximately 70,000 Qing imperial troops and anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 Boxers along the way. The allies only encountered minor resistance, fighting battles at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beicang" title="Battle of Beicang">Beicang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yangcun" title="Battle of Yangcun">Yangcun</a>. At Yangcun, Russian general <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Linevich" title="Nikolai Linevich">Nikolai Linevich</a> led the <a href="/wiki/14th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="14th Infantry Regiment (United States)">14th Infantry Regiment</a> of the US and British troops in the assault. The weather was a major obstacle. Conditions were extremely humid with temperatures sometimes reaching 42 °C (108 °F). These high temperatures and insects plagued the Allies. Soldiers became dehydrated and horses died. Chinese villagers killed Allied troops who searched for wells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edge_88]_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edge_88]-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The heat killed Allied soldiers, who foamed at the mouth. The tactics along the way were gruesome on either side. Allied soldiers beheaded already dead Chinese corpses, bayoneted or beheaded live Chinese civilians, and raped Chinese girls and women.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossacks</a> were reported to have killed Chinese civilians almost automatically and Japanese kicked a Chinese soldier to death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage87_87,_89]_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage87_87,_89]-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese responded to the Alliance's atrocities with similar acts of violence and cruelty, especially towards captured Russians.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Smedley_Butler" title="Smedley Butler">Smedley Butler</a> saw the remains of two Japanese soldiers nailed to a wall, who had their tongues cut off and their eyes gouged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage88_88]_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage88_88]-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lieutenant Butler was wounded during the expedition in the leg and chest, later receiving the <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)" title="Brevet (military)">Brevet Medal</a> in recognition for his actions. </p><p>The international force reached Beijing on 14 August. Following Beiyang army's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese government had invested heavily in modernising the imperial army, which was equipped with modern Mauser repeater rifles and Krupp artillery. Three modernised divisions consisting of Manchu bannermen protected the Beijing Metropolitan region. Two of them were under the command of the anti-Boxer <a href="/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Prince Qing</a> and Ronglu, while the anti-foreign Prince Duan commanded the ten-thousand-strong <a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a>, or "Tiger Spirit Division", which had joined the Gansu Braves and Boxers in attacking the foreigners. It was a Hushenying captain who had assassinated the German diplomat, Ketteler. The Tenacious Army under Nie Shicheng received Western style training under German and Russian officers in addition to their modernised weapons and uniforms. They effectively resisted the Alliance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin" title="Battle of Tientsin">Battle of Tientsin</a> before retreating and astounded the Alliance forces with the accuracy of their artillery during the siege of the Tianjin concessions (the artillery shells failed to explode upon impact due to corrupt manufacturing). The Gansu Braves under Dong Fuxiang, which some sources described as "ill disciplined", were armed with modern weapons but were not trained according to Western drill and wore traditional Chinese uniforms. They led the defeat of the Alliance at Langfang in the Seymour Expedition and were the most ferocious in besieging the Legations in Beijing. The British won the race among the international forces to be the first to reach the besieged Legation Quarter. The US was able to play a role due to the presence of UD ships and troops stationed in <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> since the US conquest of the Philippines during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a>. The US military refers to this as the <a href="/wiki/China_Relief_Expedition" title="China Relief Expedition">China Relief Expedition</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Marines">United States Marines</a> scaling the walls of Beijing is an iconic image of the Boxer Rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009177_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009177-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British Army reached the legation quarter on the afternoon of 14 August and relieved the Legation Quarter. The Beitang was relieved on 16 August, first by Japanese soldiers and then, officially, by the French.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1959220–221_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1959220–221-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qing_court_flight_to_Xi'an"><span id="Qing_court_flight_to_Xi.27an"></span>Qing court flight to Xi'an</h3></div> <p>As the foreign armies reached Beijing, the Qing court fled to Xi'an, with Cixi disguised as a Buddhist nun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021272–273_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021272–273-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The journey was made all the more arduous by the lack of preparation, but the Empress Dowager insisted this was not a retreat, rather a "tour of inspection". After weeks of travel, the party arrived in Xi'an, beyond protective mountain passes where the foreigners could not reach, deep in Chinese Muslim territory and protected by the Gansu Braves. The foreigners had no orders to pursue Cixi, so they decided to stay put.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000253–261_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000253–261-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria">Russian invasion of Manchuria</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">Russian invasion of Manchuria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg/220px-Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg/330px-Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg/440px-Russian_soldiers_during_the_boxer_rebellion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>Russian officers in Manchuria</figcaption></figure> <p>The Russian Empire and the Qing dynasty had maintained a long peace, starting with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> in 1689, but Russian forces took advantage of Chinese defeats to impose the <a href="/wiki/Aigun_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Aigun Treaty">Aigun Treaty</a> of 1858 and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Peking" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Peking">Treaty of Peking</a> of 1860 which ceded formerly Chinese territory in Manchuria to Russia, much of which is held by Russia to the present day (<a href="/wiki/Primorye" class="mw-redirect" title="Primorye">Primorye</a>). The Russians aimed for control over the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a> for navigation, and the all-weather ports of <a href="/wiki/Dairen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dairen">Dairen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur_naval_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Arthur naval base">Port Arthur</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaodong">Liaodong</a> peninsula. The rise of Japan as an Asian power provoked Russia's anxiety, especially in light of expanding Japanese influence in Korea. Following Japan's victory in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1895, the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a> of Russia, Germany and France forced Japan to return the territory won in Liaodong, leading to a de facto Sino-Russian alliance. </p><p>Local Chinese in Manchuria were incensed at these Russian advances and began to harass Russians and Russian institutions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Chinese Eastern Railway">Chinese Eastern Railway</a>, which was guarded by Russian troops under <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Mishchenko" title="Pavel Mishchenko">Pavel Mishchenko</a>. In June 1900, the Chinese bombarded the town of <a href="/wiki/Blagoveshchensk" title="Blagoveshchensk">Blagoveshchensk</a> on the Russian side of the Amur. The Russian government, at the insistence of war minister <a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Kuropatkin" title="Aleksey Kuropatkin">Aleksey Kuropatkin</a>, used the pretext of Boxer activity to move some 200,000 troops led by <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Rennenkampf" title="Paul von Rennenkampf">Paul von Rennenkampf</a> into the area to crush the Boxers. The Chinese used arson to destroy a bridge carrying a railway and a barracks on 27 July. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boxer_attacks_on_Chinese_Eastern_Railway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boxer attacks on Chinese Eastern Railway (page does not exist)">Boxer attacks on Chinese Eastern Railway</a> and burned the Yantai mines.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Massacre_of_missionaries_and_Chinese_Christians">Massacre of missionaries and Chinese Christians</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Martirs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Chinese_Martirs.jpg/220px-Chinese_Martirs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Chinese_Martirs.jpg/330px-Chinese_Martirs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Chinese_Martirs.jpg/440px-Chinese_Martirs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="2050" /></a><figcaption>Chinese martyrs of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> as depicted in an <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> commissioned in 1990</figcaption></figure> <p>A total of 136 Protestant missionaries, 53 children, 47 Catholic priests and nuns, 30,000 Chinese Catholics, 2,000 Chinese Protestants, and 200–400 of the 700 Russian Orthodox Christians in Beijing are estimated to have been killed during the uprising. The Protestant dead were collectively termed the <a href="/wiki/China_Martyrs_of_1900" title="China Martyrs of 1900">China Martyrs of 1900</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009184_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009184-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic missionaries and their Chinese parishioners were massacred throughout northern China, some by Boxers and others by government troops and authorities. After the declaration of war on Western powers in June 1900, Yuxian, who had been named governor of Shanxi in March of that year, implemented a brutal anti-foreign and anti-Christian policy. On 9 July, reports circulated that he had executed forty-four foreigners (including women and children) from missionary families whom he had invited to the provincial capital <a href="/wiki/Taiyuan" title="Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a> under the promise to protect them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen199751_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199751-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987190–191_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987190–191-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the purported eyewitness accounts have recently been questioned as improbable, this event became a notorious symbol of Chinese anger, known as the <a href="/wiki/Taiyuan_massacre" title="Taiyuan massacre">Taiyuan massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The England-based <a href="/wiki/Baptist_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist Missionary Society">Baptist Missionary Society</a> opened its mission in Shanxi in 1877. In 1900, all its missionaries there were killed, along with all 120 converts.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the summer's end, more foreigners and as many as 2,000 Chinese Christians had been put to death in the province. Journalist and historical writer Nat Brandt has called the massacre of Christians in Shanxi "the greatest single tragedy in the history of Christian evangelicalism".<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some 222 Russian–Chinese martyrs, including <a href="/wiki/Metrophanes,_Chi_Sung" title="Metrophanes, Chi Sung">Chi Sung as St. Metrophanes</a>, were locally canonised as <a href="/wiki/New_Martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="New Martyrs">New Martyrs</a> on 22 April 1902, after <a href="/wiki/Archimandrite" title="Archimandrite">Archimandrite</a> Innocent (Fugurovsky), head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in China, solicited the <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Most Holy Synod</a> to perpetuate their memory. This was the first local canonisation for more than two centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allied_occupation_and_atrocities">Allied occupation and atrocities</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png/220px-Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png/330px-Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png/440px-Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="1101" /></a><figcaption>The Russian Empire occupied Manchuria while the Eight Nation Alliance jointly occupied Zhili province. The rest of China outside of Manchuria and Zhili were unaffected due to the governor generals who participated in the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual Protection of Southeast China">Mutual Protection of Southeast China</a> in 1900.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Eight Nation Alliance occupied Zhili province while Russia occupied Manchuria, but the rest of China was not occupied due to the actions of several Han governors who formed the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Protection_of_Southeast_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual Protection of Southeast China">Mutual Protection of Southeast China</a> that refused to obey the declaration of war and kept their armies and provinces out of the war. Zhang Zhidong told Everard Fraser, the Hankou-based British consul general, that he despised Manchus so that the Eight Nation Alliance would not occupy provinces under the Mutual Defense Pact.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA74_74–75]_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA74_74–75]-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beijing, Tianjin and Zhili province were occupied for more than one year by the international expeditionary force under the command of German Field Marshal <a href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Waldersee" title="Alfred von Waldersee">Alfred von Waldersee</a>, who had initially been appointed commander of the Eight-Nation Alliance during the rebellion but did not arrive in China until after most of the fighting had ended. The Americans and British paid General <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> and his army (the <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">Right Division</a>) to help the Eight Nation Alliance suppress the Boxers. Yuan Shikai's forces killed tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in Zhili province and Shandong after the Alliance captured Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage94_94]_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage94_94]-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of the hundreds of thousands of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from the Eight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, when Han Chinese were expelled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA38_38]_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA38_38]-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sawara Tokusuke, a Japanese journalist, wrote in "Miscellaneous Notes about the Boxers" about the rapes of Manchu and Mongol banner girls. He alleged that soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance raped a large number of women in Peking, including all seven daughters of <a href="/wiki/Yulu_(viceroy)" title="Yulu (viceroy)">Viceroy Yulu</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hitara" title="Hitara">Hitara</a> clan. Likewise, a daughter and a wife of Mongol banner noble <a href="/wiki/Chongqi_(official)" title="Chongqi (official)">Chongqi</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arute_Hala" class="mw-redirect" title="Arute Hala">Alute clan</a> were allegedly gang-raped by soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chongqi killed himself on 26 August 1900, and some other relatives, including his son, Baochu, did likewise shortly afterward.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During attacks on suspected Boxer areas from September 1900 to March 1901, European and American forces engaged in tactics which included public decapitations of Chinese with suspected Boxer sympathies, systematic looting, routine shooting of farm animals and crop destruction, destruction of religion buildings and public buildings, burning of religious texts, and widespread rape of Chinese women and girls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020212_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020212-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary British and American observers levelled their greatest criticism at German, Russian, and Japanese troops for their ruthlessness and willingness to execute Chinese of all ages and backgrounds, sometimes burning villages and killing their entire populations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997185_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997185-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German force arrived too late to take part in the fighting but undertook punitive expeditions to villages in the countryside. According to missionary <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson_Smith" title="Arthur Henderson Smith">Arthur Henderson Smith</a>, in addition to burning and looting, Germans "cut off the heads of many Chinese within their jurisdiction, many of them for absolutely trivial offenses".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020213_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020213-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> US Army Lieutenant C. D. Rhodes reported that German and French soldiers set fire to buildings where innocent peasants were sheltering and would shoot and bayonet peasants who fled the burning buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020216_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020216-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Australian soldiers, Germans extorted ransom payments from villages in exchange for not torching their homes and crops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020216_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020216-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British journalist George Lynch wrote that German and Italian soldiers engaged in a practice of raping Chinese women and girls before burning their villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020217_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020217-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lynch, German soldiers would attempt to cover up these atrocities by throwing rape victims into wells as staged suicides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020217_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020217-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lynch said, "There are things that I must not write, and that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilisation of ours is merely a veneer over savagery".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000284–285_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000284–285-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 27 July, during departure ceremonies for the German relief force, Kaiser Wilhelm II included an impromptu but intemperate reference to the <a href="/wiki/Hun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hun">Hun</a> invaders of continental Europe: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Should you encounter the enemy, he will be defeated! No quarter will be given! Prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns under their King <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a> made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty in history and legend, may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no Chinese will ever again dare to look cross-eyed at a German.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French,_Teintsin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French%2C_Teintsin.jpg/220px-Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French%2C_Teintsin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French%2C_Teintsin.jpg/330px-Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French%2C_Teintsin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French%2C_Teintsin.jpg/440px-Execution_of_a_Boxer_by_the_French%2C_Teintsin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>French troops execute a Boxer</figcaption></figure> <p>One newspaper called the aftermath of the siege a "carnival of ancient loot", and others called it "an orgy of looting" by soldiers, civilians and missionaries. These characterisations called to mind the sacking of the Summer Palace in 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each nationality accused the others of being the worst looters. An American diplomat, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_G._Squiers" title="Herbert G. Squiers">Herbert G. Squiers</a>, filled several railway carriages with loot and artefacts. The British Legation held loot auctions every afternoon and proclaimed, "Looting on the part of British troops was carried out in the most orderly manner." However, one British officer noted, "It is one of the unwritten <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of war">laws of war</a> that a city which does not surrender at the last and is taken by storm is looted." For the rest of 1900 and 1901, the British held loot auctions every day except Sunday in front of the main-gate to the British Legation. Many foreigners, including <a href="/wiki/Claude_Maxwell_MacDonald" title="Claude Maxwell MacDonald">Claude Maxwell MacDonald</a> and Lady Ethel MacDonald and <a href="/wiki/George_Ernest_Morrison" title="George Ernest Morrison">George Ernest Morrison</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i>, were active bidders among the crowd. Many of these looted items ended up in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000284–285_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000284–285-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic <a href="/wiki/Xishiku_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Xishiku Cathedral">Beitang</a> or North Cathedral was a "salesroom for stolen property".<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American general <a href="/wiki/Adna_Chaffee" title="Adna Chaffee">Adna Chaffee</a> banned looting by American soldiers, but the ban was ineffectual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009194–197_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009194–197-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Chaffee, "it is safe to say that where one real Boxer has been killed, fifty harmless coolies or laborers, including not a few women and children, have been slain".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020213_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020213-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few Western missionaries took an active part in calling for retribution. To provide restitution to missionaries and Chinese Christian families whose property had been destroyed, <a href="/wiki/William_Scott_Ament" title="William Scott Ament">William Scott Ament</a>, a missionary of <a href="/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions" title="American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions">American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions</a>, guided American troops through villages to punish those he suspected of being Boxers and confiscate their property. When <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> read of this expedition, he wrote a scathing essay, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness", that attacked the "Reverend bandits of the American Board", especially targeting Ament, one of the most respected missionaries in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009207–208_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009207–208-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The controversy was front-page news during much of 1901. Ament's counterpart on the distaff side was British missionary Georgina Smith, who presided over a neighbourhood in Beijing as judge and jury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009204–214_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009204–214-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While one historical account reported that Japanese troops were astonished by other Alliance troops raping civilians,<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others noted that Japanese troops were "looting and burning without mercy", and that Chinese "women and girls by hundreds have committed suicide to escape a worse fate at the hands of Russian and Japanese brutes".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997184_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997184-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roger Keyes, who commanded the British destroyer <i><a href="/wiki/HMS_Fame_(1896)" title="HMS Fame (1896)">Fame</a></i> and accompanied the Gaselee Expedition, noted that the Japanese had brought their own "regimental wives" (prostitutes) to the front to keep their soldiers from raping Chinese civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston200090,_284–285_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston200090,_284–285-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png/220px-Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png/330px-Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png/440px-Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Execution of Boxers by standing strangulation</figcaption></figure> <p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i> journalist <a href="/wiki/E._J._Dillon" title="E. J. Dillon">E. J. Dillon</a> stated<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (December 2023)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> that he witnessed the mutilated corpses of Chinese women who were raped and killed by the Alliance troops. The French commander dismissed the rapes, attributing them to "gallantry of the French soldier".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (December 2023)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> According to U.S. Captain <a href="/wiki/Grote_Hutcheson" title="Grote Hutcheson">Grote Hutcheson</a>, French forces burned each village they encountered during a 99-mile march and planted the French flag in the ruins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020215_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020215-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many bannermen supported the Boxers, and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bannermen had been devastated in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> in 1895 and Banner armies were destroyed while resisting the invasion. In the words of historian <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Crossley" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela Crossley">Pamela Crossley</a>, their living conditions went "from desperate poverty to true misery".<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When thousands of Manchus fled south from <a href="/wiki/Aigun" title="Aigun">Aigun</a> during the fighting in 1900, their cattle and horses were stolen by Russian Cossacks who then burned their villages and homes to ashes.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchu Banner armies were destroyed while resisting the invasion, many annihilated by Russians. Manchu Shoufu killed himself during the battle of Peking and the Manchu <a href="/wiki/Lao_She" title="Lao She">Lao She</a>'s father was killed by Western soldiers in the battle as the Manchu banner armies of the Center Division of the Guards Army, <a href="/wiki/Tiger_Spirit_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiger Spirit Division">Tiger Spirit Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a> in the Metropolitan banners were slaughtered by the western soldiers. The Inner-city Legation Quarters and Catholic cathedral (<a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Saviour,_Beijing" title="Church of the Saviour, Beijing">Church of the Saviour, Beijing</a>) were both attacked by Manchu bannermen. Manchu bannermen were slaughtered by the Eight Nation Alliance all over Manchuria and Beijing because most of the Manchu bannermen supported the Boxers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA72_72]_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The clan system of the Manchus in Aigun was obliterated by the despoliation of the area at the hands of the Russian invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1956110_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1956110-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were 1,266 households including 900 <a href="/wiki/Daurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Daurs">Daurs</a> and 4,500 Manchus in <a href="/wiki/Sixty-Four_Villages_East_of_the_River" title="Sixty-Four Villages East of the River">Sixty-Four Villages East of the River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blagoveshchensk" title="Blagoveshchensk">Blagoveshchensk</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Blagoveshchensk_massacre_and_Sixty-Four_Villages_East_of_the_River_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Blagoveshchensk massacre and Sixty-Four Villages East of the River massacre">Blagoveshchensk massacre and Sixty-Four Villages East of the River massacre</a> committed by Russian Cossack soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Manchu villages were burned by Cossacks in the massacre according to Victor Zatsepine.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manchu royals, officials and officers like <a href="/wiki/Yuxian_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yuxian (Qing dynasty)">Yuxian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qixiu" title="Qixiu">Qixiu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaixun,_Prince_Zhuang" title="Zaixun, Prince Zhuang">Zaixun, Prince Zhuang</a> and Captain <a href="/wiki/Clemens_von_Ketteler#Boxer_rebellion_and_death" title="Clemens von Ketteler">Enhai</a> were executed or forced to commit suicide by the Eight Nation Alliance. Manchu official <a href="/wiki/Gangyi" title="Gangyi">Gangyi</a>'s execution was demanded, but he had already died.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japanese soldiers arrested Qixiu before he was executed.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zaixun, Prince Zhuang was forced to commit suicide on 21 February 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They executed Yuxian on 22 February 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen199755_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199755-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 31 December 1900 German soldiers beheaded the Manchu captain Enhai for killing <a href="/wiki/Clemens_von_Ketteler" title="Clemens von Ketteler">Clemens von Ketteler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA72_72]_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOXQkDwAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indemnity">Indemnity</h3></div> <p>After the capture of Peking by the foreign armies, some of Cixi's advisers advocated that the war be carried on, arguing that China could have defeated the foreigners as it was disloyal and traitorous people within China who allowed Beijing and Tianjin to be captured by the Allies, and that the interior of China was impenetrable. They also recommended that Dong Fuxiang continue fighting. The Empress Dowager Cixi was practical however, and decided that the terms were generous enough for her to acquiesce when she was assured of her continued reign after the war and that China would not be forced to cede any territory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiWxKQejMtlMCpgPA312_312]_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiWxKQejMtlMCpgPA312_312]-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 7 September 1901, the Qing imperial court agreed to sign the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a>, also known as Peace Agreement between the Eight-Nation Alliance and China. The protocol ordered the execution of 10 high-ranking officials linked to the outbreak and other officials who were found guilty for the slaughter of foreigners in China. <a href="/wiki/Alfons_Mumm_von_Schwarzenstein" title="Alfons Mumm von Schwarzenstein">Alfons Mumm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Satow" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest Satow">Ernest Satow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Komura_Jutaro" class="mw-redirect" title="Komura Jutaro">Komura Jutaro</a> signed on behalf of Germany, Britain, and Japan, respectively. </p><p>China was fined <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war reparations</a> of 450,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a> of fine silver (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="approximately">approx.</span>540,000,000 troy ounces (17,000 t)) for the loss that it caused. The reparation was to be paid by 1940, within 39 years, and would be 982,238,150 taels with interest (4 per cent per year) included. The existing tariff increased from 3.18 to 5 per cent, and formerly duty-free merchandise was newly taxed, to help meet these indemnity demands. The sum of reparations was estimated by the Chinese population size (roughly 450 million in 1900) at one tael per person. Chinese customs income and salt taxes guaranteed the reparation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsü2000401,_405,_431_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsü2000401,_405,_431-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China paid 668,661,220 taels of silver from 1901 to 1939 – equivalent in 2010 to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="approximately">approx.</span>US$61 billion on a purchasing-power-parity basis.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large portion of the reparations paid to the United States was diverted to pay for the education of Chinese students in US universities under the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program</a>. To prepare the students chosen for this program, an institute was established to teach the English language and to serve as a preparatory school. When the first of these students returned to China, they undertook the teaching of subsequent students; from this institute was born <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_University" title="Tsinghua University">Tsinghua University</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg/220px-BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg/330px-BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg/440px-BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>American troops during the Boxer Rebellion</figcaption></figure> <p>The US China Inland Mission lost more members than any other missionary agency: 58 adults and 21 children were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (March 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, in 1901, when the allied nations were demanding compensation from the Chinese government, <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" title="Hudson Taylor">Hudson Taylor</a> refused to accept payment for loss of property or life, to demonstrate the meekness and gentleness of Christ to the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (March 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Belgian Catholic vicar apostolic of Ordos wanted foreign troops garrisoned in Inner Mongolia, but the Governor refused. Bermyn petitioned the Manchu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enming (page does not exist)">Enming</a> to send troops to <a href="/wiki/Hetao" title="Hetao">Hetao</a> where Prince Duan's Mongol troops and General <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a>'s Muslim troops allegedly threatened Catholics. It turned out that Bermyn had created the incident as a hoax.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western Catholic missionaries forced Mongols to give up their land to Han Chinese Catholics as part of the Boxer indemnities according to Mongol historian Shirnut Sodbilig.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mongols had participated in attacks against Catholic missions in the Boxer rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing government did not capitulate to all the foreign demands. The Manchu governor Yuxian was executed, but the imperial court refused to execute the Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang, although he had also encouraged the killing of foreigners during the rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empress Dowager Cixi intervened when the Alliance demanded him executed and Dong was only cashiered and sent back home.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Dong lived a life of luxury and power in "exile" in his home province of Gansu.<sup id="cite_ref-Hastings1916_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hastings1916-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon Dong's death in 1908, all honours which had been stripped from him were restored and he was given a full military burial.<sup id="cite_ref-Hastings1916_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hastings1916-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The indemnity was never fully paid and was lifted during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202314_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202314-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-term_consequences">Long-term consequences</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin,_China,_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.,_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/220px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/330px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/440px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2928" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Foreign armies assemble inside the Forbidden City after capturing Beijing, 28 November 1900</figcaption></figure> <p>The occupation of Beijing by foreign powers and the failure of the rebellion further eroded support for the Qing state. Support for reforms decreased, while support for revolution increased. In the ten years after the Boxer Rebellion, uprisings in China increased, particularly in the south.{ Support grew for the <i><a href="/wiki/Tongmenghui" title="Tongmenghui">Tongmenghui</a></i>, an alliance of anti-Qing groups which later became the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202314_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202314-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cixi was returned to Beijing, the foreign powers believing that maintaining the Qing government was the best way to control China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021273_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021273-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing state made further <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">efforts to reform</a>. It abolished the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> in 1905 and sought to gradually introduce consultative assemblies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202314–15_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202314–15-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the formation of new military and police organisations, the reforms also simplified central bureaucracy and made a start at revamping taxation policies.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These efforts failed to maintain the Qing dynasty, which was overthrown in the 1911 <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202315_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202315-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1900, Russia occupied the provinces of Manchuria,<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a move that threatened Anglo-American hopes of maintaining the country's openness to commerce under the <a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg/220px-French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg/330px-French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg/440px-French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2255" data-file-height="1767" /></a><figcaption>French <a href="/wiki/1901_China_expedition_commemorative_medal" title="1901 China expedition commemorative medal">1901 China expedition commemorative medal</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_L%C3%A9gion_d%27Honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée de la Légion d'Honneur">Musée de la Légion d'Honneur</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a> has argued that President <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>'s decision to send 5,000 American troops to quell the rebellion marks "the origins of modern presidential war powers":<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>McKinley took a historic step in creating a new, 20th century presidential power. He dispatched the five thousand troops without consulting Congress, let alone obtaining a declaration of war, to fight the Boxers who were supported by the Chinese government ... Presidents had previously used such force against non-governmental groups that threatened U.S. interests and citizens. It was now used, however, against recognised governments, and without obeying the <a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">Constitution's provisions about who was to declare war</a>.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a>, concurred and wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The intervention in China marked the start of a crucial shift in the presidential employment of armed force overseas. In the 19th century, military force committed without congressional authorisation had been typically used against nongovernmental organisations. Now it was beginning to be used against sovereign states, and, in the case of <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, with less consultation than ever.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis_of_the_Boxers">Analysis of the Boxers</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry,_Tientsin,_China_(1901)_Underwood_%26_Co_(RESTORED)_(4072872709).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry%2C_Tientsin%2C_China_%281901%29_Underwood_%26_Co_%28RESTORED%29_%284072872709%29.jpg/220px-Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry%2C_Tientsin%2C_China_%281901%29_Underwood_%26_Co_%28RESTORED%29_%284072872709%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry%2C_Tientsin%2C_China_%281901%29_Underwood_%26_Co_%28RESTORED%29_%284072872709%29.jpg/330px-Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry%2C_Tientsin%2C_China_%281901%29_Underwood_%26_Co_%28RESTORED%29_%284072872709%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry%2C_Tientsin%2C_China_%281901%29_Underwood_%26_Co_%28RESTORED%29_%284072872709%29.jpg/440px-Boxer_Prisoners_Captured_By_6th_US_Cavalry%2C_Tientsin%2C_China_%281901%29_Underwood_%26_Co_%28RESTORED%29_%284072872709%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1262" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption>Boxers captured by the US <a href="/wiki/6th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="6th Cavalry Regiment">6th Cavalry Regiment</a> near Tianjin in 1901</figcaption></figure> <p>From the beginning, views differed as to whether the Boxers were better seen as anti-imperialist, patriotic and <a href="/wiki/Proto-nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-nationalist">proto-nationalist</a>, or as backward, irrational, and futile opponents of what was inevitable change. The historian <a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Esherick" title="Joseph W. Esherick">Joseph W. Esherick</a> comments that "confusion about the Boxer Uprising is not simply a matter of popular misconceptions" since "there is no major incident in China's modern history on which the range of professional interpretation is as great".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987xiv_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987xiv-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Boxers drew condemnation from those who wanted to modernise China according to a Western model of civilisation. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, considered the founding father of modern China, at the time worked to overthrow the Qing but believed that government spread rumours that "caused confusion among the populace" and stirred up the Boxer Movement. He delivered "scathing criticism" of the Boxers' "anti-foreignism and obscurantism". Sun praised the Boxers for their "spirit of resistance" but called them "bandits". Students studying in Japan were ambivalent. Some stated that while the uprising originated from the ignorant and stubborn people, their beliefs were brave and righteous and could be transformed into a force for independence.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, nationalistic Chinese became more sympathetic to the Boxers. In 1918, Sun praised their fighting spirit and said that the Boxers were courageous and fearless in fighting to the death against the Alliance armies, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yangcun" title="Battle of Yangcun">Battle of Yangcun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese liberals such as <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a>, who called on China to modernise, still condemned the Boxers for their irrationality and barbarity.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leader of the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a>, forgave the "barbarism of the Boxer ... given the crime foreigners committed in China", and contended that it was those "subservient to the foreigners" that truly "deserved our resentment".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHan200559_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHan200559-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In other countries, views of the Boxers were complex and contentious. Mark Twain said that "the Boxer is a patriot. He loves his country better than he does the countries of other people. I wish him success."<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russian writer <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> also praised the Boxers and accused Nicholas II of Russia and Wilhelm II of Germany of being chiefly responsible for the lootings, rapes, murders, and "Christian brutality" of the Russian and Western troops.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russian revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> mocked the Russian government's claim that it was protecting Christian civilisation: "Poor Imperial Government! So Christianly unselfish, and yet so unjustly maligned! Several years ago it unselfishly seized Port Arthur, and now it is unselfishly seizing Manchuria; it has unselfishly flooded the frontier provinces of China with hordes of contractors, engineers, and officers, who, by their conduct, have roused to indignation even the Chinese, known for their docility."<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russian newspaper <i>Amurskii Krai</i> criticised the killing of innocent civilians and charged that restraint would have been more becoming of a "civilized Christian nation", asking: "What shall we tell civilized people? We shall have to say to them: 'Do not consider us as brothers anymore. We are mean and terrible people; we have killed those who hid at our place, who sought our protection.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lenin saw the Boxers as an avant-garde Proletarian force fighting against imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg/220px-Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg/330px-Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg/440px-Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2786" data-file-height="2050" /></a><figcaption>Qing forces of Chinese soldiers in 1899–1901<br /><i>Left</i>: two infantrymen of the <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Imperial Army</a>. <i>Front</i>: drum major of the regular army. Seated on the trunk: field artilleryman. <i>Right</i>: Boxers</figcaption></figure> <p>Some American churchmen spoke out in support of the Boxers. In 1912, the evangelist <a href="/wiki/George_F._Pentecost" class="mw-redirect" title="George F. Pentecost">George F. Pentecost</a> said that the Boxer uprising was a: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"patriotic movement to expel the 'foreign devils' – just that – the foreign devils". "Suppose", he said, "the great nations of Europe were to put their fleets together, came over here, seize Portland, move on down to Boston, then New York, then Philadelphia, and so on down the Atlantic Coast and around the Gulf of Galveston? Suppose they took possession of these port cities, drove our people into the hinterland, built great warehouses and factories, brought in a body of dissolute agents, and calmly notified our people that henceforward they would manage the commerce of the country? Would we not have a Boxer movement to drive those foreign European Christian devils out of our country?"<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Indian Bengali <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a> attacked the European colonialists.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of Indian soldiers in the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a> sympathised with the cause of the Boxers, and in 1994 the Indian military returned a bell looted by British soldiers in the Temple of Heaven to China.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The events also left a longer impact. Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bickers" title="Robert Bickers">Robert Bickers</a> noted that the Boxer Rebellion served as an equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> for the British government, and agitated the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">Yellow Peril</a> among the British public. He adds that later events like the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> during the 1920s, and even the activities of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a> during the 1960s, were perceived as standing in the shadow of the Boxers.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>History textbooks in Taiwan and Hong Kong often present the Boxer as irrational, but the central government textbooks in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> have described the Boxer movement as an anti-imperialist, patriotic peasant movement that failed by the lack of leadership from the modern working class—and the international army as an invading force. In recent decades, however, large-scale projects of village interviews and explorations of archival sources have led historians in China to take a more nuanced view. Some non-Chinese scholars, such as Joseph Esherick, have seen the movement as anti-imperialist, but others hold that the concept "nationalistic" is anachronistic because the Chinese nation had not been formed, and the Boxers were more concerned with regional issues. Paul Cohen's recent study includes a survey of "the Boxers as myth", which shows how their memory was used in changing ways in 20th-century China from the New Culture Movement to the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997"Part_Three:_The_Boxers_as_Myth",_pp.&nbsp;211–288_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997"Part_Three:_The_Boxers_as_Myth",_pp.&nbsp;211–288-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, the Boxer question has been debated in the People's Republic of China. In 1998, the critical scholar <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yi_(politician)" title="Wang Yi (politician)">Wang Yi</a> argued that the Boxers had features in common with the extremism of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>. Both events had the external goal of "liquidating all harmful pests" and the domestic goal of "eliminating bad elements of all descriptions" and that the relation was rooted in "cultural obscurantism". Wang explained to his readers the changes in attitudes towards the Boxers from the condemnation of the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> to the approval expressed by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> during the Cultural Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Weishi" title="Yuan Weishi">Yuan Weishi</a>, a professor of philosophy at <a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhongshan University">Zhongshan University</a> in Guangzhou, wrote that the Boxers by their "criminal actions brought unspeakable suffering to the nation and its people! These are all facts that everybody knows, and it is a national shame that the Chinese people cannot forget."<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yuan charged that history textbooks had been lacking in neutrality by presenting the Boxer Uprising as a "magnificent feat of patriotism" and not the view that most Boxer rebels were violent.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, some labelled Yuan Weishi a "traitor" (<a href="/wiki/Hanjian" title="Hanjian">Hanjian</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> <p>The name "Boxer Rebellion", concludes <a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Esherick" title="Joseph W. Esherick">Joseph W. Esherick</a>, a contemporary historian, is truly a "misnomer", for the Boxers "never rebelled against the Manchu rulers of China and their Qing dynasty" and the "most common Boxer slogan, throughout the history of the movement, was 'support the Qing, destroy the Foreign,' where 'foreign' clearly meant the foreign religion, Christianity, and its Chinese converts as much as the foreigners themselves". He adds that only after the movement was suppressed by the Allied Intervention did the foreign powers and influential Chinese officials both realise that the Qing would have to remain as the government of China to maintain order and collect taxes to pay the indemnity. Therefore, to save face for the Empress Dowager and the members of the imperial court, all argued that the Boxers were rebels and that the only support which the Boxers received from the imperial court came from a few Manchu princes. Esherick concludes that the origin of the term "rebellion" was "purely political and opportunistic", but it has had a remarkable staying power, particularly in popular accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 6 June 1900, <i>The Times</i> of London used the term "rebellion" in quotation marks, presumably to indicate its view that the rising was actually instigated by Empress Dowager Cixi.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian Lanxin Xiang refers to the uprising as the "so called 'Boxer Rebellion<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>", and he also states that "while peasant rebellion was nothing new in Chinese history, a war against the world's most powerful states was."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=vii_vii–viii_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=vii_vii–viii-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other recent Western works refer to the uprising as the "Boxer Movement", the "Boxer War" or the Yihetuan Movement, while Chinese studies refer to it as the "Yihetuan Movement" (<span lang="zh">义和团运动</span>). In his discussion of the general and legal implications of the terminology involved, the German scholar Thoralf Klein notes that all of the terms, including the Chinese terms, are "posthumous interpretations of the conflict". He argues that each term, whether it be "uprising", "rebellion" or "movement" implies a different definition of the conflict. Even the term "Boxer War", which has frequently been used by scholars in the West, raises questions. Neither side made a formal declaration of war. The imperial edicts on June 21 said that hostilities had begun and directed the regular Chinese army to join the Boxers against the Allied armies. This was a de facto declaration of war. The Allied troops behaved like soldiers who were mounting a punitive expedition in colonial style, rather than soldiers who were waging a declared war with legal constraints. The Allies took advantage of the fact that China had not signed "The Laws and Customs of War on Land", a key document signed at the 1899 <a href="/wiki/Hague_Peace_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Peace Conference">Hague Peace Conference</a>. They argued that China had violated provisions that they themselves ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2008_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2008-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also a difference in terms referring to the combatants. The first reports which came from China in 1898 referred to the village activists as the "Yihequan", (Wade–Giles: I Ho Ch'uan). The earliest use of the term "Boxer" is contained in a letter which was written in Shandong in September 1899 by missionary Grace Newton. The context of the letter makes it clear that when it was written, "Boxer" was already a well-known term, probably coined by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson_Smith" title="Arthur Henderson Smith">Arthur Henderson Smith</a> or Henry Porter, two missionaries who were also residing in Shandong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009223n._1_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009223n._1-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith wrote in his 1902 book that the name:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1901154–155vol._1_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1901154–155vol._1-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">I Ho Ch'üan</i></span> ... literally denotes the "Fists" (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Ch'üan</i></span>) of Righteousness (or Public) (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">I</i></span>) Harmony (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Ho</i></span>), in apparent allusion to the strength of the united force which was to be put forth. As the Chinese phrase "fists and feet" signifies boxing and wrestling, there appeared to be no more suitable term for the adherents of the sect than "Boxers", a designation first used by one or two missionary correspondents of foreign journals in China, and later universally accepted on account of the difficulty of coining a better one.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media_portrayal">Media portrayal</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation,_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.,_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation%2C_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.%2C_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation%2C_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.%2C_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation%2C_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.%2C_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation%2C_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.%2C_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation%2C_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.%2C_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation%2C_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.%2C_1927_-_1981_-_NARA_-_532578.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1967" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/US_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="US Marines">US Marines</a> fight rebellious Boxers outside <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Legation_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="Beijing Legation Quarter">Beijing Legation Quarter</a>, 1900 – copy of painting by Sergeant John Clymer</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/220px-Boxer_Rebellion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/330px-Boxer_Rebellion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Boxer_Rebellion.jpg/440px-Boxer_Rebellion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1301" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>British and Japanese forces engage Boxers in battle</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1900, many new forms of media had matured, including illustrated newspapers and magazines, postcards, broadsides, and advertisements, all of which presented images of the Boxers and the invading armies.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebellion was covered in the foreign illustrated press by artists and photographers. Paintings and prints were also published including Japanese woodblocks.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following decades, the Boxers were a constant subject of comment. A sampling includes: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liu_E_(writer)" title="Liu E (writer)">Liu E</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Lao_Can" title="The Travels of Lao Can">The Travels of Lao Can</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sympathetically shows an honest official trying to carry out reforms and depicts the Boxers as sectarian rebels.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Jianren" title="Wu Jianren">Wu Jianren</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Regret" title="Sea of Regret">Sea of Regret</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> deals with the disintegration of the relationship of a young couple with the Boxer Rebellion in its background.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Moment_in_Peking" title="Moment in Peking">Moment in Peking</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> covers events in China from 1900 to 1938, including the Boxer Rebellion.</li> <li>The 1963 film <i><a href="/wiki/55_Days_at_Peking" title="55 Days at Peking">55 Days at Peking</a></i> directed by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Ray" title="Nicholas Ray">Nicholas Ray</a> and starring <a href="/wiki/Charlton_Heston" title="Charlton Heston">Charlton Heston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ava_Gardner" title="Ava Gardner">Ava Gardner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Niven" title="David Niven">David Niven</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1975, Hong Kong's <a href="/wiki/Shaw_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaw Brothers">Shaw Brothers</a> studio produced the film <i>Boxer Rebellion</i> (<span lang="zh-Hant">八國聯軍</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bāguó liánjūn</span></i>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Pa Kuo lien chun</span></i>; 'Eight-Nation Allied Army') under director <a href="/wiki/Chang_Cheh" title="Chang Cheh">Chang Cheh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Empress_(novel)" title="The Last Empress (novel)">The Last Empress</a></i> (Boston, 2007), by <a href="/wiki/Anchee_Min" title="Anchee Min">Anchee Min</a>, describes the long reign of the <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> in which the siege of the legations is one of the climactic events in the novel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_Yan" title="Mo Yan">Mo Yan</a>'s <i>Sandalwood Death</i>, a novel told from the viewpoint of villagers during the Boxer Uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Luen_Yang" title="Gene Luen Yang">Gene Luen Yang</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Boxers_and_Saints" title="Boxers and Saints">Boxers</a></i>, a piece of <a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">historical fiction</a> written around the event in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Graphic_novel" title="Graphic novel">graphic novel</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gengzi_Guobian_Tanci" title="Gengzi Guobian Tanci">Gengzi Guobian Tanci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Decree_on_events_leading_to_the_signing_of_Boxer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Decree on events leading to the signing of Boxer Protocol">Imperial Decree on events leading to the signing of Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_1900%E2%80%931930_publications_on_the_Boxer_Rebellion" title="List of 1900–1930 publications on the Boxer Rebellion">List of 1900–1930 publications on the Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xishiku_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Xishiku Cathedral">Xishiku Cathedral</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrington200129_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrington2001">Harrington (2001)</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716013130/http://www.veteranmuseum.org/chinarelief.html">"China Relief Expedition (Boxer Rebellion), 1900–1901"</a>. <i>Veterans Museum and Memorial Center</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.veteranmuseum.org/chinarelief.html">the original</a> on 16 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veterans+Museum+and+Memorial+Center&rft.atitle=China+Relief+Expedition+%28Boxer+Rebellion%29%2C+1900%E2%80%931901&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.veteranmuseum.org%2Fchinarelief.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgorshinaPetrova2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Egorshina, O.; Petrova, A. 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Moscow: Edition of the Russian Imperial Library. p. 719. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-699-42397-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-699-42397-2"><bdi>978-5-699-42397-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=719&rft.pub=Edition+of+the+Russian+Imperial+Library&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-5-699-42397-2&rft.aulast=Egorshina&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Petrova%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pronin, Alexander (7 November 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/17953">Война с Желтороссией</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Kommersant" title="Kommersant">Kommersant</a></i>. Retrieved 6 July 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsü1978" class="citation book cs1">Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&q=20%2C000%20russian%20manchuria&pg=PA127">"Late Ch'ing Foreign Relations, 1866–1905"</a>. In Fairbank, John King (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of China</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22029-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22029-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Ch%27ing+Foreign+Relations%2C+1866%E2%80%931905&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22029-3&rft.aulast=Hs%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Immanuel+C.+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpEfWaxPhdnIC%26q%3D20%252C000%2520russian%2520manchuria%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA248_248]-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA248_248]_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiang2003">Xiang (2003)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA248">248</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century</i>. Hammond. 1996. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780843711493" title="Special:BookSources/9780843711493"><bdi>9780843711493</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hammond+Atlas+of+the+20th+Century&rft.pub=Hammond&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780843711493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion">"Boxer Rebellion"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 13 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Boxer+Rebellion&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-09-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FBoxer-Rebellion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbank1983" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank, John King (1983) [1948]. <i>The United States and China</i>. American foreign policy library (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92438-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92438-3"><bdi>978-0-674-92438-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+and+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=American+foreign+policy+library&rft.pages=202&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-674-92438-3&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John+King&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nigel Dalziel, <i>The Penguin Historical Atlas of the British Empire</i> (2006) pp. 102–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew N. Porter, ed. <i>The Imperial Horizons of British Protestant Missions, 1880–1914</i> (Eerdmans, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond2023131_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammond2023">Hammond (2023)</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson20097-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson20097_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA114_114]-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA114_114]_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen1997">Cohen (1997)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&pg=PA114">114</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA54_xii,_54–59,_96,_ff.]-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA54_xii,_54–59,_96,_ff.]_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&pg=PA54">xii, 54–59, 96, ff.</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA114_114]-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA114_114]_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiang2003">Xiang (2003)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA114">114</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen1997_pp._19–20-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen1997_pp._19–20_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen1997">Cohen (1997)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyinthreeke00paul/page/19/mode/1up">19–20</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidky4_whmgIZcCpgPA30_27–30]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidky4_whmgIZcCpgPA30_27–30]_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen1997">Cohen (1997)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ky4_whmgIZcC&pg=PA30">27–30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA115_115]-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlAxresT12ogCpgPA115_115]_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiang2003">Xiang (2003)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA115">115</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurcell2010" class="citation book cs1">Purcell, Victor (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2MeUoD9G9xAC&pg=PA125"><i>The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14812-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14812-2"><bdi>978-0-521-14812-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+Uprising%3A+A+Background+Study&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-14812-2&rft.aulast=Purcell&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2MeUoD9G9xAC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsboxerrebelliondr00dianpage25_25]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsboxerrebelliondr00dianpage25_25]_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPreston2000">Preston (2000)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boxerrebelliondr00dian/page/25">25</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDriscoll2020211_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDriscoll2020">Driscoll (2020)</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickers2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bickers" title="Robert Bickers">Bickers, Robert</a> (2011). <i>The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832–1914</i>. Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scramble+for+China%3A+Foreign+Devils+in+the+Qing+Empire%2C+1832%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bickers&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson20099-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson20099_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick198777-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick198777_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021271-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021271_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuman2021">Schuman (2021)</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021270_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuman2021">Schuman (2021)</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA363_123]-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjVESdBSMasMCpgPA363_123]_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&pg=PA363">123</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–130-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–130_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, pp. 129–130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dallin2013-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dallin2013_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dallin2013_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallin2013" class="citation book cs1">Dallin, David J. (2013). "The Second Drive to the Pacific, Section Port Arthur". <i>The Rise of Russia in Asia</i>. Read Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4733-8257-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4733-8257-2"><bdi>978-1-4733-8257-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Second+Drive+to+the+Pacific%2C+Section+Port+Arthur&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Russia+in+Asia&rft.pub=Read+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4733-8257-2&rft.aulast=Dallin&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaine1996" class="citation book cs1">Paine, S. C. M. 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Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1901. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reportsonmilita01divigoog/page/n585">533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reports+on+Military+Operations+in+South+Africa+and+China&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=533&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1901&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freportsonmilita01divigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaidler2003" class="citation book cs1">Laidler, Keith (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QLPZ7294oSIC&pg=PA221"><i>The Last Empress: The She-Dragon of China</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-86426-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-86426-5"><bdi>0-470-86426-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Empress%3A+The+She-Dragon+of+China&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-470-86426-5&rft.aulast=Laidler&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQLPZ7294oSIC%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTan1967" class="citation book cs1">Tan, Chester C. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_gcOAQAAMAAJ&q=extinction+nation"><i>The Boxer catastrophe</i></a> (Repr. ed.). Octagon. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-97752-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-374-97752-6"><bdi>0-374-97752-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+catastrophe&rft.pages=73&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Octagon&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-374-97752-6&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Chester+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_gcOAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dextinction%2Bnation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor1973" class="citation book cs1">O'Connor, Richard (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4NxAAAAMAAJ&q=extinction+imminent"><i>The Spirit Soldiers: A Historical Narrative of the Boxer Rebellion</i></a> (Illustrated ed.). Putnam. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-11216-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-399-11216-4"><bdi>978-0-399-11216-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+Soldiers%3A+A+Historical+Narrative+of+the+Boxer+Rebellion&rft.pages=85&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Putnam&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-399-11216-4&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP4NxAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dextinction%2Bimminent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tan, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage82_82]-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage82_82]_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgerton1997">Edgerton (1997)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge/page/82">82</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston200287-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston200287_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPreston2002">Preston (2002)</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston200279-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston200279_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPreston2002">Preston (2002)</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2008-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2008_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2008_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlein2008">Klein (2008)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgq1miGno-4CpgPA74_74–75]-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgq1miGno-4CpgPA74_74–75]_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhoads2000">Rhoads (2000)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA74">74–75</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuo2015" class="citation book cs1">Luo, Zhitian (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=avlyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19"><i>Inheritance within Rupture: Culture and Scholarship in Early Twentieth Century China</i></a>. Brill. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28766-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28766-2"><bdi>978-90-04-28766-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inheritance+within+Rupture%3A+Culture+and+Scholarship+in+Early+Twentieth+Century+China&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28766-2&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.aufirst=Zhitian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DavlyBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsü2000395–398-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsü2000395–398_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsü2000">Hsü (2000)</a>, pp. 395–398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTengFairbank1979" class="citation book cs1">Teng, Ssu-yü; Fairbank, John King (1979). <i>China's Response to the West A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923</i>. Vol. 1–2. 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Beijing: Xinhua Bookstore. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17045858">17045858</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qing+shi+gao&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Xinhua+Bookstore&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17045858&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Erxun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121222084857/http://archive.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/ttscgi/ttsquery?0:0:mctauac:TM%3D%B3%5C%B4%BA%BC%E1">"資料連結"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/ttscgi/ttsquery?0:0:mctauac:TM%3D%B3%5C%B4%BA%BC%E1">the original</a> on 22 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E9%80%A3%E7%B5%90&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Fttscgi%2Fttsquery%3F0%3A0%3Amctauac%3ATM%253D%25B3%255C%25B4%25BA%25BC%25E1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayter-Menzies2008" class="citation book cs1">Hayter-Menzies, Grant (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sNPFc7kkjwAC&pg=PA88"><i>Imperial masquerade: the legend of Princess Der Ling</i></a>. 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Hong Kong University Press. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-881-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-881-7"><bdi>978-962-209-881-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Masquerade%3A+The+Legend+of+Princess+Der+Ling&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-962-209-881-7&rft.aulast=Hayter-Menzies&rft.aufirst=Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNPFc7kkjwAC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1959226-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1959226_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1959">Fleming (1959)</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordholtvan_Arkel1970" class="citation book cs1">Nordholt, J. 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Brill. pp. 160–161, 163–164.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acta+Historiae+Neerlandica%3A+Historical+Studies+in+the+Netherlands&rft.pages=160-161%2C+163-164&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcNcUAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225035030/http://www.russojapanesewar.com/boxers.html">"Russojapanesewarweb"</a>. Russojapanesewar.com. 1 July 1902. 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Birlinn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84158-098-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84158-098-2"><bdi>978-1-84158-098-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Siege+at+Peking&rft.pub=Birlinn&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84158-098-2&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtkRyPwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2015" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Ralph L. 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Princeton University Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7884-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7884-0"><bdi>978-1-4008-7884-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rise+of+the+Chinese+Military+Power&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7884-0&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Ralph+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DakXWCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dexample%2520results%2520obtained%2520small%2520regiment%2520commanded%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson200996-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson200996_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoover1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover, Herbert C.</a> (1952). <i>The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover: Years of Adventure 1874–1920</i>. London: Hollis & Carter. pp. 47–54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Memoirs+of+Herbert+Hoover%3A+Years+of+Adventure+1874%E2%80%931920&rft.place=London&rft.pages=47-54&rft.pub=Hollis+%26+Carter&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Hoover&rft.aufirst=Herbert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009130,_138-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009130,_138_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, pp. 130, 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edge_88]-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edge_88]_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgerton1997">Edgerton (1997)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge">88</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5K9BN96p1hcC&pg=PA168">168</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage87_87,_89]-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage87_87,_89]_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgerton1997">Edgerton (1997)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge/page/87">87, 89</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage88_88]-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgerton1997[httpsarchiveorgdetailswarriorsofrising00edgepage88_88]_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgerton1997">Edgerton (1997)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge/page/88">88</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009177-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009177_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1959220–221-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1959220–221_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1959">Fleming (1959)</a>, pp. 220–221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021272–273-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021272–273_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuman2021">Schuman (2021)</a>, pp. 272–273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000253–261-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000253–261_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPreston2000">Preston (2000)</a>, pp. 253–261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLensen1967" class="citation book cs1">Lensen, George Alexander (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HvhEAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Russo-Chinese War</i></a>. Diplomatic Press. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russo-Chinese+War&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Diplomatic+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Lensen&rft.aufirst=George+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvhEAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009184-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009184_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199751-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen199751_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen1997">Cohen (1997)</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987190–191-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987190–191_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, pp. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2007" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Roger R. (2007). "Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre: Culture and Politics in the China War of 1900". In <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bickers" title="Robert Bickers">Bickers, Robert A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/R._G._Tiedemann" title="R. G. Tiedemann">Tiedemann, R. G.</a> (eds.). <i>The Boxers, China, and the World</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 65–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reporting+the+Taiyuan+Massacre%3A+Culture+and+Politics+in+the+China+War+of+1900&rft.btitle=The+Boxers%2C+China%2C+and+the+World&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=65-92&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Roger+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span> Points out that the widely circulated accounts were by people who could not have seen the events, and that these accounts closely followed (often word for word) well-known earlier martyr literature.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiedemann2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._G._Tiedemann" title="R. G. Tiedemann">Tiedemann, R. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qingchao.net/lishi/yihetuan/">the original</a> on 3 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E8%92%99%E6%98%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E4%B8%8E%E4%B9%89%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%A2%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qingchao.net%2Flishi%2Fyihetuan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131319/http://www.bjxch.gov.cn/pub/xch_wenziban/B/xcly/xcly_4/200812/t20081209_1131407.html"><bdi lang="zh">平安里的诞生日就是辉煌了十三代的庄王府覆灭时</bdi></a> (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bjxch.gov.cn/pub/xch_wenziban/B/xcly/xcly_4/200812/t20081209_1131407.html">the original</a> on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%B9%B3%E5%AE%89%E9%87%8C%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%9E%E7%94%9F%E6%97%A5%E5%B0%B1%E6%98%AF%E8%BE%89%E7%85%8C%E4%BA%86%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E5%BA%84%E7%8E%8B%E5%BA%9C%E8%A6%86%E7%81%AD%E6%97%B6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bjxch.gov.cn%2Fpub%2Fxch_wenziban%2FB%2Fxcly%2Fxcly_4%2F200812%2Ft20081209_1131407.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClements1979" class="citation book cs1">Clements, Paul Henry (1979). <i>The Boxer rebellion: a political and diplomatic review</i>. New York: AMS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-51160-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-404-51160-9"><bdi>978-0-404-51160-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+rebellion%3A+a+political+and+diplomatic+review&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-404-51160-9&rft.aulast=Clements&rft.aufirst=Paul+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199755-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen199755_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen1997">Cohen (1997)</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrzetacznik1983" class="citation book cs1">Przetacznik, Franciszek (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaOknKJ3bNgC&pg=PA229"><i>Protection of officials of foreign states according to international law</i></a>. Brill. p. 229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-247-2721-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-247-2721-9"><bdi>90-247-2721-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Protection+of+officials+of+foreign+states+according+to+international+law&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=90-247-2721-9&rft.aulast=Przetacznik&rft.aufirst=Franciszek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyaOknKJ3bNgC%26pg%3DPA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiWxKQejMtlMCpgPA312_312]-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiWxKQejMtlMCpgPA312_312]_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPreston2000">Preston (2000)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iWxKQejMtlMC&pg=PA312">312</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsü2000401,_405,_431-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsü2000401,_405,_431_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsü2000">Hsü (2000)</a>, pp. 401, 405, 431.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhaojin2016" class="citation book cs1">Zhaojin, Ji (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kHKlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75"><i>A History of Modern Shanghai Banking: The Rise and Decline of China's Financial Capitalism</i></a>. Routledge. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47807-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47807-2"><bdi>978-1-317-47807-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Shanghai+Banking%3A+The+Rise+and+Decline+of+China%27s+Financial+Capitalism&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-47807-2&rft.aulast=Zhaojin&rft.aufirst=Ji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkHKlDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901_166-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroomhall1901_166-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroomhall1901">Broomhall (1901)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeylen2004" class="citation book cs1">Heylen, Ann (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WSl5cl_wt24C&pg=PA203"><i>Chronique du Toumet-Ortos: Looking through the Lens of Joseph Van Oost, Missionary in Inner Mongolia (1915–1921)</i></a>. Leuven University Press. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5867-418-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-5867-418-5"><bdi>90-5867-418-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronique+du+Toumet-Ortos%3A+Looking+through+the+Lens+of+Joseph+Van+Oost%2C+Missionary+in+Inner+Mongolia+%281915%E2%80%931921%29&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=90-5867-418-5&rft.aulast=Heylen&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWSl5cl_wt24C%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaveirne2004" class="citation book cs1">Taveirne, Patrick (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2japTNPRNAC&pg=PA539"><i>Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911</i></a>. Leuven University Press. p. 539. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5867-365-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-5867-365-0"><bdi>90-5867-365-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han-Mongol+Encounters+and+Missionary+Endeavors%3A+A+History+of+Scheut+in+Ordos+%28Hetao%29+1874%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=539&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=90-5867-365-0&rft.aulast=Taveirne&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2japTNPRNAC%26pg%3DPA539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaveirne2016" class="citation book cs1">Taveirne, Patrick (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QckaDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211">"Modern ethno-national visions and missionaries from the low countries at China's edge (1865–1948)"</a>. In Maeyer, Jan De; Viaene, Vincent (eds.). <i>World Views and Worldly Wisdom · Visions et expériences du monde: Religion, Ideology and Politics, 1750–2000 · Religion, idéologie et politique, 1750–2000</i>. KADOC-Studies on Religion, Culture and Society. Vol. 17 (Repr. ed.). Leuven University Press. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6270-074-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6270-074-1"><bdi>978-94-6270-074-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modern+ethno-national+visions+and+missionaries+from+the+low+countries+at+China%27s+edge+%281865%E2%80%931948%29&rft.btitle=World+Views+and+Worldly+Wisdom+%C2%B7+Visions+et+exp%C3%A9riences+du+monde%3A+Religion%2C+Ideology+and+Politics%2C+1750%E2%80%932000+%C2%B7+Religion%2C+id%C3%A9ologie+et+politique%2C+1750%E2%80%932000&rft.series=KADOC-Studies+on+Religion%2C+Culture+and+Society&rft.pages=211&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-94-6270-074-1&rft.aulast=Taveirne&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQckaDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaveirne2004" class="citation book cs1">Taveirne, Patrick (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2japTNPRNAC&pg=PA568"><i>Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911</i></a>. Louvain Chinese studies. Vol. 15 (Illustrated ed.). Leuven University Press. p. 568. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5867-365-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-5867-365-0"><bdi>90-5867-365-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han-Mongol+Encounters+and+Missionary+Endeavors%3A+A+History+of+Scheut+in+Ordos+%28Hetao%29+1874%E2%80%931911&rft.series=Louvain+Chinese+studies&rft.pages=568&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=90-5867-365-0&rft.aulast=Taveirne&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2japTNPRNAC%26pg%3DPA568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeaman_Lipman2004" class="citation book cs1">Neaman Lipman, Jonathan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA224"><i>Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-97644-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-97644-6"><bdi>0-295-97644-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Familiar+Strangers%3A+A+History+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-295-97644-6&rft.aulast=Neaman+Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D90CN0vtxdY0C%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181214121754/http://www.360doc.com/content/10/0526/12/1256060_29592130.shtml"><bdi lang="zh">董福祥与西北马家军阀的的故事</bdi></a> (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.360doc.com/content/10/0526/12/1256060_29592130.shtml">the original</a> on 14 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E8%91%A3%E7%A6%8F%E7%A5%A5%E4%B8%8E%E8%A5%BF%E5%8C%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%AE%B6%E5%86%9B%E9%98%80%E7%9A%84%E7%9A%84%E6%95%85%E4%BA%8B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.360doc.com%2Fcontent%2F10%2F0526%2F12%2F1256060_29592130.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hastings1916-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hastings1916_173-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hastings1916_173-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastingsSelbieGray1916" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, James; Selbie, John Alexander; Gray, Louis Herbert (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eEwTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA893"><i>Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics</i></a>. Vol. 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 894. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-06509-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-06509-4"><bdi>978-0-567-06509-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+of+Religion+and+Ethics&rft.pages=894&rft.pub=T.+%26+T.+Clark&rft.date=1916&rft.isbn=978-0-567-06509-4&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Selbie%2C+John+Alexander&rft.au=Gray%2C+Louis+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeEwTAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA893&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202314-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202314_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202314_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammond2023">Hammond (2023)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuman2021273-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuman2021273_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuman2021">Schuman (2021)</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202314–15-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202314–15_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammond2023">Hammond (2023)</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict1996" class="citation book cs1">Benedict, Carol Ann (1996). <i>Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-Century China</i>. Modern China. Vol. 14. Stanford University Press. pp. 107–155. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770048801400201">10.1177/009770048801400201</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2661-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2661-0"><bdi>978-0-8047-2661-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11620272">11620272</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220733020">220733020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bubonic+Plague+in+Nineteenth-Century+China&rft.series=Modern+China&rft.pages=107-155&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770048801400201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220733020%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11620272&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2661-0&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=Carol+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202315-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202315_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammond2023">Hammond (2023)</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaine1996" class="citation book cs1">Paine, S. C. M. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialrivalsch00pain"><i>Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier</i></a></span>. M. E. Sharpe. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialrivalsch00pain/page/217">217</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-724-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56324-724-8"><bdi>978-1-56324-724-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Rivals%3A+China%2C+Russia%2C+and+Their+Disputed+Frontier&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-56324-724-8&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=S.+C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialrivalsch00pain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Woods,_Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Woods, Thomas">Woods, Thomas</a> (7 July 2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lewrockwell.com/woods/woods45.html">Presidential War Powers</a>, <a href="/wiki/LewRockwell.com" class="mw-redirect" title="LewRockwell.com">LewRockwell.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.">Schlesinger, Arthur</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Imperial_Presidency" title="The Imperial Presidency">The Imperial Presidency</a></i> (Popular Library 1974), p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987xiv-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987xiv_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHan2005" class="citation book cs1">Han, Xiaorong (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oxTe1YYZa7MC&pg=PA20"><i>Chinese discourses on the peasant, 1900–1949</i></a>. State University of New York Press. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-6319-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-6319-2"><bdi>0-7914-6319-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+discourses+on+the+peasant%2C+1900%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7914-6319-2&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Xiaorong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoxTe1YYZa7MC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sun Yat-sen, A Letter to the Governor of Hong Kong", quoted in Li Weichao, "Modern Chinese Nationalism and the Boxer Movement", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerr2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Kerr" title="Douglas Kerr">Kerr, Douglas</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I0kvN9LDHP0C&pg=PA151"><i>Critical Zone 3: A Forum of Chinese and Western Knowledge</i></a>. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 149, 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-857-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-857-2"><bdi>978-962-209-857-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Zone+3%3A+A+Forum+of+Chinese+and+Western+Knowledge&rft.pages=149%2C+151&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-962-209-857-2&rft.aulast=Kerr&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI0kvN9LDHP0C%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">顾则徐：清末民初思想领袖评价义和团总览</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHan200559-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHan200559_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHan2005">Han (2005)</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwain2007" class="citation book cs1">Twain, Mark (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhWMWs_7J3UC&pg=PA116"><i>Mark Twain Speeches</i></a>. BiblioBazaar. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4346-7879-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4346-7879-9"><bdi>978-1-4346-7879-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mark+Twain+Speeches&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=BiblioBazaar&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4346-7879-9&rft.aulast=Twain&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdhWMWs_7J3UC%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlin1960" class="citation book cs1">Chamberlin, William Henry (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k1_iAAAAMAAJ&q=he+praised+the+Chinese+for+their+heroic+patience.+When+he+learned+about+the+%22orgy+of+murder,+raping,+and+looting%22+committed+by+the+Western+powers+in+quelling+the+Boxer+rebellion,+he+raged+against+the+brutality+of+the+Christians"><i>The Russian review, Volume 19</i></a>. Blackwell. p. 115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+review%2C+Volume+19&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Chamberlin&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk1_iAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dhe%2Bpraised%2Bthe%2BChinese%2Bfor%2Btheir%2Bheroic%2Bpatience.%2BWhen%2Bhe%2Blearned%2Babout%2Bthe%2B%2522orgy%2Bof%2Bmurder%2C%2Braping%2C%2Band%2Blooting%2522%2Bcommitted%2Bby%2Bthe%2BWestern%2Bpowers%2Bin%2Bquelling%2Bthe%2BBoxer%2Brebellion%2C%2Bhe%2Braged%2Bagainst%2Bthe%2Bbrutality%2Bof%2Bthe%2BChristians&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. I. Lenin, "The War in China", <i>Iskra</i>, No. 1 (December 1900), in <i>Lenin Collected Works</i> (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1964), Volume 4, pp. 372–377, online <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1900/dec/china.htm">Marxists Internet Archive</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLensenChʻen1982" class="citation book cs1">Lensen, George Alexander; Chʻen, Fang-chih (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ehhSAQAAIAAJ&q=midst+confidently+blemish+The+Russo-Chinese+War:+Chinese"><i>The Russo-Chinese War</i></a>. p. 103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russo-Chinese+War&rft.pages=103&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Lensen&rft.aufirst=George+Alexander&rft.au=Ch%CA%BBen%2C+Fang-chih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DehhSAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dmidst%2Bconfidently%2Bblemish%2BThe%2BRusso-Chinese%2BWar%3A%2BChinese&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenin" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin, Vladimir</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/russkij/lenin/works/9-21.htm"><bdi lang="ru">В. И. Ленин. О боевом соглашении для восстания</bdi></a> (in Russian) – via marxists.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%92.+%D0%98.+%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD.+%D0%9E+%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.aulast=Lenin&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Frusskij%2Flenin%2Fworks%2F9-21.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1912/02/11/archives/america-not-a-christian-nation-says-dr-pentecost.html">"America Not A Christian Nation, Says Dr. Pentecost"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 11 February 1912. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210822/https://www.nytimes.com/1912/02/11/archives/america-not-a-christian-nation-says-dr-pentecost.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=America+Not+A+Christian+Nation%2C+Says+Dr.+Pentecost&rft.date=1912-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1912%2F02%2F11%2Farchives%2Famerica-not-a-christian-nation-says-dr-pentecost.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickers2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bickers" title="Robert Bickers">Bickers, Robert A.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jxgZT6XJUIoC&pg=PA149"><i>The Boxers, China, and the World</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5395-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5395-8"><bdi>978-0-7425-5395-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxers%2C+China%2C+and+the+World&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5395-8&rft.aulast=Bickers&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjxgZT6XJUIoC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnan2011" class="citation news cs1">Krishnan, Ananth (7 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/the-forgotten-history-of-indian-troops-in-china/article2208018.ece">"The forgotten history of Indian troops in China"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. Beijing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=The+forgotten+history+of+Indian+troops+in+China&rft.date=2011-07-07&rft.aulast=Krishnan&rft.aufirst=Ananth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffriday-review%2Fhistory-and-culture%2Fthe-forgotten-history-of-indian-troops-in-china%2Farticle2208018.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickers1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bickers" title="Robert Bickers">Bickers, Robert</a> (1999). <i>Britain in China: Community, Culture, and Colonialism, 1900–1949</i>. Manchester University Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4697-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-4697-1"><bdi>0-7190-4697-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+in+China%3A+Community%2C+Culture%2C+and+Colonialism%2C+1900%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7190-4697-1&rft.aulast=Bickers&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1997"Part_Three:_The_Boxers_as_Myth",_pp.&nbsp;211–288-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen1997"Part_Three:_The_Boxers_as_Myth",_pp.&nbsp;211–288_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCohen1997">Cohen (1997)</a>, "Part Three: The Boxers as Myth", pp. 211–288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang Yi, "The Cultural Origins of the Boxer Movement's Obscurantism and Its Influence on the Cultural Revolution", in <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Kerr" title="Douglas Kerr">Douglas Kerr</a>, ed., <i>Critical Zone Three</i>. (Hong Kong University Press), 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20060126_1.htm">"History Textbooks in China"</a>. Eastsouthwestnorth<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=History+Textbooks+in+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zonaeuropa.com%2F20060126_1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPan2006" class="citation news cs1">Pan, Philip P. (25 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/24/AR2006012401003.html">"Leading Publication Shut Down in China"</a>. Washington Post Foreign Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Leading+Publication+Shut+Down+in+China&rft.date=2006-01-25&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=Philip+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F01%2F24%2FAR2006012401003.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060308103607/http://www.snzg.com.cn/readnews.asp?newsid=1082"><bdi lang="zh">网友评论：评中山大学袁时伟的汉奸言论和混蛋逻辑_三农之外_关注现实_中国三农问题研究中心</bdi></a> (in Chinese). 8 March 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snzg.com.cn/readnews.asp?newsid=1082">the original</a> on 8 March 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E7%BD%91%E5%8F%8B%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA%EF%BC%9A%E8%AF%84%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E8%A2%81%E6%97%B6%E4%BC%9F%E7%9A%84%E6%B1%89%E5%A5%B8%E8%A8%80%E8%AE%BA%E5%92%8C%E6%B7%B7%E8%9B%8B%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91_%E4%B8%89%E5%86%9C%E4%B9%8B%E5%A4%96_%E5%85%B3%E6%B3%A8%E7%8E%B0%E5%AE%9E_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%89%E5%86%9C%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83&rft.date=2006-03-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.snzg.com.cn%2Freadnews.asp%3Fnewsid%3D1082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Esherick p. xiv. Esherick notes that many textbooks and secondary accounts followed Victor Purcell, <i>The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study</i> (1963) in seeing a shift from an early anti-dynastic movement to pro-dynastic, but that the "flood of publications" from Taiwan and the People's Republic (including both documents from the time and oral histories conducted in the 1950s) has shown this not to be the case. xv–xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane Elliot, <i>Some Did It for Civilisation</i>", p. 9, 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=vii_vii–viii-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXiang2003https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=vii_vii–viii_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXiang2003">Xiang (2003)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=vii">https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=vii</a> vii–viii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2009223n._1-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson2009223n._1_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2009">Thompson (2009)</a>, p. 223, n. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1901154–155vol._1-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1901154–155vol._1_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1901">Smith (1901)</a>, pp. 154–155, vol. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdueSebring2011" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Perdue, Peter; Sebring, Ellen (14 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://video.mit.edu/watch/mit-visualizing-cultures-visualizing-the-boxer-uprising-10054/"><i>Visualizing the Boxer Uprising: A Kaleidoscopic View</i></a>. MIT Visualizing Cultures. <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visualizing+the+Boxer+Uprising%3A+A+Kaleidoscopic+View&rft.series=MIT+Visualizing+Cultures&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=2011-03-14&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Sebring%2C+Ellen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.mit.edu%2Fwatch%2Fmit-visualizing-cultures-visualizing-the-boxer-uprising-10054%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharfHarrington2000" class="citation book cs1">Sharf, Frederic A.; Harrington, Peter (2000). <i>China 1900: The Artists' Perspective</i>. London: Greenhill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85367-409-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85367-409-5"><bdi>1-85367-409-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+1900%3A+The+Artists%27+Perspective&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Greenhill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-85367-409-5&rft.aulast=Sharf&rft.aufirst=Frederic+A.&rft.au=Harrington%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu1990" class="citation book cs1">Liu, E (1990) [1907]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/travelsoflaotsan0000liue"><i>The Travels of Lao Ts'an</i></a></span>. Translated by Shaddick, Harold. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07255-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07255-7"><bdi>978-0-231-07255-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Travels+of+Lao+Ts%27an&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-231-07255-7&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftravelsoflaotsan0000liue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span>. A 1983 translation by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang is abridged and is missing some of the Boxer-related material.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/the-sea-of-regret-two-turn-of-the-century-chinese-romantic-novels/">"The Sea of Regret: Two Turn-of-the-Century Chinese Romantic Novels"</a>. <i>UH Press</i>. 25 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UH+Press&rft.atitle=The+Sea+of+Regret%3A+Two+Turn-of-the-Century+Chinese+Romantic+Novels&rft.date=2020-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuhpress.hawaii.edu%2Ftitle%2Fthe-sea-of-regret-two-turn-of-the-century-chinese-romantic-novels%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYutang1939" class="citation book cs1">Yutang, Lin (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6393690M/Moment_in_Peking"><i>Moment in Peking: a novel of contemporary Chinese life</i></a>. New York: J. Day Co. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6393690M">6393690M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moment+in+Peking%3A+a+novel+of+contemporary+Chinese+life.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=J.+Day+Co.&rft.date=1939&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6393690M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Yutang&rft.aufirst=Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6393690M%2FMoment_in_Peking&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0056800/"><i>55 Days at Peking</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkflix.com/xq/asp/filmID.533288/qx/details.htm">"HKflix"</a>. HKflix<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HKflix&rft.pub=HKflix&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hkflix.com%2Fxq%2Fasp%2FfilmID.533288%2Fqx%2Fdetails.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMo2013" class="citation book cs1">Mo, Yan (2013). <i>Sandalwood Death</i>. Translated by Goldblatt, Howard. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-4339-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-4339-2"><bdi>978-0-8061-4339-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sandalwood+Death&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-4339-2&rft.aulast=Mo&rft.aufirst=Yan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroomhall1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Broomhall" title="Marshall Broomhall">Broomhall, Marshall</a> (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/martyredmission00broogoog"><i>Martyred Missionaries of The China Inland Mission; With a Record of the Perils and Sufferings of Some Who Escaped</i></a>. London: Morgan & Scott.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martyred+Missionaries+of+The+China+Inland+Mission%3B+With+a+Record+of+the+Perils+and+Sufferings+of+Some+Who+Escaped&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Morgan+%26+Scott&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Broomhall&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmartyredmission00broogoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang1956" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Yin-t'ang (1956). <i>A Regional handbook on Northeast China</i>. University of Washington. Seattle: The Institute. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30731011">30731011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Regional+handbook+on+Northeast+China&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=The+Institute&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30731011&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Yin-t%27ang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1997" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Paul A. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyinthreeke00paul"><i>History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth</i></a></span> (Revised ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10651-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10651-1"><bdi>978-0-231-10651-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+in+Three+Keys%3A+The+Boxers+as+Event%2C+Experience%2C+and+Myth&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-231-10651-1&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryinthreeke00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConger1909" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Pike_Conger" title="Sarah Pike Conger">Conger, Sarah Pike</a> (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bdQMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12-IA1"><i>Letters from China with Particular Reference to the Empress Dowager and the Women of China</i></a> (2nd ed.). Chicago: A. C. McClurg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+from+China+with+Particular+Reference+to+the+Empress+Dowager+and+the+Women+of+China&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=A.+C.+McClurg&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Conger&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Pike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbdQMAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA12-IA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriscoll2020" class="citation book cs1">Driscoll, Mark W. (2020). <i>The Whites Are Enemies of Heaven: Climate Caucasianism and Asian Ecological Protection</i>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1931h82">10.2307/j.ctv1931h82</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-1016-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-1016-6"><bdi>978-1-4780-1016-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1931h82">j.ctv1931h82</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229542406">229542406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Whites+Are+Enemies+of+Heaven%3A+Climate+Caucasianism+and+Asian+Ecological+Protection&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv1931h82&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229542406%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv1931h82%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-4780-1016-6&rft.aulast=Driscoll&rft.aufirst=Mark+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2002" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Jane E. (2002). <i>Some Did It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country: A Revised View of the Boxer War</i>. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-201-973-0" title="Special:BookSources/962-201-973-0"><bdi>962-201-973-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Did+It+for+Civilisation%2C+Some+Did+It+for+Their+Country%3A+A+Revised+View+of+the+Boxer+War&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=962-201-973-0&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Jane+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton1997" class="citation book cs1">Edgerton, Robert B. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge"><i>Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military</i></a></span> (Illustrated ed.). W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04085-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04085-2"><bdi>0-393-04085-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warriors+of+the+Rising+Sun%3A+A+History+of+the+Japanese+Military&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-393-04085-2&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarriorsofrising00edge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsherick1987" class="citation book cs1">Esherick, Joseph W. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofboxerup00jose"><i>The Origins of the Boxer Uprising</i></a></span>. U of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06459-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06459-3"><bdi>0-520-06459-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Boxer+Uprising&rft.pub=U+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-520-06459-3&rft.aulast=Esherick&rft.aufirst=Joseph+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofboxerup00jose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&q=Secondary%20devils">Excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fleming_(writer)" title="Peter Fleming (writer)">Fleming, Peter</a> (1959). <i>The Siege at Peking</i>. New York: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88029-462-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88029-462-0"><bdi>0-88029-462-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Siege+at+Peking&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=0-88029-462-0&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond2023" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Ken (2023). <i>China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future</i>. New York: 1804 Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7368500-8-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7368500-8-4"><bdi>978-1-7368500-8-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Revolution+and+the+Quest+for+a+Socialist+Future&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=1804+Books&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-7368500-8-4&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrington2001" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, Peter (2001). <i>Peking 1900: The Boxer Rebellion</i>. Oxford: Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-181-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-181-8"><bdi>1-84176-181-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peking+1900%3A+The+Boxer+Rebellion&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-84176-181-8&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsü2000" class="citation book cs1">Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofmodernchin0000hsui_n1k6/page/480/mode/2up">"The Boxer Uprising, 1900"</a></span>. <i>The Rise of Modern China</i> (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 387–407. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512504-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512504-7"><bdi>978-0-19-512504-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Boxer+Uprising%2C+1900&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Modern+China&rft.pages=387-407&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512504-7&rft.aulast=Hs%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Immanuel+C.+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofmodernchin0000hsui_n1k6%2Fpage%2F480%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2008" class="citation journal cs1">Klein, Thoralf (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/boxer-war-boxer-uprising">"The Boxer War-the Boxer Uprising"</a>. <i>Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Online+Encyclopedia+of+Mass+Violence&rft.atitle=The+Boxer+War-the+Boxer+Uprising&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Thoralf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Ffr%2Fdocument%2Fboxer-war-boxer-uprising&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonhard" class="citation web cs1">Leonhard, Robert R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161206044959/http://www.jhuapl.edu/ourwork/nsa/papers/China%20ReliefSm.pdf">"The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jhuapl.edu/ourwork/nsa/papers/China%20ReliefSm.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+China+Relief+Expedition+Joint+Coalition+Warfare+in+China+Summer+1900&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Applied+Physics+Laboratory&rft.aulast=Leonhard&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jhuapl.edu%2Fourwork%2Fnsa%2Fpapers%2FChina%2520ReliefSm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell1955" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Ralph (1955). <i>The Rise of Chinese Military Power 1895–1912</i>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Chinese+Military+Power+1895%E2%80%931912&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPreston2000" class="citation book cs1">Preston, Diana (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boxerrebelliondr00dian"><i>The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900</i></a></span>. New York: Walker. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-1361-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8027-1361-0"><bdi>0-8027-1361-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+Rebellion%3A+The+Dramatic+Story+of+China%27s+War+on+Foreigners+That+Shook+the+World+in+the+Summer+of+1900&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Walker&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8027-1361-0&rft.aulast=Preston&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboxerrebelliondr00dian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPreston2002" class="citation book cs1">Preston, Diana (2002). <i>A Brief History of the Boxer Rebellion</i>. Robinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84119-490-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84119-490-5"><bdi>978-1-84119-490-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Boxer+Rebellion&rft.pub=Robinson&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-84119-490-5&rft.aulast=Preston&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation book cs1">Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). <i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-99748-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-99748-3"><bdi>978-0-295-99748-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-295-99748-3&rft.aulast=Rhoads&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoarkJohnsonFurstenburgCline_Cohen2020" class="citation book cs1">Roark, James L.; Johnson, Michael P.; Furstenburg, Francois; Cline Cohen, Patricia; Hartmann, Susan M.; Stage, Sarah; Igo, Sarah E. (2020). "Dissent, Depression, and War: 1890–1900". <i>The American Promise: A History of the United States</i> (8th ed.). Boston: Bedford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-319-20892-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-319-20892-9"><bdi>978-1-319-20892-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dissent%2C+Depression%2C+and+War%3A+1890%E2%80%931900&rft.btitle=The+American+Promise%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Bedford&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-319-20892-9&rft.aulast=Roark&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Michael+P.&rft.au=Furstenburg%2C+Francois&rft.au=Cline+Cohen%2C+Patricia&rft.au=Hartmann%2C+Susan+M.&rft.au=Stage%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Igo%2C+Sarah+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuman2021" class="citation book cs1">Schuman, Michael (2021). <i>Superpower Interrupted: The Chinese History of the World</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/PublicAffairs" title="PublicAffairs">PublicAffairs</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5417-8833-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5417-8833-6"><bdi>978-1-5417-8833-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superpower+Interrupted%3A+The+Chinese+History+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5417-8833-6&rft.aulast=Schuman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson_Smith" title="Arthur Henderson Smith">Smith, Arthur Henderson</a> (1901). <i>China in Convulsion</i>. New York: F. H. Revell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+Convulsion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=F.+H.+Revell&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Henderson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.47661">Volume I</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinainconvulsio02smituoft">volume II</a>. An account of the Boxers and the siege by a missionary who had lived in a North China village.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence2012" class="citation book cs1">Spence, Jonathan (2012) [1990]. <i>The Search for Modern China</i> (3rd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. pp. 230–235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93451-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-93451-9"><bdi>978-0-393-93451-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+Modern+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=230-235&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-393-93451-9&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2009" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Larry Clinton (2009). <i>William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the "Ideal Missionary"</i>. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-78645-338-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-78645-338-2"><bdi>978-0-78645-338-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Scott+Ament+and+the+Boxer+Rebellion%3A+Heroism%2C+Hubris%2C+and+the+%22Ideal+Missionary%22&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-78645-338-2&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Larry+Clinton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiang2003" class="citation book cs1">Xiang, Lanxin (2003). <i>The Origins of the Boxer War: A Multinational Study</i>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1563-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1563-0"><bdi>0-7007-1563-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Boxer+War%3A+A+Multinational+Study&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7007-1563-0&rft.aulast=Xiang&rft.aufirst=Lanxin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_accounts_and_analysis">General accounts and analysis</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickersTiedemann2007" class="citation book cs1">Bickers, Robert A.; Tiedemann, R. G., eds. (2007). <i>The Boxers, China, and the world</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5394-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5394-1"><bdi>978-0-7425-5394-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxers%2C+China%2C+and+the+world&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5394-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bickers, Robert A. (2011). <i>The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1800–1914</i>. London: Allen Lane. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalasiaticsociety.org.cn/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/RAS.Journal2013.pdf#page=342">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220508031709/http://www.royalasiaticsociety.org.cn/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/RAS.Journal2013.pdf#page=342">Archived</a> 8 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Buck, David D. (1987). "Recent Studies of the Boxer Movement", <i>Chinese Studies in History</i> 20. Introduction to a special issue of the journal devoted to translations of recent research on the Boxers in the People's Republic.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Harrison" title="Henrietta Harrison">Harrison, Henrietta</a> (September 2000). "Justice on Behalf of Heaven". <i>History Today</i>, 50(9), pp. 44–51 (online).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnüsel2017" class="citation journal cs1">Knüsel, Ariane (2017). "Facing the Dragon: Teaching the Boxer Uprising Through Cartoons". <i>The History Teacher</i>. <b>50</b> (2): 201–226. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2745">0018-2745</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44504479">44504479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+History+Teacher&rft.atitle=Facing+the+Dragon%3A+Teaching+the+Boxer+Uprising+Through+Cartoons&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=201-226&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44504479%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0018-2745&rft.aulast=Kn%C3%BCsel&rft.aufirst=Ariane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShan2018" class="citation book cs1">Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). <i>Yuan Shikai: a reappraisal</i>. Contemporary Chinese studies. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-3778-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-3778-1"><bdi>978-0-7748-3778-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yuan+Shikai%3A+a+reappraisal&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.series=Contemporary+Chinese+studies&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-3778-1&rft.aulast=Shan&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Fuliang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purcell,_Victor" class="mw-redirect" title="Purcell, Victor">Purcell, Victor</a> (1963). <i>The Boxer Uprising: A background study</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98893258">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226134529/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98893258">Archived</a> 26 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Wu, Jiarui (2022). "Ramifications of Two Divergent Paths: A Comparative Study of 1900 and 2020 Crises in China". <i>Advances in Historical Studies</i> 11(1), pp. 1–14 (online).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Xu, Guangqiu (2012). "Eight Foreign Armies Invasion of China". In Li, Xiaobing (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jhPyvsdymU8C"><i>China at War: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-415-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-415-3"><bdi>978-1-59884-415-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eight+Foreign+Armies+Invasion+of+China&rft.btitle=China+at+War%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-415-3&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Guangqiu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjhPyvsdymU8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missionary_experience_and_personal_accounts">Missionary experience and personal accounts</h3></div> <ul><li>Bell, P.; Clements, R. (2014). <i>Lives from a Black Tin Box</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86024-931-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86024-931-0">978-1-86024-931-0</a> The story of the Xinzhou martyrs, Shanxi Province.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt1994" class="citation book cs1">Brandt, Nat (1994). <i>Massacre in Shansi</i>. Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0282-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0282-8"><bdi>978-0-8156-0282-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Massacre+in+Shansi&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-0282-8&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Nat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2015" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Anthony E. (2015). <i>Heaven in conflict: Franciscans and the Boxer uprising in Shanxi</i>. Seattle: University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-99400-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-99400-0"><bdi>978-0-295-99400-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heaven+in+conflict%3A+Franciscans+and+the+Boxer+uprising+in+Shanxi&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-295-99400-0&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Anthony+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hsia, R. Po-chia (2018). "Christianity and Empire: The Catholic Mission in Late Imperial China". <i>Studies in Church History</i> 54, pp. 208–224.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriceFelsing1989" class="citation book cs1">Price, Eva J.; Felsing, Robert H., eds. (1989). <i>China journal: 1889–1900; an american missionary family during the boxer rebellion</i>. New York: Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-18951-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-18951-2"><bdi>978-0-684-18951-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+journal%3A+1889%E2%80%931900%3B+an+american+missionary+family+during+the+boxer+rebellion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-684-18951-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalvago_Raggi2019" class="citation book cs1">Salvago Raggi, Giuseppe (2019). <i>The Only Man Dressing for Dinner</i>. Verona: Gingko Edizioni.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Only+Man+Dressing+for+Dinner&rft.place=Verona&rft.pub=Gingko+Edizioni&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Salvago+Raggi&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharfHarrington2000" class="citation book cs1">Sharf, Frederic A.; Harrington, Peter (2000). <i>China, 1900: the eyewitnesses speak: the experience of Westerners in China during the Boxer Rebellion, as described by participants in letters, diaries and photographs</i>. Stackpole. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-410-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-410-5"><bdi>978-1-85367-410-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%2C+1900%3A+the+eyewitnesses+speak%3A+the+experience+of+Westerners+in+China+during+the+Boxer+Rebellion%2C+as+described+by+participants+in+letters%2C+diaries+and+photographs&rft.pub=Stackpole&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85367-410-5&rft.aulast=Sharf&rft.aufirst=Frederic+A.&rft.au=Harrington%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharfHarrington2000" class="citation book cs1">Sharf, Frederic A.; Harrington, Peter (2000). <i>The Boxer Rebellion: China, 1900: the artists' perspective</i>. Stackpole. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-409-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-409-9"><bdi>978-1-85367-409-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+Rebellion%3A+China%2C+1900%3A+the+artists%27+perspective&rft.pub=Stackpole&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85367-409-9&rft.aulast=Sharf&rft.aufirst=Frederic+A.&rft.au=Harrington%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiedemann1998" class="citation journal cs1">Tiedemann, R.G. (1998). "Boxers, Christians and the culture of violence in north China". <i>Journal of Peasant Studies</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 150–160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03066159808438688">10.1080/03066159808438688</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0306-6150">0306-6150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Peasant+Studies&rft.atitle=Boxers%2C+Christians+and+the+culture+of+violence+in+north+China&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=150-160&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03066159808438688&rft.issn=0306-6150&rft.aulast=Tiedemann&rft.aufirst=R.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tiedemann, R. G. (2009). <i>Reference Guide to Christian Missionary Societies in China: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century</i>. East Gate Books.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allied_intervention,_the_Boxer_War,_and_the_aftermath"><span id="Allied_intervention.2C_the_Boxer_War.2C_and_the_aftermath"></span>Allied intervention, the Boxer War, and the aftermath</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodinWarner1979" class="citation book cs1">Bodin, Lynn E.; Warner, Christopher (1979). <i>The Boxer Rebellion</i>. Men-at-arms series. Vol. 95. London: Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-335-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-335-5"><bdi>978-0-85045-335-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+Rebellion&rft.place=London&rft.series=Men-at-arms+series&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-85045-335-5&rft.aulast=Bodin&rft.aufirst=Lynn+E.&rft.au=Warner%2C+Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hevia, James L. (1992). "Leaving a Brand on China: Missionary Discourse in the Wake of the Boxer Movement". <i>Modern China</i> 18(3), pp. 304–332.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHevia2003" class="citation book cs1">Hevia, James Louis (2003). "A Reign of Terror: Punishment and Retribution in Beijing and its Environs". <i>English lessons: the pedagogy of imperialism in nineteenth-century China</i>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 195–240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3151-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3151-3"><bdi>978-0-8223-3151-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Reign+of+Terror%3A+Punishment+and+Retribution+in+Beijing+and+its+Environs&rft.btitle=English+lessons%3A+the+pedagogy+of+imperialism+in+nineteenth-century+China&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=195-240&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3151-3&rft.aulast=Hevia&rft.aufirst=James+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hunt, Michael H. (1972). "The American Remission of the Boxer Indemnity: A Reappraisal". <i>Journal of Asian Studies</i> 31 (Spring 1972), pp. 539–559.</li> <li>Hunt, Michael H. (1979). "The Forgotten Occupation: Peking, 1900–1901". <i>Pacific Historical Review</i>, 48(4, November 1979), pp. 501–529.</li> <li>Langer, William (1950). <i>The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902</i>, 2nd ed. pp. 677–709. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.237701/page/677/mode/1up">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_accounts_and_sources">Contemporary accounts and sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Edwards, E. H. (1903). <i>Fire and Sword in Shansi: The Story of the Martyrdom of Foreigners and Chinese Christians</i>. New York: Revell.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Der_Ling" title="Princess Der Ling">Der Ling, Princess</a> (1928). <i>Old Buddha</i>. Dodd, Mead & Company. Chapters XXXII–XXXVIII.</li> <li>Headland, Isaac Taylor (1902). <i>Chinese Heroes; Being a Record of Persecutions Endured by Native Christians in the Boxer Uprising</i>. New York / Cincinnati: Eaton & Mains / Jennings & Pye.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Henry_Savage_Landor" title="Arnold Henry Savage Landor">Landor, Arnold Henry Savage</a> (1901). <i>China and the Allies</i>. New York: Scribner's.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loti,_Pierre" class="mw-redirect" title="Loti, Pierre">Loti, Pierre</a> (1902). <i>The Last Days of Pekin</i>. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Translation (from French) of <i>Les Derniers Jours de Pékin</i> (1900); Paris: Lévy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._A._P._Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="W. A. P. Martin">Martin, W. A. P.</a> (1900). <i>The Siege in Peking – China against the World</i>. New York: F. H. Revell.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMateer1903" class="citation book cs1">Mateer, Ada Haven (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100330953"><i>Siege Days: Personal Experiences of American Women and Children during the Peking Siege</i></a>. New York: F. H. Revell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siege+Days%3A+Personal+Experiences+of+American+Women+and+Children+during+the+Peking+Siege&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=F.+H.+Revell&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Mateer&rft.aufirst=Ada+Haven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F100330953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABoxer+Rebellion" class="Z3988"></span>. Includes interviews and selections from newspaper and magazine first person accounts.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bertram_Lenox_Simpson" title="Bertram Lenox Simpson">Putnam Weale (Simpson), Bertram Lenox</a> (1907). <i>Indiscreet Letters from Peking: Being the Notes of an Eyewitness, Which Set Forth in Some Detail, from Day to Day, the Real Story of the Siege and Sack of a Distressed Capital in 1900 – The Year of Great Tribulation</i>. Dodd, Mead & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Salvago_Raggi" title="Giuseppe Salvago Raggi">Raggi, Giuseppe Salvago</a> (2019 [1900]). <i>The Only Man Dressing for Dinner: Beijing 1900</i>. Verona: Gingko. An account by the Italian Minister in Peking.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Boxer_Rebellion" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081222222444/http://web.wm.edu/news/archive/index.php?id=4174">Lost in the Gobi Desert: Hart retraces great-grandfather's footsteps</a>, William & Mary News Story, 3 January 2005.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/coll/item/2004676390/">200 Photographs in Library of Congress online Collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.lib.washington.edu/chandlessweb/index.html">University of Washington Library's Digital Collections – Robert Henry Chandless Photographs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/proceedingstent00berngoog">Proceedings of the Tenth Universal Peace Congress, 1901</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/24300962@N02/sets/72157622801656702/">Pictures from the Siege of Peking</a>, from the Caldwell Kvaran archives</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1900Loti-peking.html">Eyewitness account: When the Allies Entered Peking, 1900</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814205027/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1900Loti-peking.html">Archived</a> 14 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, an excerpt of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Loti" title="Pierre Loti">Pierre Loti</a>'s <i>Les Derniers Jours de Pékin</i> (1902).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130202044351/http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/boxer/index.html">Documents of the Boxer Rebellion (China Relief Expedition), 1900–1901</a> National Museum of the U.S. Navy (Selected Naval Documents).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a><br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Colonial_conflicts_involving_the_English/British_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:British_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:British colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:British_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:British colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:British_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:British colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Colonial_conflicts_involving_the_English/British_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonial conflicts involving the <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a>/<a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Ireland</a> (1593–1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Virginia</a> (1609–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Swally" title="Battle of Swally">Swally</a> (1612)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_capture_of_Ormuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Persian capture of Ormuz">Ormuz</a> (1622)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_Genocide_of_1626" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinago Genocide of 1626">Saint Kitts</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_17_July_1628" title="Action of 17 July 1628">Quebec</a> (1628)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a> (1634–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">Irish Rebellion</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Confederate War</a> (1641–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a> (1649–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Acadians#English_colony_(1654–1667)" title="History of the Acadians">Acadia</a> (1654–67)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1654%E2%80%931660)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)">Anglo-Spanish War</a> (1654–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Maroon_War" title="First Maroon War">Jamaica</a> (1655–1739)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangier_(1662)" title="Battle of Tangier (1662)">1st Tangier</a> (1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangier_(1664)" title="Battle of Tangier (1664)">2nd Tangier</a> (1664)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a> (1675–78)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mughal_War_(1686%E2%80%931690)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)">Child's War</a> (1686–90)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_War" title="Anglo-Siamese War">Siam</a> (1687)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War</a> (1688–91)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a> (1688–97)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komenda_Wars" title="Komenda Wars">Ghana</a> (1694–1700)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a> (1702–13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a> (1711–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a> (1715–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Father Rale's War/Dummer's War</a> (1722–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a> (1740–42)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a> (1744–48)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">Carnatic Wars</a> (1746–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Nova Scotia</a> (1749–55)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> (1754–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War" title="Great Britain in the Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a> (1756–65)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Cherokee_War" title="Anglo-Cherokee War">Anglo-Cherokee War</a> (1758–61)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacky%27s_Revolt" title="Tacky's Revolt">Jamaica</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1762%E2%80%931763)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1762–1763)">Anglo-Spanish War</a> (1762–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a> (1763–66)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_Movement_in_North_Carolina" title="Regulator Movement in North Carolina">Regulator Movement in North Carolina</a> (1765–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carib_War" title="First Carib War">First Carib War</a> (1769–73)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Rohilla_War" title="First Rohilla War">Rohilkhand</a> (1773–74)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a> (1774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–83)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First Anglo-Maratha War</a> (1775–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Second Anglo-Mysore War">Second Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1779–84)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley%27s_Gold_Coast_expedition" title="Shirley's Gold Coast expedition">Gold Coast</a> (1781–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Radharam" title="Revolt of Radharam">Assam</a> (1786)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">Australian frontier wars</a> (1788–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Crisis" title="Nootka Crisis">Nootka Sound</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Third Anglo-Mysore War">Third Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1789–92)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotiote_War" title="Cotiote War">Cotiote (Wayanad) War</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Rohilla_War" title="Second Rohilla War">Rohilkhand</a> (1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Cape_Colony" title="Invasion of the Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Maroon_War" title="Second Maroon War">Jamaica</a> (1795–96)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9don%27s_rebellion" title="Fédon's rebellion">Grenada</a> (1795–96)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Ceylon" title="Invasion of Ceylon">Ceylon</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandyan_Wars" title="Kandyan Wars">Kandyan Wars</a> (1796–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Siege of Malta (1798–1800)">Malta</a> (1798–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1798–99)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dwyer#Guerilla_campaign" title="Michael Dwyer">Dwyer's guerrilla campaign</a> (1799–1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygar_Wars" title="Polygar Wars">Polygar Wars</a> (1799–1805)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Irish_Uprising_in_Newfoundland" title="United Irish Uprising in Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> (1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second Anglo-Maratha War</a> (1803–05)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle_Hill_convict_rebellion" title="Castle Hill convict rebellion">Castle Hill convict rebellion</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Surinam_(1804)" title="Invasion of Surinam (1804)">Surinam</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaauwberg" title="Battle of Blaauwberg">Cape Colony</a> (1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_River_Plate" title="British invasions of the River Plate">Río de la Plata</a> (1806–07)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_expedition_of_1807" title="Alexandria expedition of 1807">Egypt</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Froberg_mutiny" title="Froberg mutiny">Froberg mutiny</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Santo_Domingo_of_1808" title="Siege of Santo Domingo of 1808">Santo Domingo</a> (1808–09)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1809)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1809)">Martinique</a> (1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1809" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1809">Persian Gulf</a> (1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Guadeloupe_(1810)" title="Invasion of Guadeloupe (1810)">Guadeloupe</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_%C3%8Ele_Bonaparte" title="Invasion of Île Bonaparte">Reunion</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Isle_de_France" title="Invasion of Isle de France">Mauritius</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Seychelles#The_Quincy_era" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Spice_Islands" title="Invasion of the Spice Islands">Spice Islands</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">Java</a> (1810–11)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a> (1811–79)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">USA</a> (1812–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Nepalese_War" title="Anglo-Nepalese War">Nepal</a> (1814–16)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Guadeloupe_(1815)" title="Invasion of Guadeloupe (1815)">Guadeloupe</a> (1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slachter%27s_Nek_Rebellion" title="Slachter's Nek Rebellion">Cape Colony</a> (1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1816)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1816)">Algiers</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha War</a> (1817–18)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1819" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1819">Persian Gulf</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demerara_rebellion_of_1823" title="Demerara rebellion of 1823">Guiana</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ashanti_wars" title="Anglo-Ashanti wars">Anglo-Ashanti wars</a> (1824–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="First Anglo-Burmese War">First Anglo-Burmese War</a> (1824–26)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War (Van Diemen's Land)</a> (1828–32)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptist_War" title="Baptist War">Jamaica</a> (1831–32)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naning_War" title="Naning War">Malacca</a> (1831–33)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada_Rebellion" title="Lower Canada Rebellion">Lower Canada</a> (1837–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada_Rebellion" title="Upper Canada Rebellion">Upper Canada</a> (1837–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Expedition" title="Aden Expedition">Aden Expedition</a> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1839%E2%80%931841)" title="Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)">Egyptian–Ottoman War</a> (1839–41)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1839–42)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> (1839–42)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Wars" title="New Zealand Wars">New Zealand Wars</a> (1845–72)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a> (1845–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (1845–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Canton" title="Expedition to Canton">Canton</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Caste War of Yucatán">British Honduras</a> (1847–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matale_rebellion" title="Matale rebellion">Ceylon</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a> (1848–49)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="Second Anglo-Burmese War">Second Anglo-Burmese War</a> (1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka Rebellion</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a> (1854–56)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_War" title="Anglo-Persian War">Anglo-Persian War</a> (1856–57)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> (1856–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion</a> (1857–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Rajab_Ali" title="Revolt of Rajab Ali">Revolt of Rajab Ali</a> (1857–58)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Kagoshima" title="Bombardment of Kagoshima">Kagoshima</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambela_campaign" title="Ambela campaign">Ambela campaign</a> (1863–64)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimonoseki_campaign" title="Shimonoseki campaign">Shimonoseki</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duar_War" title="Duar War">Duar War</a> (1864–65)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenian_raids" title="Fenian raids">Fenian Rebellion in Canada</a> (1866–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Expedition_to_Abyssinia" class="mw-redirect" title="British Expedition to Abyssinia">Abyssinia</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Manitoba</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perak_War" title="Perak War">Perak</a> (1875–76)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zulu_War" title="Anglo-Zulu War">Anglo-Zulu War</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1879–80)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basuto_Gun_War" title="Basuto Gun War">Basutoland</a> (1880–81)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a> (1880–81)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist War</a> (1881–99)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian War</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">Saskatchewan</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="Third Anglo-Burmese War">Third Anglo-Burmese War</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emin_Pasha_Relief_Expedition" title="Emin Pasha Relief Expedition">Central Africa</a> (1886–89)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazara_Expedition_of_1888" title="Hazara Expedition of 1888">Hazara</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Column" title="Pioneer Column">Mashonaland</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunza%E2%80%93Nagar_Campaign" title="Hunza–Nagar Campaign">Hunza–Nagar Campaign</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Manipur_War" title="Anglo-Manipur War">Anglo-Manipur War</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahang_Uprising" title="Pahang Uprising">Pahang Uprising</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Matabele_War" title="First Matabele War">Matabeleland</a> (1893–94)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mat_Salleh_Rebellion" title="Mat Salleh Rebellion">North Borneo</a> (1894–1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitral_Expedition" title="Chitral Expedition">Chitral Expedition</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_Raid" title="Jameson Raid">Jameson Raid South Africa</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zanzibar_War" title="Anglo-Zanzibar War">Anglo-Zanzibar War</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chimurenga" class="mw-redirect" title="First Chimurenga">Matabeleland</a> (1896–97)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">Benin Expedition</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malakand" title="Siege of Malakand">Siege of Malakand</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohmand_campaign_of_1897%E2%80%931898" title="Mohmand campaign of 1897–1898">First Mohmand campaign</a> (1897–98)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirah_campaign" title="Tirah campaign">Tirah campaign</a> (1897–98)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War_(1899)" title="Six-Day War (1899)">Six-Day War</a> (1899)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a> (1898–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a> (1899–1902)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland</a> (1900–20)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Aro_War" title="Anglo-Aro War">West Africa</a> (1901–02)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">Tibet expedition</a> (1903–04)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bambatha_Rebellion" title="Bambatha Rebellion">Bambatha Rebellion</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_in_the_Tochi" title="Operations in the Tochi">Tochi</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilembwe_uprising" title="Chilembwe uprising">Nyasaland</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bussa_rebellion" title="Bussa rebellion">Nigeria</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_against_the_Mohmands,_Bunerwals_and_Swatis_in_1915" title="Operations against the Mohmands, Bunerwals and Swatis in 1915">Peshawar</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohmand_blockade" title="Mohmand blockade">Mohmand</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Quebec</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adubi_War" title="Adubi War">Nigeria</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waziristan_campaign_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Waziristan campaign (1919–1920)">Waziristan campaign</a> (1919–20)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_rebellion" title="Malabar rebellion">Malabar rebellion</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Barzanji_revolts" title="Mahmud Barzanji revolts">Kurdistan</a> (1922–24)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adwan_Rebellion" title="Adwan Rebellion">Transjordan</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink%27s_War" title="Pink's War">Pink's War</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhwan_revolt" title="Ikhwan revolt">Ikhwan revolt</a> (1927–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afridi_Redshirt_Rebellion,_Indian_North_West_Frontier_1930%E2%80%931931" title="Afridi Redshirt Rebellion, Indian North West Frontier 1930–1931">Tirah</a> (1930–31)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Barzani_revolt" title="Ahmed Barzani revolt">Barzani revolt</a> (1931–32)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohmand_campaign_of_1935" title="Mohmand campaign of 1935">Second Mohmand campaign</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">Arab revolt in Palestine</a> (1936–39)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waziristan_campaign_(1936%E2%80%931939)" title="Waziristan campaign (1936–1939)">Waziristan campaign</a> (1936–39)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woyane_rebellion" title="Woyane rebellion">Ethiopia</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine">Jewish revolt in Palestine</a> (1944–48)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Indochina</a> (1945–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Surabaya" title="Battle of Surabaya">Indonesia</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-cession_movement_of_Sarawak" title="Anti-cession movement of Sarawak">Sarawak</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a> (1948–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Kenya Emergency</a> (1952–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Oman</a> (1954–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a> (1955–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhofar Rebellion">Oman</a> (1962–76)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei_revolt" title="Brunei revolt">Brunei</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Sarawak</a> (1962–90)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Malaysia</a> (1962–66)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden</a> (1963–67)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands</a> (1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_colonial_conflicts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_colonial_conflicts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial conflicts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="North_America" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parris_Island,_South_Carolina" title="Parris Island, South Carolina">South Carolina (1562)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">Florida (1562–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_de_Gourgue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominique de Gourgue">Florida (1568)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies#Americas" title="List of French possessions and colonies">Brazil (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">Brazil (1555–67)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies#Americas" title="List of French possessions and colonies">Brazil (1590–04)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_de_Razilly" title="Isaac de Razilly">Morocco (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Senegal" title="French conquest of Senegal">Senegal (1659–77)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djidjelli_expedition" title="Djidjelli expedition">Djidjelli (1664)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1682)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1682)">Algiers (1682)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1683)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1683)">Algiers (1683)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1688)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1688)">Algiers (1688)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars (1609–1701)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Brazil (1612–15)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1627%E2%80%931629)" title="Anglo-French War (1627–1629)">North America (1627–29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">West Indies (1635–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carib_Expulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Carib Expulsion">Carib Expulsion (1660)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">Texas (1685–89)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War (1689–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sabana_Real" title="Battle of Sabana Real">Santo Domingo (1691)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1688" title="Siamese revolution of 1688">Siam (1687–90)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Seven_Years%27_War:_Africa" title="Template:Campaignbox Seven Years' War: Africa">West Africa (1758–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larache_expedition" title="Larache expedition">Morocco (1765)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War (1702–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Wars" title="Chickasaw Wars">Chickasaw Wars (1721–52)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War (1721–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natchez_revolt" title="Natchez revolt">Natchez revolt (1729)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War (1744–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Nova Scotia (1749–55)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War (1754–60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">North America (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">Caribbean (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Santo Domingo (1795–1809)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Myanmar_relations" title="France–Myanmar relations">Burma–France relations (1729–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carnatic_War" title="First Carnatic War">India (1746–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars#Second_Carnatic_War_(1749–1754)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">India (1749–54)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Carnatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Carnatic War">India (1756–63)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_assistance_to_Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C3%81nh" title="French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh">Vietnam (1777–1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1778%E2%80%931783)" title="Anglo-French War (1778–1783)">East Indies (1778–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Indies_theatre_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="East Indies theatre of the French Revolutionary Wars">East Indies (1793–1801)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius_campaign_of_1809%E2%80%9311" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauritius campaign of 1809–11">Indian Ocean (1809–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">Algeria (1830–47)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Algeria (1835–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Moroccan_War" title="Franco-Moroccan War">Morocco (1844)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Sal%C3%A9" title="Bombardment of Salé">Salé (1851)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Senegal" title="French conquest of Senegal">French conquest of Senegal (1854)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Tunisia" title="French conquest of Tunisia">Tunisia (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Madagascar_expedition" title="First Madagascar expedition">Madagascar (1883)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandingo_Wars" title="Mandingo Wars">Ivory Coast (1883–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="First Franco-Dahomean War">First Franco-Dahomean War (1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Franco-Dahomean_War" title="Second Franco-Dahomean War">Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–94)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Madagascar_expedition" title="Second Madagascar expedition">Second Madagascar expedition (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menalamba_rebellion" title="Menalamba rebellion">Menalamba rebellion (1895–1903)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voulet%E2%80%93Chanoine_Mission" title="Voulet–Chanoine Mission">Voulet–Chanoine Mission (1898–1900)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Campaign_1804%E2%80%9310" class="mw-redirect" title="West Indies Campaign 1804–10">West Indies (1804–10)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata (1838–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastry_War" title="Pastry War">Mexico (1838–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Argentina–Uruguay (1845–50)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Intervention in Mexico (1861–67)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia & Pacific Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Spice_Islands" title="Invasion of the Spice Islands">Moluccas (1810)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">Java (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Basilan#The_French_blockade" title="History of Basilan">Philippines (1844–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1847)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1847)">Tourane (1847)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Tahitian_War" title="Franco-Tahitian War">Franco-Tahitian War (1844–47)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Tourane_(1856)" title="Bombardment of Tourane (1856)">Tourane (1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Vietnam" title="French conquest of Vietnam">French conquest of Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garnier_Expedition" title="Garnier Expedition">North Vietnam (1873–74)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonkin Campaign">Tonkin Campaign (1883–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War (1884–85)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Tonkin" title="Pacification of Tonkin">North Vietnam (1886–96)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimonoseki_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimonoseki Campaign">Japan (1863–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_against_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign against Korea">Korea (1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Leeward_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Leeward Islands">Leewards War (1888–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1893_Franco-Siamese_crisis" title="1893 Franco-Siamese crisis">Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wadai_War" title="Wadai War">Wadai War (1906–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Casablanca_(1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardment of Casablanca (1907)">Casablanca (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Morocco" title="French conquest of Morocco">Morocco (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaian_War" title="Zaian War">Zaian War (1914–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Bani_War" title="Volta-Bani War">Volta-Bani War (1915–16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen revolt (1916–17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Rif War (1920–26)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo-Wara_rebellion" title="Kongo-Wara rebellion">Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–31)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_Uprising" title="Malagasy Uprising">Malagasy Uprising (1947–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence (1952–56)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War (1954–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon_War" title="Cameroon War">Cameroon War (1955–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War (1957–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bizerte_crisis" title="Bizerte crisis">Bizerte crisis (1961)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion (1901)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Man%27s_Rebellion" title="Holy Man's Rebellion">Holy Man's Rebellion (1901–36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1916 Cochinchina uprising">Vietnam (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A1i_Nguy%C3%AAn_uprising" title="Thái Nguyên uprising">Vietnam (1917–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vue_Pa_Chay%27s_revolt" title="Vue Pa Chay's revolt">Vietnam (1918–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War" title="Franco-Syrian War">Syria (1919–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Turkish_War" title="Franco-Turkish War">Cilicia (1920–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Syria (1925–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%AAn_B%C3%A1i_mutiny" title="Yên Bái mutiny">Vietnam (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87-T%C4%A9nh_Soviets" title="Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets">Vietnam (1930–31)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Cochinchina_uprising" title="1940 Cochinchina uprising">Vietnam (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War (1940–41)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Indochina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Indochina Campaign">Indochina (1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Vietnam (1945–46)">South Vietnam (1945–46)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War (1946–54)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ouv%C3%A9a_cave_hostage_taking" title="Ouvéa cave hostage taking">Ouvéa cave hostage taking (1988)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empire_of_Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Agriculture in the Empire of Japan">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Censorship in the Empire of Japan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Demography of the Empire of Japan">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Economy of the Empire of Japan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Prewar_period" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Education in the Empire of Japan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_system" title="Emperor system">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_commerce_and_shipping_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan">Foreign commerce and shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_production_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Industrial production in Shōwa Japan">Industrial production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_essentialism" title="National essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_(1914%E2%80%931944)" title="Politics of the Empire of Japan (1914–1944)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazoku" title="Kazoku">Kazoku</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Imperial Seal of Japan"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/80px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/120px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/160px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="990" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Meiji" title="Emperor Meiji">Meiji <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mutsuhito)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taish%C5%8D" title="Emperor Taishō">Taishō <span style="font-size:85%;">(Yoshihito)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Shōwa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hirohito)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Japan" title="Flag of Japan">Flag of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_Sun_Flag" title="Rising Sun Flag">Rising Sun Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_seals_of_Japan" title="National seals of Japan">National seals of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan" title="Imperial Seal of Japan">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Seal_of_Japan" title="Government Seal of Japan">Government Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Seal_of_Japan" title="State Seal of Japan">State Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Seal_of_Japan" title="Privy Seal of Japan">Privy Seal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimigayo" title="Kimigayo">Kimigayo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_Oath" title="Charter Oath">Charter Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Meiji Japan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_on_Education" title="Imperial Rescript on Education">Imperial Rescript on Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rule_Assistance_Association" title="Imperial Rule Assistance Association">Imperial Rule Assistance Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokusan_Sonendan" title="Yokusan Sonendan">Yokusan Sonendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Japan_Youth_Party" title="Great Japan Youth Party">Great Japan Youth Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokutai" title="Kokutai">Kokutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokusatsu" title="Mokusatsu">Mokusatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spiritual_Mobilization_Movement" title="National Spiritual Mobilization Movement">National Spiritual Mobilization Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Preservation_Law" title="Peace Preservation Law">Peace Preservation Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political parties of the Empire of Japan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Judicature of Japan">Supreme Court of Judicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_K%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_Keisatsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu">Tokkō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonarigumi" title="Tonarigumi">Tonarigumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senbu" title="Senbu">Senbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Airways" title="Imperial Japanese Airways">Imperial Japanese Airways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Administration<br />(ministries)</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Imperial_Household" title="Ministry of the Imperial Household">Imperial Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Ministry" title="Home Ministry">Home Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(pre-modern_Japan)" title="Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Ministry" title="Army Ministry">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Japan)" title="Ministry of the Navy (Japan)">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Treasury" title="Ministry of the Treasury">Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Commerce" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce">Agriculture and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan)">Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Munitions_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Munitions (Japan)">Munitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)">Colonial Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Greater_East_Asia" title="Ministry of Greater East Asia">Greater East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Development_Board" title="East Asia Development Board">East Asia Development Board (Kōain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Legislative and<br />deliberative bodies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daij%C5%8D-kan" title="Daijō-kan">Daijō-kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Japan" title="Privy Council of Japan">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozen_Kaigi" title="Gozen Kaigi">Gozen Kaigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Diet#History" title="National Diet">Imperial Diet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Peers_(Japan)" title="House of Peers (Japan)">Peers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">Representatives</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_to_Soldiers_and_Sailors" title="Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors">Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senjinkun_military_code" title="Senjinkun military code"><i>Senjinkun</i> military code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Japanese nuclear weapons program">Nuclear weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)" title="Supreme War Council (Japan)">Supreme War Council</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscription_in_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conscription in Japan (page does not exist)">Conscription</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Railways_and_Shipping_Section" title="Imperial Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section">Railways and Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Japan)" title="Imperial Guard (Japan)">Imperial Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Way_Faction" title="Imperial Way Faction">Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_holdout" title="Japanese holdout">Japanese holdout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan" title="Taiwan Army of Japan">Taiwan Army of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dseiha" title="Tōseiha">Control Faction (Tōseiha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kempeitai" title="Kempeitai">Kempeitai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_Keisatsutai" title="Tokubetsu Keisatsutai">Tokkeitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Faction" title="Fleet Faction">Fleet Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Faction" title="Treaty Faction">Treaty Faction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boshin_War" title="Boshin War">Boshin War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Lords_Incident" title="Two Lords Incident">Two Lords Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Rebellion" title="Satsuma Rebellion">Satsuma Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Japanese_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Japanese Alliance">Anglo–Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1895)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)">Invasion of Taiwan (1895)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_era" title="Taishō era">Taishō era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Entry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberian Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Election_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="General Election Law">General Election Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria%E2%80%93Mongolia_problem" title="Manchuria–Mongolia problem">Manchuria–Mongolia problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Democracy" title="Taishō Democracy">Taishō Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Taishō Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapani_incident" title="Tapani incident">Tapani incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truku_War" title="Truku War">Truku War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_era" title="Shōwa era">Shōwa era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Incident" title="Musha Incident">Musha Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherland_controversy" title="Motherland controversy">Motherland controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Rape of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">Karafuto</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Naichi" class="mw-redirect" title="Naichi">naichi</a></i> after 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Chōsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Kantō-shū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Seas_Mandate" title="South Seas Mandate">Nan'yō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Puppet states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Second Philippine Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_territories_acquired_by_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="List of territories acquired by the Empire of Japan">Occupied territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines" title="Japanese occupation of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yen_bloc" title="Yen bloc">Yen bloc</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonn%C5%8D_j%C5%8Di" title="Sonnō jōi">Sonnō jōi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukoku_ky%C5%8Dhei" title="Fukoku kyōhei">Fukoku kyōhei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakk%C5%8D_ichiu" title="Hakkō ichiu">Hakkō ichiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlers_in_Manchuria" title="Japanese settlers in Manchuria">Japanese settlers in Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese-run_internment_camps_during_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II">Internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Japanese_industrial_co-operation_before_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Japanese industrial co-operation before World War II">German pre–World War II industrial co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinmin_no_Michi" title="Shinmin no Michi">Shinmin no Michi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_Modan" title="Shōwa Modan">Shōwa Modan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_thought_in_Imperial_Japan" title="Socialist thought in Imperial Japan">Socialist thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Imperial_Japan_Serviceman" title="Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman">Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Political dissidence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template talk:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Great powers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Spread of nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">Sovereign debt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Lever" title="Egyptian Lever">Egyptian Lever</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">In Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rapprochement" title="Great Rapprochement">Great Rapprochement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and<br />agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bj%C3%B6rk%C3%B6" title="Treaty of Björkö">Treaty of Björkö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Franco-Russian_agreement" title="1917 Franco-Russian agreement">1917 Franco-Russian agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt%E2%80%93Toulon_naval_visits" title="Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits">Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltpolitik" title="Weltpolitik">Weltpolitik</a></i></li> <li>Naval arms races <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Naval_Laws" title="German Naval Laws">German Naval Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Italian_ironclad_arms_race" title="Austro-Italian ironclad arms race">Austro-Italian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Annexation of Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Venezuela Naval Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute" title="Alaska boundary dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference" title="Algeciras Conference">Algeciras Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes" title="Treaty of Fes">Treaty of Fes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second</a></li> <li>Albanian Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1910" title="Albanian revolt of 1910">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malissori_uprising" title="Malissori uprising">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1912" title="Albanian revolt of 1912">Third</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Tsarist,_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_conflicts" title="Template talk:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_conflicts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian conflicts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_Russia_(including_Tsarist,_Imperial_and_Soviet_times)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> times)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Military history of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Military history of the Russian Empire">Military history of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Military history of the Russian Federation">Military history of the Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Russian Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists by opponent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscovite%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Wars" title="Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars">Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-Finnish_wars" title="Soviet-Finnish wars">Soviet-Finnish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">Russo-Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armed_conflicts_involving_Poland_against_Russia" title="List of armed conflicts involving Poland against Russia">Russo-Polish Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Sweden" title="List of wars between Russia and Sweden">Russo-Swedish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish wars">Russo-Turkish wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_between_Russia_and_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of wars between Russia and Ukraine">Russo-Ukrainian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Russia" title="List of wars involving Russia">List of wars involving Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of wars involving the Soviet Union">List of wars involving the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_involving_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of battles involving the Russian Federation">List of battles involving the Russian Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_Bolotnikov" title="Uprising of Bolotnikov">Uprising of Bolotnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razin%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Razin's Rebellion">Razin's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulavin_Rebellion" title="Bulavin Rebellion">Bulavin Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">Pugachev's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">Coup attempt (1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">1993 Russian constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus" title="Insurgency in the North Caucasus">Insurgency in the North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagner_Group_rebellion" title="Wagner Group rebellion">Wagner Group rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tsardom of<br />Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Crimean_Wars" title="Russo-Crimean Wars">Russo-Crimean Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars" title="Russo-Kazan Wars">Russo-Kazan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1554%E2%80%931557)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)">Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_War" title="Livonian War">Livonian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian Conquest of Siberia (1580–1747)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1568%E2%80%931570)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)">Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1590%E2%80%931595)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)">Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Muscovite_War_(1605%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)">Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_War" title="Ingrian War">Ingrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_War" title="Smolensk War">Smolensk War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1651%E2%80%931653)" title="Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)">Russo-Persian War (1651–1653)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts (1652–1689)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Northern War">Second Northern War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1676%E2%80%931681)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)">Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1686%E2%80%931700)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)">Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1710%E2%80%931711)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)">Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> (1733–1738)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Russian%E2%80%93Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)">Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1741%E2%80%931743)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)">Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Bar Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%931790)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)">Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Russo-Polish War (1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Expedition_of_1796" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Expedition of 1796">Russo-Persian War (1796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)" title="Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)">Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_War_(1807%E2%80%931812)" title="Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)">Anglo-Russian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_War" title="Finnish War">Finnish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Seventh Coalition">War of the Seventh Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">Russian conquest of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">Caucasian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Circassian_War" title="Russo-Circassian War">Russo-Circassian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Murid War">Murid War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)" title="Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)">Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Russian conquest of Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Bukhara" title="Russian conquest of Bukhara">Russian conquest of Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_campaign_of_1873" title="Khivan campaign of 1873">Khivan campaign of 1873</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Russian invasion of Manchuria">Russian invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_occupation_of_Tabriz" title="Russian occupation of Tabriz">Russian occupation of Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Robat_Karim" title="Battle of Robat Karim">Battle of Robat Karim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1919_Soviet_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine">1919 Soviet invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Kazakhstan Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sochi_conflict" title="Sochi conflict">Sochi conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimosodat" title="Heimosodat">Heimosodat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_westward_offensive_of_1918%E2%80%931919" title="Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919">Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence" title="Estonian War of Independence">Estonian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_War_of_Independence" title="Latvian War of Independence">Latvian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Lithuanian–Soviet War">Lithuanian–Soviet War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)">Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Azerbaijan" title="Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan">Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Armenia" title="Red Army invasion of Armenia">Red Army invasion of Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Red Army invasion of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_intervention_in_Mongolia" title="Soviet intervention in Mongolia">Red Army intervention in Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Karelian_uprising" title="East Karelian uprising">East Karelian uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Central Asian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urtatagai_conflict_(1925%E2%80%931926)" title="Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)">Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Army_intervention_in_Afghanistan_(1930)" title="Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)">Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chechen_uprising_of_1932&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chechen uprising of 1932 (page does not exist)">Chechen uprising of 1932</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_1932_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Восстание в Чечне 1932 года">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">Xinjiang War (1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940" title="Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940">Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)" title="Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)">Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_Latvia_in_1944" title="Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944">Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army#Soviet_Union" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Guerrilla war in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlora_incident" title="Vlora incident">Vlora incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_OMON_assaults_on_Lithuanian_border_posts" title="Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts">Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Abkhazia_(1992%E2%80%931993)" title="War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)">War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia_war_(1991%E2%80%931992)" title="South Ossetia war (1991–1992)">South Ossetia war (1991–1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Civil_War" title="Georgian Civil War">Georgian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Dagestan" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Dagestan">War of Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war">Intervention in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Libya_campaign" title="Western Libya campaign">Western Libya campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Deployment in Nagorno-Karabakh (2020)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Kazakh_unrest" title="2022 Kazakh unrest">Deployment in Kazakhstan (2022)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Winter" title="Russian Winter">Russian Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">Sphere of influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template talk:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving the Armed Forces of the United States</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>Listed chronologically</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Domestic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fries%27s_Rebellion" title="Fries's Rebellion">Fries's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_German_Coast_uprising" title="1811 German Coast uprising">1811 German Coast uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Turner's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1838_Mormon_War" title="1838 Mormon War">Mormon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Dorr Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_County_War" title="Lincoln County War">Lincoln County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_County_War" title="Johnson County War">Johnson County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_Creek_War" title="Coal Creek War">Coal Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_strike" title="Homestead strike">Homestead strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Coalfield_War" title="Colorado Coalfield War">Colorado Coalfield War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blair_Mountain" title="Battle of Blair Mountain">Battle of Blair Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party_revolts_of_the_1950s" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s">Puerto Rican revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_riots_(1964%E2%80%931969)" title="Ghetto riots (1964–1969)">1960s ghetto rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Greensboro_uprising" title="1969 Greensboro uprising">1969 Greensboro uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_shootings" title="Kent State shootings">Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots">1992 Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2023 United States racial unrest">2020 racial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">2021 U.S. Capitol attack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American%E2%80%93Algerian_War_(1785%E2%80%931795)" title="American–Algerian War (1785–1795)">American–Algerian War (1785–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sumatran_expedition" title="First Sumatran expedition">First Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sumatran_expedition" title="Second Sumatran expedition">Second Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast_expedition" title="Ivory Coast expedition">Ivory Coast expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fiji_expedition" title="First Fiji expedition">First Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fiji_expedition" title="Second Fiji expedition">Second Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosa_Expedition" title="Formosa Expedition">Formosa Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">Korean Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Border_War_(1910%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Border War (1910–1919)">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon" title="Multinational Force in Lebanon">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Uphold_Democracy" title="Operation Uphold Democracy">Intervention in Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deliberate_Force" title="Operation Deliberate Force">Bosnian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">Kosovo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">War in North-West Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="2011 military intervention in Libya">First Libyan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">War against the Islamic State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_(2014%E2%80%932021)" class="mw-redirect" title="American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–2021)">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="US intervention in the Syrian civil war">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency#American_military_support" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_intervention_in_Libya_(2015%E2%80%932019)" class="mw-redirect" title="American intervention in Libya (2015–2019)">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_the_United_States" title="List of conflicts in the United States">Conflicts in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">Wars involving the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Timeline of U.S. military operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_lengths_of_United_States_participation_in_wars" title="List of the lengths of United States participation in wars">Length of U.S. participation in major wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="History of the Central Intelligence Agency">History of the Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_casualties_of_war" title="United States military casualties of war">Casualties of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement#United_States" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_organizations#United_States" title="List of anti-war organizations">List of anti-war organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector#United_States" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">War crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Colonial_conflicts_in_the_Italian_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italian_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Italian colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italian_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Italian colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italian_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italian colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Colonial_conflicts_in_the_Italian_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonial conflicts in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Ethiopian_War_of_1887%E2%80%931889" title="Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889">Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist War in Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="First Italo-Ethiopian War">Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–96</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banadir_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Banadir Resistance">Banadir Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935–36</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">World War II Campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image plainlist" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Italy"><img alt="Flag of Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/76px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="76" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg/114px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861%E2%80%931946%29.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Italian Blockade of Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Italian Invasion of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Intervention_in_Northern_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Intervention in Northern Russia">Italian Intervention in Northern Russia</a> (<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpo_di_spedizione_italiano_in_Murmania" class="extiw" title="it:Corpo di spedizione italiano in Murmania">it</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Constantinople">Occupation of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Persecution_of_ChristiansAnti-Christian_sentiment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Persecution_of_Christians" title="Template:Persecution of Christians"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Persecution_of_Christians" title="Template talk:Persecution of Christians"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Persecution_of_Christians" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Persecution of Christians"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Persecution_of_ChristiansAnti-Christian_sentiment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution of Christians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By<br />incident</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_New_Testament" title="Persecution of Christians in the New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_in_Lyon" title="Persecution in Lyon">Persecution in Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decian_persecution" title="Decian persecution">Decian persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Diocletianic Persecution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians#Early_Middle_Ages" title="Persecution of Christians">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homs_revolts_(854%E2%80%93855)" title="Homs revolts (854–855)">Homs revolts (854–855)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Martyrs of Córdoba">Martyrs of Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashmurian_revolts" title="Bashmurian revolts">Bashmurian revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre" title="Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre">Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisrawan_campaigns_(1292%E2%80%931305)" title="Kisrawan campaigns (1292–1305)">Kisrawan campaigns (1292–1305)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians#Early_Modern_period_(1500_to_1815)" title="Persecution of Christians">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Revolt in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Japan" title="Martyrs of Japan">Martyrs of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kakure_Kirishitan" title="Kakure Kirishitan">Kakure Kirishitan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captivity_of_Mangalorean_Catholics_at_Seringapatam" title="Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam">Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians#Modern_era_(1815_to_1989)" title="Persecution of Christians">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_massacre_of_1821" title="Constantinople massacre of 1821">Constantinople massacre of 1821</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1843_and_1846_massacres_in_Hakkari" title="1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari">1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Aleppo_(1850)" title="Massacre of Aleppo (1850)">1850 Aleppo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 Lebanon conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucheng_massacre" title="Kucheng massacre">Kucheng massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c%27s_Catholic_persecution" title="Tự Đức's Catholic persecution">Tự Đức's Catholic persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Diyarbekir_(1895)" title="Massacres of Diyarbekir (1895)">Diyarbekir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candia_massacre" title="Candia massacre">Candia massacre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmit_massacres" title="İzmit massacres">İzmit massacres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shusha_massacre" title="Shusha massacre">Shusha massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror_(Spain)" title="Red Terror (Spain)">Red Terror (Spain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_pogrom" title="Istanbul pogrom">Istanbul pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Thursday_(Lebanon)" title="Black Thursday (Lebanon)">Black Thursday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chouf_massacres" class="mw-redirect" title="Chouf massacres">Chouf massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damour_massacre" title="Damour massacre">Damour massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_War_(Lebanon)" title="Mountain War (Lebanon)">Mountain War (Lebanon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumgait_pogrom" title="Sumgait pogrom">Sumgait pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maluku_sectarian_conflict" title="Maluku sectarian conflict">Maluku sectarian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nag_Hammadi_massacre" title="Nag Hammadi massacre">Nag Hammadi massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosheh_massacres" title="Kosheh massacres">Kosheh massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maspero_demonstrations" title="Maspero demonstrations">Maspero demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_attacks_on_Christians_in_southeastern_Gujarat" title="1998 attacks on Christians in southeastern Gujarat">1998 attacks on Christians in southeastern Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_attacks_on_Christians_in_Dangs_district" class="mw-redirect" title="1998 attacks on Christians in Dangs district">1998 attacks on Christians in Dangs district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_Ramgiri-Udaygiri_violence" title="1998 Ramgiri-Udaygiri violence">1998 Ramgiri-Udaygiri violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Ranalai_violence" title="1999 Ranalai violence">1999 Ranalai violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Christmas_violence_in_Kandhamal" title="2007 Christmas violence in Kandhamal">2007 Christmas violence in Kandhamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kandhamal_violence" title="2008 Kandhamal violence">2008 Kandhamal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kandhamal_nun_gang_rape_case" title="2008 Kandhamal nun gang rape case">2008 Kandhamal nun gang rape case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_attacks_on_Christians_in_southern_Karnataka" title="2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka">2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_anti-Christian_violence_in_Karnataka" title="2021 anti-Christian violence in Karnataka">2021 anti-Christian violence in Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_hostage_crisis" title="Manila hostage crisis">2010 Manila hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Persecution by the Islamic State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By<br />persecutor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Early Christianity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herod_Agrippa" title="Herod Agrippa">Agrippa I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Roman Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Late Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galerius#Persecution_of_Christians" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanaric" title="Athanaric">Athanaric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">Al-Mutawakkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi" title="Toyotomi Hideyoshi">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu" title="Tokugawa Ieyasu">Tokugawa Ieyasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minh_M%E1%BA%A1ng" title="Minh Mạng">Minh Mạng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Tự Đức">Tự Đức</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Jeongsun" title="Queen Jeongsun">Queen Jeongsun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ranavalona_I" title="Ranavalona I">Ranavalona I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwanga_II_of_Buganda" title="Mwanga II of Buganda">Mwanga II of Buganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarco_El%C3%ADas_Calles" title="Plutarco Elías Calles">Plutarco Elías Calles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Garrido_Canabal" title="Tomás Garrido Canabal">Tomás Garrido Canabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Enver Hoxha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pashas" title="Three Pashas">Three Pashas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_North_Korea#Persecution_of_Christians_and_Buddhists" title="Human rights in North Korea">Kim Il-sung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Shekau" title="Abubakar Shekau">Abubakar Shekau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party#2012–present:_Xi_Jinping_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">Xi Jinping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi" title="Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi">Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By<br />country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Myanmar" title="Freedom of religion in Myanmar">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Cambodia" title="Freedom of religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulturkampf" title="Kulturkampf">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Christians_in_India" title="Violence against Christians in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirishitan" title="Kirishitan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Laos" title="Christianity in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism_in_Mexico" title="Anti-clericalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_North_Korea" title="Persecution of Christians in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Pakistan" title="Persecution of Christians in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Thailand" title="Christianity in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Vietnam" title="Christianity in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By<br />persecuted group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism#Persecutions_and_migrations" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">Mormons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Mormons" class="mw-redirect" title="Violence against Mormons">Violence against Mormons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Oriental_Orthodox_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians">Oriental Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Copts" title="Persecution of Copts">Copts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Martyrs</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">list</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">Massacre of the Innocents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Saint Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthusian_Martyrs" title="Carthusian Martyrs">Carthusian Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Martyrs" title="Chinese Martyrs">Chinese Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Martyrs_of_Jasenovac" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac">Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blessed_Martyrs_of_Drina" title="Blessed Martyrs of Drina">Drina Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_Martyrs_of_England_and_Wales" title="Forty Martyrs of England and Wales">Forty Martyrs of England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Martyrs" title="Korean Martyrs">Korean Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Japan" title="Martyrs of Japan">Martyrs of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War">Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Martyr" title="New Martyr">New Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Martyrs" title="Canadian Martyrs">North American Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saints_of_the_Cristero_War" title="Saints of the Cristero War">Saints of the Cristero War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda_Martyrs" title="Uganda Martyrs">Uganda Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Martyrs" title="Vietnamese Martyrs">Vietnamese Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/233_Spanish_Martyrs" title="233 Spanish Martyrs">233 Spanish Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/498_Spanish_Martyrs" title="498 Spanish Martyrs">498 Spanish Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/522_Spanish_Martyrs" title="522 Spanish Martyrs">522 Spanish Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Turon" title="Martyrs of Turon">Martyrs of Turon</a></li> <li><a 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