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<ul id="toc-Smallpox_vs._measles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meningitis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meningitis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Meningitis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meningitis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Pharmacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_of_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_of_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Ethics of medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_of_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books_and_articles_on_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_and_articles_on_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Books and articles on medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_and_articles_on_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Alchemy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alchemy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alchemy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_transmutation_of_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_transmutation_of_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The transmutation of metals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_transmutation_of_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_works_on_alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_works_on_alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Major works on alchemy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_works_on_alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Secrets_(Al-Asrar)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Secrets_(Al-Asrar)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span><i>The Secrets</i> (<span><i>Al-Asrar</i></span>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Secrets_(Al-Asrar)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secret_of_Secrets_(Sirr_al-Asrar)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secret_of_Secrets_(Sirr_al-Asrar)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span><i>Secret of Secrets</i> (<span><i>Sirr al-Asrar</i></span>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secret_of_Secrets_(Sirr_al-Asrar)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Views on religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Views_on_religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Views on religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Views_on_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Debate_with_Abu_Hatim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_with_Abu_Hatim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Debate with Abu Hatim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_with_Abu_Hatim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Primary literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_al-Razi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_al-Razi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>By al-Razi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_al-Razi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.2</span> <span>By others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Secondary literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasis" title="Rasis – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rasis" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="أبو بكر الرازي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أبو بكر الرازي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razi" title="Al-Razi – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99h%C9%99mm%C9%99d_ibn_Z%C9%99k%C9%99riy%C9%99_%C9%99l-Razi" title="Məhəmməd ibn Zəkəriyə əl-Razi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Məhəmməd ibn Zəkəriyə əl-Razi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%80" title="আল রাযী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আল রাযী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%B1%D2%AF_%D0%91%D3%99%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80_%D3%98%D1%80-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Әбү Бәкер Әр-Рази – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Әбү Бәкер Әр-Рази" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%83_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Абу Бакр Мухаммад ибн Зекария ал-Рази – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абу Бакр Мухаммад ибн Зекария ал-Рази" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar-Raz%C3%AD" title="Ar-Razí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ar-Razí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C3%BA_Bakr_Mohammed_ibn_Zakar%C3%ADja_ar-R%C3%A1z%C3%AD" title="Abú Bakr Mohammed ibn Zakaríja ar-Rází – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Abú Bakr Mohammed ibn Zakaríja ar-Rází" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%81_%CE%B1%CE%BB-%CE%A1%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%AF" title="Αμπού Μπακρ αλ-Ραζί – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αμπού Μπακρ αλ-Ραζί" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razi" title="Al-Razi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razio" title="Al-Razio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Al-Razio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar-Razi" title="Ar-Razi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ar-Razi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="زکریای رازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زکریای رازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaz%C3%A8s" title="Rhazès – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rhazès" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Abu Bakr al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Raz%C3%AD" title="Al-Razí – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Al-Razí" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="زکريای رازي – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="زکريای رازي" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B4%ED%95%A8%EB%A7%88%EB%93%9C_%EC%9D%B4%EB%B8%90_%EC%9E%90%EC%B9%B4%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%BC_%EC%95%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%A7%80" title="무함마드 이븐 자카리야 알라지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="무함마드 이븐 자카리야 알라지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_dan_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muhammad dan Zakariya al-Razi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Muhammad dan Zakariya al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82_%D4%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D6%80_%D5%84%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A4_%D4%B6%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1_%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%AB" title="Աբու Բաքր Մուհամադ Զաքարիա Ռազի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աբու Բաքր Մուհամադ Զաքարիա Ռազի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2-%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%80" title="अल-राज़ी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अल-राज़ी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi" title="Razi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Razi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Zakariya_ar-Razi" title="Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%96%D7%99" title="אל-ראזי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אל-ראזי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3_%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%93_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="აბუ ბაქრ მუჰამად არ-რაზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აბუ ბაქრ მუჰამად არ-რაზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D3%99%D1%80-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Закария әр-Рази – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Закария әр-Рази" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raz%C3%AE" title="Razî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Razî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Мухаммад ибн Закария Рази – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мухаммад ибн Закария Рази" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammads_ibn_Zakarija_ar_R%C4%81z%C4%AB" title="Mohammads ibn Zakarija ar Rāzī – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mohammads ibn Zakarija ar Rāzī" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi" title="Razi – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Razi" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakarijja_r-R%C3%A1zi" title="Muhammad ibn Zakarijja r-Rázi – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Muhammad ibn Zakarijja r-Rázi" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaz%C3%A8s" title="Rhazès – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rhazès" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BD-%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF" title="അൽ-റാസി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൽ-റാസി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3_%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="აბუ ბაქრ ალ-რაზი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აბუ ბაქრ ალ-რაზი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%89" title="ابو بكر الرازى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ابو بكر الرازى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="رازی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="رازی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakar_Muhammad_bin_Zakaria_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%98%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%87%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE" title="မိုဟာမက် အီဘင်း ဇာကာရီးယာ အယ်လ် ရာဇီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မိုဟာမက် အီဘင်း ဇာကာရီးယာ အယ်လ် ရာဇီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasis" title="Rasis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rasis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BA%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC" title="アル・ラーズィー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アル・ラーズィー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%83_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B0%D1%80-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Абу Бакр Мухьаммад ар-Рази – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Абу Бакр Мухьаммад ар-Рази" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Bakr_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_ibn_Zakariy%C4%81_ar-R%C4%81z%C4%AB" title="Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyā ar-Rāzī – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyā ar-Rāzī" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roziy" title="Roziy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Roziy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A8%DA%A9%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="ابوبکر الرازی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ابوبکر الرازی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="محمد زکريا رازي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="محمد زکريا رازي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Muhammad_ibn_Zakarijja_ar-Razi" title="Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarijja ar-Razi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarijja ar-Razi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasis" title="Rasis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rasis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muxamed_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muxamed ibn Zakariya al-Razi – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Muxamed ibn Zakariya al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%83_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B0%D1%80-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Абу Бакр Мухаммад ар-Рази – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Абу Бакр Мухаммад ар-Рази" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%83_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%80-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Абу Бакр Мухаммад ибн Закария ар-Рази – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Абу Бакр Мухаммад ибн Закария ар-Рази" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="محمد بن زکریا الرازی – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="محمد بن زکریا الرازی" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasis" title="Rasis – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Rasis" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhamed_er-Razi" title="Muhamed er-Razi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Muhamed er-Razi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="الرازي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="الرازي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%B1_%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="ئەبووبەکر ڕازی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەبووبەکر ڕازی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Рази – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рази" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi" title="Razi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Razi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Abu Bakr al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi" title="Razi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Razi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="முகம்மது இப்னு சக்கரியா அல்-ராசி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முகம்மது இப்னு சக்கரியா அல்-ராசி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D1%80-%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Әр-Рази – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Әр-Рази" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B9_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5-%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5" title="แอบู แบกร์ แอล-รอซี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แอบู แบกร์ แอล-รอซี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%91%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D3%A3" title="Муҳаммад Закариёи Розӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Муҳаммад Закариёи Розӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eb%C3%BB_Bekir_er-R%C3%A2z%C3%AE" title="Ebû Bekir er-Râzî – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ebû Bekir er-Râzî" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammet_ibn_Zekeri%C3%BDa_ar-Razy" title="Muhammet ibn Zekeriýa ar-Razy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Muhammet ibn Zekeriýa ar-Razy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Разес – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Разес" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%A8%DA%A9%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="ابو بکر الرازی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ابو بکر الرازی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Razi" title="El Razi – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="El Razi" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazes" title="Rhazes – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rhazes" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E9%BD%90" title="拉齐 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="拉齐" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E9%BD%8A" title="拉齊 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="拉齊" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razi" title="Razi – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Razi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E8%B4%9D%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E9%BD%90" title="阿布·贝克尔·拉齐 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="阿布·贝克尔·拉齐" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q169234#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)">Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">10th-century Iranian physician and polymath</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the 10th-century physician and polymath. For the 12th-century theologian and polymath, see <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Razi_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Razi (disambiguation)">Razi (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Rhazes_(al-Razi)_(AD_865_-_925)_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Statue of al-Razi in Vienna" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Portrait_of_Rhazes_%28al-Razi%29_%28AD_865_-_925%29_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Rhazes_%28al-Razi%29_%28AD_865_-_925%29_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Portrait_of_Rhazes_%28al-Razi%29_%28AD_865_-_925%29_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Rhazes_%28al-Razi%29_%28AD_865_-_925%29_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Portrait_of_Rhazes_%28al-Razi%29_%28AD_865_-_925%29_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Rhazes_%28al-Razi%29_%28AD_865_-_925%29_Wellcome_L0005053.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1192" data-file-height="1698" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait of Rhazes</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">864 or 865 CE<br />250 or 251 <a href="/wiki/Hijri_year" title="Hijri year">AH</a><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Ray</a> (Iran)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">925 (aged 60–61) CE or<br />935 (aged 70–71) CE<br />313 or 323 AH<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Ray (Iran)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> (writings)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Medicine, philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>, criticism of religion</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data">The first to write up limited or extensive notes on diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chickenpox" title="Chickenpox">chickenpox</a>, a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>, author of the first book on <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatrics</a>, making leading contributions in <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, also the author of several philosophical works.</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Abū Bakr al-Rāzī</b> (full name: <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي</span></span>, <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī</i></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often known as <b>(al-)Razi</b> or by his <a href="/wiki/Latinization_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinization (literature)">Latin</a> name <b>Rhazes</b>, also rendered <b>Rhasis</b>, was a Persian <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">physician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">alchemist</a> who lived during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also wrote on <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also known for his <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">criticism of religion</a>, especially with regard to the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">prophethood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>. However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which also included a belief in five "eternal principles", are fragmentary and only reported by authors who were often hostile to him.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observations</a> and discoveries.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early proponent of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental medicine">experimental medicine</a>, he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Ray</a> hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-ENW2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a teacher of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the first to clinically distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, and suggest sound treatment for the former.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West.<sup id="cite_ref-ENW2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some volumes of his work <i>Al-Mansuri</i>, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities.<sup id="cite_ref-ENW2_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Granville_Browne" title="Edward Granville Browne">Edward Granville Browne</a> considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, he has been described as the father of <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatrics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Tschanz2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tschanz2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elgood2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elgood2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">obstetrics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG/310px-Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG" decoding="async" width="310" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG/465px-Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG/620px-Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="1211" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of al-Razi in a 13th-century manuscript of a work by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Razi was born in the city of <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Ray</a> (modern Rey, also the origin of his <a href="/wiki/Nisba_(onomastics)" title="Nisba (onomastics)">name</a> "al-Razi"),<sup id="cite_ref-auto_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into a family of Persian stock and was a native speaker of <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ray was situated on the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Great Silk Road</a> that for centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. It is located on the southern slopes of the <a href="/wiki/Alborz" title="Alborz">Alborz</a> mountain range situated near <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, Iran. </p><p>In his youth, al-Razi moved to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> where he studied and practiced at the local <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">bimaristan</a> (hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by <a href="/wiki/Mansur_ibn_Ishaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur ibn Ishaq">Mansur ibn Ishaq</a>, then the governor of Ray, and became a bimaristan's head.<sup id="cite_ref-ENW2_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, <i>The Spiritual Physic</i> and <i>Al-Mansūrī on Medicine</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ENW2_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bookonmedicinededicatedtoalmansur_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bookonmedicinededicatedtoalmansur-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of his newly acquired popularity as physician, al-Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in a new hospital named after its founder <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%CA%BFta%E1%B8%8Did" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muʿtaḍid">al-Muʿtaḍid</a> (d. 902 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-ENW2_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the reign of Al-Mutadid's son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">Al-Muktafi</a> (r. 902–908) al-Razi was commissioned to build a new hospital, which should be the largest of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. To pick the future hospital's location, al-Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based">evidence-based</a> approach suggesting having fresh meat hung in various places throughout the city and to build the hospital where meat took longest to rot.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from <a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a>. His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cause of his blindness is uncertain. One account mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juljul" title="Ibn Juljul">Ibn Juljul</a> attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron, <a href="/wiki/Mansur_ibn_Ishaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur ibn Ishaq">Mansur ibn Ishaq</a>, for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories;<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus" title="Bar Hebraeus">Abulfaraj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Casiri" title="Miguel Casiri">Casiri</a> claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allegedly, he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">eye</a> contain and when he was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lectures of al-Razi attracted many students. As <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nadim" title="Ibn al-Nadim">Ibn al-Nadim</a> relates in <i><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nadim#Al-Fihrist" title="Ibn al-Nadim">Fihrist</a></i>, al-Razi was considered a <i><a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">shaikh</a></i>, an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several circles of students. When someone raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all students would fail to answer, al-Razi himself would consider the query. Al-Razi was a generous person by nature, with a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them a treatise <i>Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb</i>, or <i>Who Has No Physician to Attend Him</i>, with medical advice.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One former pupil from <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a> came to look after him, but as <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Ray%E1%B8%A5%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī">al-Biruni</a> wrote, al-Razi rewarded him for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Brilliant_Biruni_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brilliant_Biruni-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Biruni, al-Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Birūni_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Birūni-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biruni, who considered al-Razi his mentor, among the first penned a short biography of al-Razi including a bibliography of his numerous works.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Birūni_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Birūni-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nadim" title="Ibn al-Nadim">Ibn al-Nadim</a> recorded an account by al-Razi of a <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> student who copied down all of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>'s works in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> as al-Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5 months and attended al-Razi's lectures.<sup id="cite_ref-NeedhamWang1954_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeedhamWang1954-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gernet1996_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gernet1996-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In an undated catalog of the library at <a href="/wiki/Peterborough_Cathedral" title="Peterborough Cathedral">Peterborough Abbey</a>, most likely from the 14th century, al-Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contributions_to_medicine">Contributions to medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Contributions to medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhazes,_a_physician,_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rhazes%2C_a_physician%2C_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg/330px-Rhazes%2C_a_physician%2C_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="439" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rhazes%2C_a_physician%2C_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg/495px-Rhazes%2C_a_physician%2C_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rhazes%2C_a_physician%2C_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg/660px-Rhazes%2C_a_physician%2C_examines_a_boy_Wellcome_V0015933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2482" data-file-height="3304" /></a><figcaption>al-Razi examining a patient (miniature painting by <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Behzad" title="Hossein Behzad">Hossein Behzad</a>, 1894–1968)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Special:EditPage/Abu Bakr al-Razi">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology_and_psychotherapy">Psychology and psychotherapy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Psychology and psychotherapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Razi was one of the world's first great medical experts. He is considered the father of psychology and psychotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Claude_Philips_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claude_Philips-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smallpox_vs._measles">Smallpox vs. measles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Smallpox vs. measles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Razi wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as "bubbles found in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can also occur at other times (meaning: not only during childhood). The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic.</p></blockquote><p>Al-Razi's book <i>al-Judari wa al-Hasbah</i> (<i>On Smallpox and Measles</i>) was the first book describing <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> as distinct diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work was translated into Syriac, then into Greek. It became known in Europe through this Greek translation, as well as Latin translations based on the Greek text, and was later translated into several European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neither the date nor the author of the Syriac and Greek versions is known; but the Greek was created at the request of one of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> emperors.<sup id="cite_ref-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Its lack of dogmatism and its <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocratic</a> reliance on clinical observation show al-Razi's medical methods. For example, he wrote:</p><blockquote><p>The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with "measles" than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Encyclopaedia of Medicine)</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meningitis">Meningitis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Meningitis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Razi compared the outcome of patients with <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a> treated with <a href="/wiki/Blood-letting" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-letting">blood-letting</a> with the outcome of those treated without it to see if blood-letting could help.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pharmacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of "<a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercurial</a> ointments" and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_of_medicine">Ethics of medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethics of medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On a professional level, al-Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked <a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">charlatans</a> and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their <a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">nostrums</a> and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, al-Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a> the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, al-Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician. </p><p>He also wrote the following on <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The doctor's aim is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Razi_book_illumination,_Torino_D.I.14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Al-Razi_book_illumination%2C_Torino_D.I.14.jpg/330px-Al-Razi_book_illumination%2C_Torino_D.I.14.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Al-Razi_book_illumination%2C_Torino_D.I.14.jpg/495px-Al-Razi_book_illumination%2C_Torino_D.I.14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Al-Razi_book_illumination%2C_Torino_D.I.14.jpg/660px-Al-Razi_book_illumination%2C_Torino_D.I.14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1523" data-file-height="1598" /></a><figcaption>Doctor performing <a href="/wiki/Uroscopy" title="Uroscopy">uroscopy</a> (from a Latin translation of a work by al-Razi, 1466)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_and_articles_on_medicine">Books and articles on medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Books and articles on medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Hawi" title="Al-Hawi">al-Kitab al-Hawi</a></i></dt></dl> <p>This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynaecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-Claude_Philips_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claude_Philips-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><i>The Virtuous Life</i> (<i>al-Hawi</i> <i>الحاوي</i>).</dt></dl> <p>This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as <i>The Large Comprehensive</i> or <i>Continens Liber</i> (<i>جامع الكبير</i>)—contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and expresses innovative views on many subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this book alone, many scholars consider al-Razi the greatest medical doctor of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. </p><p>The <i>al-Hawi</i> is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of al-Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by <a href="/wiki/Faraj_ben_Salim" title="Faraj ben Salim">Faraj ben Salim</a>, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Anjou" title="Charles I of Anjou">Charles of Anjou</a>, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe. </p><p>The <i>al-Hawi</i> also criticized the views of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, after al-Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Urinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary">urinary</a> <a href="/wiki/Ailment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ailment">ailments</a> were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while al-Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">hospitals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and Rey.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><i>For One Who Has No Physician to Attend Him</i> (<i>Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib</i>) (<i>من لا يحضره الطبيب</i>)—A medical adviser for the general public</dt></dl> <p>Al-Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual (<a href="/wiki/Home_remedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Home remedy">remedial</a>) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveller, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Al-Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results. </p><p>Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of <i>duhn</i> (oily extract) of <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a>, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a <a href="/wiki/Laxative" title="Laxative">laxative</a>, " 7 <a href="/wiki/Dram_(unit)" title="Dram (unit)">drams</a> of dried <a href="/wiki/Violet_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Violet (plant)">violet</a> flowers with 20 pears, <a href="/wiki/Maceration_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maceration (food)">macerated</a> and well mixed, then strained. Add to this <a href="/wiki/Filtrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Filtrate">filtrate</a>, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either <a href="/wiki/Poppy" title="Poppy">poppies</a> or its juice (<a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/Cuscuta_epithymum" title="Cuscuta epithymum">Cuscuta epithymum</a></i> (clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_arsenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow arsenic">yellow arsenic</a> formed into <a href="/wiki/Tablet_(pharmacy)" title="Tablet (pharmacy)">tablets</a>. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of <a href="/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">coriander</a> water and used as eye drops. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg/330px-Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="496" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg/495px-Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg/660px-Colof%C3%B3n-Libro_de_Medicina_de_Razi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1127" /></a><figcaption>Colophon of al-Razi's <i>Book of Medicine for Mansur</i></figcaption></figure> <dl><dt><i>Book for al-Mansur (<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar">Kitāb al-Manṣūrī</i></span>)</i></dt></dl> <p>Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron <a href="/wiki/Abu_Salih_Mansur" title="Abu Salih Mansur">Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Samanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid">Samanid</a> governor of Ray.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was translated into Latin by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> around 1180.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><i>Doubts about Galen</i> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs</i></span>)</dt></dl> <p>In his book <i>Doubts about Galen</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> al-Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> and many of his <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's. </p><p>He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "<a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humors</a>" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (<i>Cf.</i> I. E. Goodman) </p><p>This line of criticism essentially had the potential to completely refute Galen's theory of humors, as well as Aristotle's theory of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">four elements</a>, on which it was grounded. Al-Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or <a href="/wiki/Inflammability" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammability">inflammability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements. </p><p>Al-Razi's challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory was quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labours, saying: </p> <blockquote><p>I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <dl><dt><i>The Diseases of Children</i></dt></dl> <p>Al-Razi's <i>The Diseases of Children</i> was the first monograph to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Tschanz2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tschanz2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elgood2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elgood2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alchemy">Alchemy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Alchemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhazes,_Arab_physician_and_alchemist,_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rhazes%2C_Arab_physician_and_alchemist%2C_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg/330px-Rhazes%2C_Arab_physician_and_alchemist%2C_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="455" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rhazes%2C_Arab_physician_and_alchemist%2C_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg/495px-Rhazes%2C_Arab_physician_and_alchemist%2C_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rhazes%2C_Arab_physician_and_alchemist%2C_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg/660px-Rhazes%2C_Arab_physician_and_alchemist%2C_in_hi_Wellcome_V0018133.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2526" data-file-height="3484" /></a><figcaption>al-Razi in his laboratory (<a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalist</a> painting by Ernest Board, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1912</span>)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Special:EditPage/Abu Bakr al-Razi">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid#History" title="Sulfuric acid">Sulfuric acid § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_transmutation_of_metals">The transmutation of metals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The transmutation of metals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">transmutation</a> of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_an-Nadim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn an-Nadim">Ibn an-Nadim</a>'s book, <i>The Philosopher's Stone</i> (<i>Lapis Philosophorum</i> in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a>'s denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mun founder of Baghdad, to 'the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: <i>al-Asrar</i> (الاسرار "The Secrets"), and <i>Sirr al-Asrar</i> (سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work. </p><p> Apparently al-Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in <i>Mohammad Zakaria Razi</i> that a certain General Simjur confronted al-Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that al-Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied":</p><blockquote><p>I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible...</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_works_on_alchemy">Major works on alchemy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Major works on alchemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Special:EditPage/Abu Bakr al-Razi">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Al-Razi's works present the first systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Secrets_(Al-Asrar)"><span id="The_Secrets_.28Al-Asrar.29"></span><i>The Secrets</i> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Al-Asrar</i></span>)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Secrets (Al-Asrar)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>'The Secrets'</i> (<i>al-Asrar</i>, <i>Kitāb al-Asrār</i>, <i>'Book of Secrets'</i>) was written in response to a request from al-Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Muhammad ibn Yunis <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">al-Bukhari</a>, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural scientist</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secret_of_Secrets_(Sirr_al-Asrar)"><span id="Secret_of_Secrets_.28Sirr_al-Asrar.29"></span><i>Secret of Secrets</i> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sirr al-Asrar</i></span>)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Secret of Secrets (Sirr al-Asrar)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum">Secretum Secretorum</a> (also known as Sirr al-Asrar, 'The Secret Book of Secrets').</div><p>This is al-Razi's most famous book. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy. In this book al-Razi divides the subject of "<a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>' into three categories, as in his previous book <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Al-Asrar</i></span>. </p><ol><li>Knowledge and identification of the medical components within substances derived from plants, animals, and minerals, and descriptions of the best types for medical treatments.</li> <li>Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemists or <a href="/wiki/Apothecaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Apothecaries">apothecaries</a>.</li> <li>Knowledge of seven <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemical</a> procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, precipitation of sulfur, and arsenic calcination of <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, <a href="/wiki/Talc" title="Talc">talc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">shells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">waxing</a>.</li></ol> <dl><dd>This last category contains additional descriptions of other methods and applications used in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">transmutation</a>: <ul><li>The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.</li> <li>The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ajsad</i></span> and <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ahjar</i></span>) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and salts (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-amlah</i></span>).</li> <li>The use of a liquid <a href="/wiki/Mordant" title="Mordant">mordant</a> which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">amalgams</a> ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a>, al-Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (<a href="/wiki/Gold_leafing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold leafing">gold leafing</a>) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">Gilding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silvering" title="Silvering">silvering</a> of other metals (<a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a>, calcium salts, iron, copper, and <a href="/wiki/Tutty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutty">tutty</a>) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. </p><p>Al-Razi classified minerals into six divisions: </p> <ol><li>Four spirits (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-arwah</i></span>): <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sal_ammoniac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sal ammoniac">sal ammoniac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulphur</a>, and arsenic sulphide (<a href="/wiki/Orpiment" title="Orpiment">orpiment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Realgar" title="Realgar">realgar</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metals_of_antiquity" title="Metals of antiquity">Seven bodies</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ajsad</i></span>): silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">plumbago</i></span>), <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">kharsind</i></span>), and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>.</li> <li>Thirteen <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">stones</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ahjar</i></span>): <a href="/wiki/Marcasite" title="Marcasite">Marcasite</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">marqashita</i></span>), <a href="/wiki/Periclase" title="Periclase">magnesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">malachite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tutty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutty">tutty</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">tutiya</i></span>, zinc oxide), <a href="/wiki/Talcum" class="mw-redirect" title="Talcum">talcum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azurite" title="Azurite">azurite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haematite" class="mw-redirect" title="Haematite">haematite</a> (iron oxide), arsenic oxide<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2021)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup>, <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a>, and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal damascene is considered the best).</li> <li>Seven <a href="/wiki/Vitriol" title="Vitriol">vitriols</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-zajat</i></span>): <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-shabb</i></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الشب</span></span>), and white (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qalqadis</i></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">القلقديس</span></span>), black, red (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">suri</i></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">السوري</span></span>), and yellow (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qulqutar</i></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">القلقطار</span></span>) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qalqand</i></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">القلقند</span></span>).</li> <li>Seven <a href="/wiki/Borate" title="Borate">borates</a>: <a href="/wiki/Natron" title="Natron">natron</a>, and impure sodium borate.</li> <li>Eleven salts (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-amlah</i></span>): including brine, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">common salt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">ashes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a>, live <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">lime</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">rock</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_salt" title="Sea salt">sea salts</a>. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances, the best forms and colours of each, and the qualities of various adulterations.</li></ol> <p>Al-Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes: </p> <ol><li>Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/macerator" class="extiw" title="wikt:macerator">macerator</a>, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pestle), file, shears, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/descensory" class="extiw" title="wikt:descensory">descensory</a>, and semi-cylindrical iron mould.</li> <li>Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, <a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">alembic</a>, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, <a href="/wiki/Phial" class="mw-redirect" title="Phial">phials</a>, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, <a href="/wiki/Aludel" title="Aludel">aludel</a>, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although al-Razi wrote extensively on philosophy, most of his works on this subject are now lost.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of his religio-philosophical ideas, including his belief in five "eternal principles", are only known from fragments and testimonies found in other authors, who were often strongly opposed to his thought.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Al-Razi's metaphysical doctrine derives from the theory of the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles (<a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, time, and <a href="/wiki/Place_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Place (mathematics)">place</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He accepted a pre-socratic type of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> of the bodies, and for that he differed from both the <a href="/wiki/Falasifa" class="mw-redirect" title="Falasifa">falasifa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mutakallimun" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutakallimun">mutakallimun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While he was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and the medical writers, mainly <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, he rejected <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a> and thus expressed criticism about some of their views. This is evident from the title of one of his works, <i>Doubts About Galen</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views_on_religion">Views on religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Views on religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to al-Razi. Many sources claim that al-Razi viewed prophecy and revealed religion as unnecessary and delusional, claiming that all humans have the ability to access and discover truth (including the existence of God) through God-given reason.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to these sources, his skepticism of prophecy and view that no one group or religion has privileged access to the truth is driven by his view that all people have an equal basic capacity for rationality and discovery of truth, and that apparent differences in this capacity are simply a feature of interest, opportunity, and effort.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of his supposed rejection of prophecy and acceptance of reason as the primary method for accessing the truth, al-Razi came to be admired as a <a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">freethinker</a> by some.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to al-Biruni's <i>Bibliography of al-Razi</i> (<i>Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī</i>), al-Razi wrote two "heretical books": "<i>Fī al-Nubuwwāt</i> (<i>On Prophecies</i>) and "<i>Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn</i> (<i>On the Tricks of False Prophets</i>). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions" and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets."<sup id="cite_ref-Biruni_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biruni-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Biruni also listed some other works of al-Razi on religion, including <i>Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat</i> (<i>Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies</i>) and <i>Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman</i> (<i>That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator</i>), listed under his works on the "divine sciences".<sup id="cite_ref-Biruni_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biruni-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of his works on religion are now extant in full. </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Stroumsa" title="Sarah Stroumsa">Sarah Stroumsa</a> has argued that al-Razi was a freethinker who rejected all revealed religions.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Peter Adamson</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marwan_Rashed&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marwan Rashed (page does not exist)">Marwan Rashed</a> and others hold that al-Razi did not reject revealed religion, on the basis of more recent evidence found in the writings of the theologian and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a> (died 1210).<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adamson states:</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhazes_(c._1906)_-_Veloso_Salgado.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rhazes_%28c._1906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png/200px-Rhazes_%28c._1906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rhazes_%28c._1906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png/300px-Rhazes_%28c._1906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rhazes_%28c._1906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png/400px-Rhazes_%28c._1906%29_-_Veloso_Salgado.png 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="1191" /></a><figcaption>al-Razi as depicted by <a href="/wiki/Veloso_Salgado" title="Veloso Salgado">Veloso Salgado</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1906</span>)</figcaption></figure><blockquote><p>It is worth noting that Stroumsa’s work predates Rashed’s discovery of this evidence in Fakhr al-Dīn, so that she did not have the benefit of being able to consider how this new information could be reconciled with the Proofs. That is the goal I will set for myself in this chapter. I should lay my cards on the table and say that I am persuaded by Rashed’s account, and do not believe that Razi was staging a general attack on prophecy or religion as Abū Ḥātim would have us think.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate_with_Abu_Hatim">Debate with Abu Hatim</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Debate with Abu Hatim"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The views and quotes that are often ascribed to al-Razi where he appears to be critical of religion are found in a book written by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hatim_Ahmad_ibn_Hamdan_al-Razi" title="Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi">Abu Hatim al-Razi</a>, called <i>Aʿlām al-nubuwwa</i> (Signs of Prophecy), which documents a debate between Abu Hatim and al-Razi. Abu Hatim was an <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'ili">Isma'ili</a> missionary who debated al-Razi, but whether he has faithfully recorded the views of al-Razi is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians claim that Abu Hatim accurately represented al-Razi's scepticism of revealed religion while others argue that Abu Hatim's work should be treated with scepticism given that he is a hostile source of al-Razi's beliefs and might have portrayed him as a heretic to discount his critique of the Ismāʿīlīs.<sup id="cite_ref-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Abdul Latif al-'Abd, Islamic philosophy professor at Cairo University, Abu Hatim and his student, <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4am%C4%ABd_al-d%C4%ABn_Karm%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī">Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī</a> (d. after 411AH/1020CE), were Isma'ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of al-Razi in their works.<sup id="cite_ref-al-Abd_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Abd-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view is also corroborated by early historians like <a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrastani" title="Al-Shahrastani">al-Shahrastani</a> who noted "that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī".<sup id="cite_ref-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-'Abd points out that the views allegedly expressed by al-Razi contradict what is found in al-Razi's own works, like the <i>Spiritual Medicine</i> (<i>Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-al-Abd_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Abd-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter Adamson concurs that Abu Hatim may have "deliberately misdescribed" al-Razi's position as a rejection of Islam and revealed religions. Instead, al-Razi was only arguing against the use of miracles to prove <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>'s prophecy, <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a>, and the uncritical acceptance of <i><a href="/wiki/Taql%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Taqlīd">taqlīd</a></i> vs <i>naẓar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adamson points out to a work by <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-din_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhr al-din al-Razi">Fakhr al-din al-Razi</a> where al-Razi is quoted as citing the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and the prophets to support his views.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, earlier historians such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Paul Kraus</a> and Sarah Stroumsa accepted that the extracts found in Abu Hatim's book were either said by al-Razi during a debate or were quoted from a now lost work. According to the debate with Abu Hatim, al-Razi denied the validity of prophecy or other authority figures, and rejected prophetic miracles. He also directed a scathing critique on revealed religions and the miraculous quality of the Quran.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They suggest that this lost work is either his famous <i>al-ʿIlm al-Ilāhī</i> or another shorter independent work called <i>Makharīq al-Anbiyāʾ</i> (<i>The Prophets' Fraudulent Tricks</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Stroumsa_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroumsa-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abu Hatim, however, did not explicitly mention al-Razi by name in his book, but referred to his interlocutor simply as the <i>mulḥid</i> (lit. "heretic").<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_50-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-al-Abd_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Abd-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Razi_Window.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Al-Razi_Window.jpg/220px-Al-Razi_Window.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Al-Razi_Window.jpg/330px-Al-Razi_Window.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Al-Razi_Window.jpg/440px-Al-Razi_Window.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Stained-glass window depicting al-Razi (<a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Chapel" title="Princeton University Chapel">Princeton University Chapel</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1924–1928</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Razi's religious and philosophical views were later criticized by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> in the early 11th century. Biruni in particular wrote a short treatise (<i><a href="/wiki/Risalah_(fiqh)" title="Risalah (fiqh)">risala</a></i>) dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him for his sympathy with <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Watt_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watt-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermetical</a> writings, his religious and philosophical views,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for refusing to <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics in medieval Islam">mathematize physics</a>, and his active opposition <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics in medieval Islam">to mathematics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Avicenna, who was himself a physician and philosopher, also criticized al-Razi.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Or from Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi, who meddles <a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">in metaphysics</a> and exceeds his competence. He should have remained confined to surgery and <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">to urine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stool_test" title="Stool test">stool testing</a>—indeed he exposed himself and showed his ignorance in these matters.<sup id="cite_ref-Berjak_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berjak-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Nasr-i-Khosraw" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasr-i-Khosraw">Nasr-i-Khosraw</a> posthumously accused him of having plagiarized <a href="/wiki/Iranshahri" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranshahri">Iranshahri</a>, whom Khosraw considered the master of al-Razi.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern-day <a href="/wiki/Razi_Vaccine_and_Serum_Research_Institute" title="Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute">Razi Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Karaj" title="Karaj">Karaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Razi_University" title="Razi University">Razi University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kermanshah" title="Kermanshah">Kermanshah</a> were named after him. A "Razi Day" ("Pharmacy Day") is commemorated in Iran every 27 August.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2009, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> donated a "Scholars Pavilion" or Chartagi to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_in_Vienna" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Office in Vienna">United Nations Office in Vienna</a>, now placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_International_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Vienna International Center">Vienna International Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pavilion features the statues of al-Razi, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Ray%E1%B8%A5%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" title="George Sarton">George Sarton</a> remarked him as "greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Iranian scientists">List of Iranian scientists</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medical_Encyclopedia_of_Islam_and_Iran" title="Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran">Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_literature" title="Medical literature">Medical literature</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the spelling of his <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> name, see for example <a href="#CITEREFKraus1939">Kraus 1939</a>. Sometimes it is also spelled <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">زکریا</span></span> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zakariyyā</i></span>) rather than <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">زکریاء</span></span> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zakariyyāʾ</i></span>), as for example in <a href="#CITEREFDānish-pazhūh1964">Dānish-pazhūh 1964</a>, p. 1 of the edition, or in <a href="#CITEREFMohaghegh1993">Mohaghegh 1993</a>, p. 5. In modern <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> his name is rendered as <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ابوبکر محمدبن زکریا رازی</span></span> (see <a href="#CITEREFDānish-pazhūh1964">Dānish-pazhūh 1964</a>, p. 1 of the introduction), though instead of <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">زکریا</span></span> one may also find <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">زکریای</span></span> (see <a href="#CITEREFMohaghegh1993">Mohaghegh 1993</a>, p. 18).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For his date of birth, <a href="#CITEREFKrausPines1913–1936">Kraus & Pines 1913–1936</a> give 864 CE / 250 AH (<a href="#CITEREFGoodman1960–2007">Goodman 1960–2007</a> gives 854 CE / 250 AH, but this is a typo), while <a href="#CITEREFRichter-Bernburg2003">Richter-Bernburg 2003</a> and <a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021a">Adamson 2021a</a> give 865 CE / 251 AH. For his date of death as 925 or 935 CE / 313 or 323 AH, see Goodman 1960–2007; some sources only give 925 CE / 313 AH (<a href="#CITEREFWalker1998">Walker 1998</a>; Richter-Bernburg 2003; <a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021a">Adamson 2021a</a>).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker1998">Walker 1998</a>; <a href="#CITEREFIskandar2008">Iskandar 2008</a>; <a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021a">Adamson 2021a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Majid Fakhry, <i>A History of Islamic Philosophy: Third Edition</i>, Columbia University Press (2004), p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021a">Adamson 2021a</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hakeem Abdul Hameed, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/hakeems.php">Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006200548/http://salaam.co.uk/knowledge/hakeems.php">Archived</a> 6 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ENW2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ENW2_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ENW2_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ENW2_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ENW2_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ENW2_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ENW2_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIskandar2008">Iskandar 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Influence of Islam on World Civilization" by Prof. Z. Ahmed, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā, Fuat Sezgin, Māzin ʻAmāwī, Carl Ehrig-Eggert, and E. Neubauer. <i>Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyāʼ ar-Rāzī (d. 313/925): texts and studies</i>. Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFANSARI1976" class="citation journal cs1">ANSARI, A. S. BAZMEE (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847003">"Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Yahya Al-Razi: Universal Scholar and Scientist"</a>. <i>Islamic Studies</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 155–166. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0578-8072">0578-8072</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847003">20847003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Abu+Bakr+Muhammad+Ibn+Yahya+Al-Razi%3A+Universal+Scholar+and+Scientist&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=155-166&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20847003%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0578-8072&rft.aulast=ANSARI&rft.aufirst=A.+S.+BAZMEE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20847003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1921">Browne 1921</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tschanz2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tschanz2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tschanz2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTschanz_David_W.,_PhD2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tschanz David W., PhD (2003). "Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine". <i>Heart Views</i>. <b>4</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heart+Views&rft.atitle=Arab%28%3F%29+Roots+of+European+Medicine&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Tschanz+David+W.%2C+PhD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elgood2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elgood2_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elgood2_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElgood2010" class="citation book cs1">Elgood, Cyril (2010). <i>A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate</i> (1st ed.). London: Cambridge. pp. 202–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01588-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01588-2"><bdi>978-1-108-01588-2</bdi></a>. <q>By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may also be looked upon as the father of paediatrics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Medical+History+of+Persia+and+The+Eastern+Caliphate&rft.place=London&rft.pages=202-203&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01588-2&rft.aulast=Elgood&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220144536/http://www.unhas.ac.id/rhiza/arsip/saintis/razi.html">"Ar-Razi (Rhazes), 864–930 C.E."</a> <i>www.unhas.ac.id</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhas.ac.id/rhiza/arsip/saintis/razi.html">the original</a> on 20 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2020</span>. <q>Ar-Razi was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and treatment and the health sciences in general. In particular, he was a pioneer in the fields of pediatrics, obstetrics and ophthalmology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unhas.ac.id&rft.atitle=Ar-Razi+%28Rhazes%29%2C+864%E2%80%93930+C.E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhas.ac.id%2Frhiza%2Farsip%2Fsaintis%2Frazi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021a">Adamson 2021a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKahl2015">Kahl 2015</a>, p. 6<br /><span class="nowrap"><a href="#CITEREFRuska1937">Ruska 1937</a>, p. 4</span><br /><a href="#CITEREFUllmann1997">Ullmann 1997</a>, p. 29<br /><a href="#CITEREFSarton1927">Sarton 1927</a>, p. 590<br /><a href="#CITEREFHitti1969">Hitti 1969</a>, p. 188<br /><a href="#CITEREFWalzer1962">Walzer 1962</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRāzī" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7381/">"The Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur and Other Medical Tracts – Liber ad Almansorem"</a>. <i>World Digital Library</i> (in Latin)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=The+Book+of+Medicine+Dedicated+to+Mansur+and+Other+Medical+Tracts+%E2%80%93+Liber+ad+Almansorem&rft.aulast=R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Zakar%C4%ABy%C4%81&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F7381%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bookonmedicinededicatedtoalmansur-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bookonmedicinededicatedtoalmansur_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRāzī" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4276/">"The Book on Medicine Dedicated to al-Mansur – الكتاب المنصوري في الطب"</a>. <i>World Digital Library</i> (in Amharic and Arabic)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=The+Book+on+Medicine+Dedicated+to+al-Mansur+%E2%80%93+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8&rft.aulast=R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Zakar%C4%ABy%C4%81&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F4276%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/10672/">"Commentary on the Chapter Nine of the Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur – Commentaria in nonum librum Rasis ad regem Almansorem"</a>. <i>World Digital Library</i> (in Latin). 1542<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Commentary+on+the+Chapter+Nine+of+the+Book+of+Medicine+Dedicated+to+Mansur+%E2%80%93+Commentaria+in+nonum+librum+Rasis+ad+regem+Almansorem&rft.date=1542&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F10672%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikaeinZargaranMehdizadeh2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nikaein F, Zargaran A, Mehdizadeh A (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644752">"Rhazes' concepts and manuscripts on nutrition in treatment and health care"</a>. <i>Anc Sci Life</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 160–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0257-7941.107357">10.4103/0257-7941.107357</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644752">3644752</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23661862">23661862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anc+Sci+Life&rft.atitle=Rhazes%27+concepts+and+manuscripts+on+nutrition+in+treatment+and+health+care&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=160-3&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3644752%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23661862&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0257-7941.107357&rft.aulast=Nikaein&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Zargaran%2C+A&rft.au=Mehdizadeh%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3644752&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, Lois N. <i>A History of Medicine</i>. New York: M. Dekker, 1992, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagner2002" class="citation book cs1">Magner, Lois N. (13 August 2002). <i>A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded</i>. CRC Press. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4360-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4360-4"><bdi>978-0-8247-4360-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Life+Sciences%2C+Revised+and+Expanded&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002-08-13&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-4360-4&rft.aulast=Magner&rft.aufirst=Lois+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pococke, E. <i>Historia Compendosia Dynastiarum</i>. Oxford, 1663, p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong1841" class="citation book cs1">Long, George (1841). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias23longgoog"><i>The Penny cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Volume 19</i></a>. C. Knight. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias23longgoog/page/n453">445</a>. <q>rhazes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penny+cyclop%C3%A6dia+of+the+Society+for+the+Diffusion+of+Useful+Knowledge%2C+Volume+19&rft.pages=445&rft.pub=C.+Knight&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpennycyclopdias23longgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425001329/http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/S16R27/html-640/003-002.html">"Saab Medical Library – كتاب في الجدري و الحصبة – American University of Beirut"</a>. Ddc.aub.edu.lb. 1 June 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/S16R27/html-640/003-002.html">the original</a> on 25 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saab+Medical+Library+%E2%80%93+%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A+%D9%88+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%A9+%E2%80%93+American+University+of+Beirut&rft.pub=Ddc.aub.edu.lb&rft.date=2003-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fddc.aub.edu.lb%2Fprojects%2Fsaab%2FS16R27%2Fhtml-640%2F003-002.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Porter, Roy. <i>The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity</i>. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brilliant_Biruni-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brilliant_Biruni_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kamiar, Mohammad. <i>Brilliant Biruni: A Life Story of Abu Rayhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad</i>. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Al-Birūni-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Birūni_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Birūni_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruska, Julius. <i>Al-Birūni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Rāzi's</i>. Bruxelles: Weissenbruch, 1922.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NeedhamWang1954-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NeedhamWang1954_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_NeedhamLing_Wang1954" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Needham; Ling Wang (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNXZGQVdz_gC&pg=PA219"><i>中國科學技術史</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05799-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05799-8"><bdi>978-0-521-05799-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=219-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05799-8&rft.au=Joseph+Needham&rft.au=Ling+Wang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNXZGQVdz_gC%26pg%3DPA219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gernet1996-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gernet1996_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Gernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/34">34</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49781-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49781-7"><bdi>978-0-521-49781-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=34-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996-05-31&rft.isbn=978-0-521-49781-7&rft.au=Jacques+Gernet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFغليزان" class="citation web cs1">غليزان, فيزياء. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224956/http://www.physique48.org/serv/razi.htm">"الرازي"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physique48.org/serv/razi.htm">the original</a> on 3 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A&rft.aulast=%D8%BA%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86&rft.aufirst=%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physique48.org%2Fserv%2Frazi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304223624/http://www.nooonbooks.com/media/downloadable/files/links/2/5/pages/25058/OPS/Text/chapter-012.xml">"قلم لنكبرده ولساكسه , قلم الصين"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nooonbooks.com/media/downloadable/files/links/2/5/pages/25058/OPS/Text/chapter-012.xml">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D9%82%D9%84%D9%85+%D9%84%D9%86%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87+%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%87+%2C+%D9%82%D9%84%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nooonbooks.com%2Fmedia%2Fdownloadable%2Ffiles%2Flinks%2F2%2F5%2Fpages%2F25058%2FOPS%2FText%2Fchapter-012.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gunton, Simon. The History of the Church of Peterborough. London, Richard Chiswell, publisher, 1686. Facsimile edition published by Clay, Tyas, and Watkins in Peterborough and Stamford (1990). Item Fv. on pp. 187–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Claude_Philips-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Claude_Philips_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Claude_Philips_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhipps2015" class="citation book cs1">Phipps, Claude (5 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jAO0CgAAQBAJ&q=al+razi+father+of+ophthalmology&pg=PA111"><i>No Wonder You Wonder!: Great Inventions and Scientific Mysteries</i></a>. Springer. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319216805" title="Special:BookSources/9783319216805"><bdi>9783319216805</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Wonder+You+Wonder%21%3A+Great+Inventions+and+Scientific+Mysteries&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015-10-05&rft.isbn=9783319216805&rft.aulast=Phipps&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjAO0CgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dal%2Brazi%2Bfather%2Bof%2Bophthalmology%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuat_Sezgin1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fuat_Sezgin" title="Fuat Sezgin">Fuat Sezgin</a> (1970). <i>Ar-Razi. In: Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums Bd. III: Medizin – Pharmazie – Zoologie – Tierheilkunde = History of the Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine – Pharmacology – Veterinary Medicine</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 276, 283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ar-Razi.+In%3A+Geschichte+des+arabischen+Schrifttums+Bd.+III%3A+Medizin+%E2%80%93+Pharmazie+%E2%80%93+Zoologie+%E2%80%93+Tierheilkunde+%3D+History+of+the+Arabic+literature+Vol.+III%3A+Medicine+%E2%80%93+Pharmacology+%E2%80%93+Veterinary+Medicine&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=276%2C+283&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Fuat+Sezgin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_biography_and_mythology,_Rhazes_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DR%3Aentry+group%3D2%3Aentry%3Drhazes-bio-1">A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, Rhazes</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansThorntonChalmersGlasziou2011" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Imogen; Thornton, Hazel; Chalmers, Iain; Glasziou, Paul (1 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK66204/"><i>Testing Treatments: Better Research for Better Healthcare</i></a> (2nd ed.). London: Pinter & Martin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781905177486" title="Special:BookSources/9781905177486"><bdi>9781905177486</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22171402">22171402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Testing+Treatments%3A+Better+Research+for+Better+Healthcare&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pinter+%26+Martin&rft.date=2011-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22171402&rft.isbn=9781905177486&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Imogen&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Hazel&rft.au=Chalmers%2C+Iain&rft.au=Glasziou%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK66204%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171204104627/http://www.islamicmedicine.org/alrazi3.htm">"The valuable contributions of Al-Razi (Rhazes) in the history of pharmacy during the middle ages"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamicmedicine.org/alrazi3.htm">the original</a> on 4 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+valuable+contributions+of+Al-Razi+%28Rhazes%29+in+the+history+of+pharmacy+during+the+middle+ages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicmedicine.org%2Falrazi3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=570">Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070922222605/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=570">Archived</a> 22 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRāzī" class="citation web cs1">Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7458">"The Comprehensive Book on Medicine – كتاب الحاوى فى الطب"</a>. <i>World Digital Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=The+Comprehensive+Book+on+Medicine+%E2%80%93+%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%89+%D9%81%D9%89+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8&rft.aulast=R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Zakar%C4%ABy%C4%81&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F7458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9715">"The Comprehensive Book on Medicine – كتاب الحاوي"</a>. <i>World Digital Library</i> (in Arabic). 1674 [Around 1674 CE]<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=The+Comprehensive+Book+on+Medicine+%E2%80%93+%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A&rft.date=1674&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F9715&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRāzī1529" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā (1529). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9553">"The Comprehensive Book on Medicine—Continens Rasis"</a>. <i>World Digital Library</i> (in Latin)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=The+Comprehensive+Book+on+Medicine%E2%80%94Continens+Rasis&rft.date=1529&rft.aulast=R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Zakar%C4%ABy%C4%81&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F9553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Emilie Savage-Smith</a> (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science" title="Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science">Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</a></i>, Vol. 3, pp. 903–962 [917]. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, London and New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021b">Adamson 2021b</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-09213/1">"Rāzī, Liber Almansoris (Cambridge, University Library, MS Add. 9213)"</a>. <i>Cambridge Digital Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=R%C4%81z%C4%AB%2C+Liber+Almansoris+%28Cambridge%2C+University+Library%2C+MS+Add.+9213%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcudl.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fview%2FMS-ADD-09213%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edited and translated into French by <a href="#CITEREFKoetschet2019">Koetschet 2019</a>. An older edition is <a href="#CITEREFMohaghegh1993">Mohaghegh 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bashar Saad, Omar Said, <i>Greco-Arab and Islamic Herbal Medicine: Traditional System, Ethics, Safety, Efficacy, and Regulatory Issues</i>, John Wiley & Sons, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118002261" title="Special:BookSources/9781118002261">9781118002261</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-WQVF8nhKf4C&pg=PT33">page</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the list of 35 works given by <a href="#CITEREFDaiber2017">Daiber 2017</a>, pp. 389–396. Of these, only three are extant in full (see p. 396), though fragments of many other works also survive (edited by <a href="#CITEREFKraus1939">Kraus 1939</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2021" class="citation cs2">Adamson, Peter (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/abu-bakr-al-razi/">"Abu Bakr al-Razi"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2023</span>, <q>While we have ample surviving evidence for his medical thought, his philosophical ideas mostly have to be pieced together on the basis of reports found in other authors, who are often hostile to him.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abu+Bakr+al-Razi&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2021&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2021%2Fentries%2Fabu-bakr-al-razi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_50-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarenbon2012" class="citation book cs1">Marenbon, John (14 June 2012). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 69–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195379488" title="Special:BookSources/9780195379488"><bdi>9780195379488</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Medieval+Philosophy&rft.pages=69-70&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-06-14&rft.isbn=9780195379488&rft.aulast=Marenbon&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1995" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Lenn (1995). Audi, Robert (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-40224-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-40224-7"><bdi>0-521-40224-7</bdi></a>. <q>In keeping with the Epicureanism he might have imbibed from Galenic sources, he rejects special prophecy as imposture, arguing that reason, God's gift to all alike, is sufficient guidance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=The+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-521-40224-7&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroff2007" class="citation book cs1">Groff, Peter (2007). <i>Islamic Philosophy A-Z</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 180–181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748620890" title="Special:BookSources/9780748620890"><bdi>9780748620890</bdi></a>. <q>Accordingly, al-Razi takes a rather dim view of prophecy, which in his view is both unnecessary and delusional, and indeed he criticizes all revealed religions as provincial and divisive. No one individual or group can legitimately claim a monopoly on the truth; each succeeding generation has the ability to improve upon and even transcend its predecessor's insights through rational argumentation and empirical inquiry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Philosophy+A-Z&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=180-181&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780748620890&rft.aulast=Groff&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2000" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Paul E. (2000). <i>Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. New York: Routledge. p. 744. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22364-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-22364-4"><bdi>0-415-22364-4</bdi></a>. <q>Chief among his positive contributions is his advocacy of a doctrine of equal aptitude in all humans, which grants no special role for unique and divinely favoured prophets and which recognizes the possibility of future progress in the advancement of knowledge.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=744&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-22364-4&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoodman1960–2007">Goodman 1960–2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroff2007" class="citation book cs1">Groff, Peter (2007). <i>Islamic Philosophy A-Z</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 180–181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748620890" title="Special:BookSources/9780748620890"><bdi>9780748620890</bdi></a>. <q>Elsewhere, he argues that all human beings have the same fundamental capacity for reason and that the apparent inequality of people in this respect is ultimately a function of opportunity, interest and effort. Accordingly, al-Razi takes a rather dim view of prophecy, which in his view is both unnecessary and delusional, and indeed he criticizes all revealed religions as provincial and divisive. No one individual or group can legitimately claim a monopoly on the truth; each succeeding generation has the ability to improve upon and even transcend its predecessor's insights through rational argumentation and empirical inquiry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Philosophy+A-Z&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=180-181&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780748620890&rft.aulast=Groff&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroff2007" class="citation book cs1">Groff, Peter (2007). <i>Islamic Philosophy A-Z</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748620890" title="Special:BookSources/9780748620890"><bdi>9780748620890</bdi></a>. <q>More specifically, freethinking might be defined as independent thinking within an Islamicate context which (1) relies upon natural reason alone as a means to reach the truth, and (2) rejects the authority and veracity of revelation, prophecy and tradition... See belief; Ibn al-Rawandi; Islam; prophecy; rationalism; al-Razi (Abu Bakr)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Philosophy+A-Z&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press+Ltd.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780748620890&rft.aulast=Groff&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biruni-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Biruni_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biruni_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeuraseh2008" class="citation journal cs1">Deuraseh, Nurdeng (2008). "Risalat Al-Biruni Fi Fihrist Kutub Al-Razi: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Works of Abu Bakr Al-Rāzī (d. 313 A.h/925) and Al-Birūni (d. 443/1051)". <i>Journal of Aqidah and Islamic Thought</i>. <b>9</b>: 51–100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Aqidah+and+Islamic+Thought&rft.atitle=Risalat+Al-Biruni+Fi+Fihrist+Kutub+Al-Razi%3A+A+Comprehensive+Bibliography+of+the+Works+of+Abu+Bakr+Al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB+%28d.+313+A.h%2F925%29+and+Al-Bir%C5%ABni+%28d.+443%2F1051%29&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=51-100&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Deuraseh&rft.aufirst=Nurdeng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021b">Adamson 2021b</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021a">Adamson 2021a</a>, <a href="#CITEREFRashed2008">Rashed 2008</a>, <a href="#CITEREFGüngör2023">Güngör 2023</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamson2021b">Adamson 2021b</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr_1999_p._353_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Mehdi Amin Razavi, <i>An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia</i>, vol. 1, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 353, quote: "Among the other eminent figures who attacked Rāzī are the Ismāʿīlī philosopher Abū Ḥatem Rāzī, who wrote two books to refute Rāzī's views on theodicy, prophecy, and miracles; and Nāṣir-i Khusraw. Shahrastānī, however, indicates that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-al-Abd-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-al-Abd_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-al-Abd_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-al-Abd_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdul_Latif_Muhammad_al-Abd1978" class="citation book cs1">Abdul Latif Muhammad al-Abd (1978). <i>Al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī li Abū Bakr al-Rāzī</i>. Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍa al-Miṣriyya. pp. 4, 13, 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-%E1%B9%ADibb+al-r%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5%C4%81n%C4%AB+li+Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=4%2C+13%2C+18&rft.pub=Maktabat+al-Nah%E1%B8%8Da+al-Mi%E1%B9%A3riyya&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Abdul+Latif+Muhammad+al-Abd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbstein2013" class="citation book cs1">Ebstein, Michael (25 November 2013). <i>Mysticism and Philosophy in al-Andalus: Ibn Masarra, Ibn al-ʿArabī and the Ismāʿīlī Tradition</i>. BRILL. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004255371" title="Special:BookSources/9789004255371"><bdi>9789004255371</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mysticism+and+Philosophy+in+al-Andalus%3A+Ibn+Masarra%2C+Ibn+al-%CA%BFArab%C4%AB+and+the+Ism%C4%81%CA%BF%C4%ABl%C4%AB+Tradition&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013-11-25&rft.isbn=9789004255371&rft.aulast=Ebstein&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_E._Walker1992" class="citation book cs1">Paul E. Walker (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WPc-h9TeED4C&pg=PA87">"The Political Implications of Al-Razi's Philosophy"</a>. In Charles E. Butterworth (ed.). <i>The Political aspects of Islamic philosophy: essays in honor of Muhsin S. Mahdi</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 87–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780932885074" title="Special:BookSources/9780932885074"><bdi>9780932885074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Political+Implications+of+Al-Razi%27s+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Political+aspects+of+Islamic+philosophy%3A+essays+in+honor+of+Muhsin+S.+Mahdi&rft.pages=87-89&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780932885074&rft.au=Paul+E.+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWPc-h9TeED4C%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stroumsa-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stroumsa_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStroumsa1999">Stroumsa 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraus,_PPines,_S1913–1938" class="citation book cs1">Kraus, P; Pines, S (1913–1938). "Al-Razi". <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>. p. 1136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Razi&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=1136&rft.date=1913%2F1938&rft.au=Kraus%2C+P&rft.au=Pines%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watt-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watt_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Montgomery_Watt2004" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="William Montgomery Watt">William Montgomery Watt</a> (14 April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210053854/http://www.fravahr.org/spip.php?article31">"BĪRŪNĪ and the study of non-Islamic Religions"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fravahr.org/spip.php?article31">the original</a> on 10 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=B%C4%AAR%C5%AAN%C4%AA+and+the+study+of+non-Islamic+Religions&rft.date=2004-04-14&rft.au=William+Montgomery+Watt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fravahr.org%2Fspip.php%3Farticle31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seyyed <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Nasr" class="mw-redirect" title="Hossein Nasr">Hossein Nasr</a> (1993), <i>An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines</i>, p. 166. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1516-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1516-3">0-7914-1516-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlomo_Pines1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Pines" title="Shlomo Pines">Shlomo Pines</a> (1986), <i>Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science</i>, vol. 2, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, p. 340, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5"><bdi>978-965-223-626-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Arabic+versions+of+Greek+texts+and+in+mediaeval+science&rft.pages=340&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-965-223-626-5&rft.au=Shlomo+Pines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlomo_Pines1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Pines" title="Shlomo Pines">Shlomo Pines</a> (1986), <i>Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science</i>, vol. 2, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, p. 362, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5"><bdi>978-965-223-626-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Arabic+versions+of+Greek+texts+and+in+mediaeval+science&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-965-223-626-5&rft.au=Shlomo+Pines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berjak-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berjak_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", <i>Islam & Science</i>, December 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbin1998" class="citation book cs1">Corbin, Henry (1998). <i>The Voyage and the Messenger: Iran and Philosophy</i>. North Atlantic Books. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781556432699" title="Special:BookSources/9781556432699"><bdi>9781556432699</bdi></a>. <q>Al-Razi was posthumously accused of having plagiarized his master in Nasr-i-Khosraw polemics, and the latter did not hide his sympathy for Iranshahri.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voyage+and+the+Messenger%3A+Iran+and+Philosophy&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=North+Atlantic+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781556432699&rft.aulast=Corbin&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qhu.ac.ir/default.aspx?culture=fa-IR&page=news&newsid=350">qhu.ac.ir</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Razi commemoration day</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNIS" class="citation web cs1">UNIS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2009/unisvic167.html">"Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Monument+to+Be+Inaugurated+at+the+Vienna+International+Centre%2C+%27Scholars+Pavilion%27+donated+to+International+Organizations+in+Vienna+by+Iran&rft.au=UNIS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unis.unvienna.org%2Funis%2Fpressrels%2F2009%2Funisvic167.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190914135224/http://en.viennaun.mfa.ir/index.aspx?fkeyid=&siteid=207&pageid=28858">"Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office – Vienna"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.viennaun.mfa.ir/index.aspx?fkeyid=&siteid=207&pageid=28858">the original</a> on 14 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Permanent+mission+of+the+Islamic+Republic+of+Iran+to+the+United+Nations+office+%E2%80%93+Vienna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.viennaun.mfa.ir%2Findex.aspx%3Ffkeyid%3D%26siteid%3D207%26pageid%3D28858&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosseini" class="citation web cs1">Hosseini, Mir Masood. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://parseed.ir/?ez=8002">"Negareh: Persian Scholars Pavilion at United Nations Vienna, Austria"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Negareh%3A+Persian+Scholars+Pavilion+at+United+Nations+Vienna%2C+Austria&rft.aulast=Hosseini&rft.aufirst=Mir+Masood&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fparseed.ir%2F%3Fez%3D8002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Sarton, <i>Introduction to the History of Science</i> (1927–48), 1.609</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2021a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a> (2021a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/abu-bakr-al-razi">"Abu Bakr al-Razi"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abu+Bakr+al-Razi&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2021%2Fentries%2Fabu-bakr-al-razi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArberry2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_John_Arberry" title="Arthur John Arberry">Arberry, Arthur John</a> (2008). <i>Revelation and Reason in Islam</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415438872" title="Special:BookSources/9780415438872"><bdi>9780415438872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revelation+and+Reason+in+Islam&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780415438872&rft.aulast=Arberry&rft.aufirst=Arthur+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne1921" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Granville_Browne" title="Edward Granville Browne">Browne, Edward G.</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/arabianmedicineb00browiala#page/44/"><i>Arabian Medicine, Being the Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the College of Physicians in November 1919 and November 1920</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–53. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/808169546">808169546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabian+Medicine%2C+Being+the+Fitzpatrick+Lectures+Delivered+at+the+College+of+Physicians+in+November+1919+and+November+1920&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=44-53&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F808169546&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=Edward+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Farabianmedicineb00browiala%23page%2F44%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDhanani2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dhanani, Alnoor (2013). "Atomism". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_24249">10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Atomism&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Three&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_24249&rft.aulast=Dhanani&rft.aufirst=Alnoor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffin2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacalyn_Duffin" title="Jacalyn Duffin">Duffin, Jacalyn</a> (2021). <i>History of Medicine: A Scandalously Short Introduction</i> (3rd ed.). University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-0917-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4875-0917-0"><bdi>978-1-4875-0917-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Medicine%3A+A+Scandalously+Short+Introduction&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-4875-0917-0&rft.aulast=Duffin&rft.aufirst=Jacalyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Frye" title="Richard N. Frye">Frye, Richard N.</a> (1975). <i>The Cambridge history of Iran, Volume 4</i> (Reprint ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6"><bdi>978-0-521-20093-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Iran%2C+Volume+4&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20093-6&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=Richard+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1960–2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Goodman, L.E (1960–2007). "al-Rāzī". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_6267">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition&rft.date=1960%2F2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_6267&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=L.E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitti1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Khuri_Hitti" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Khuri Hitti">Hitti, Philip Khuri</a> (1 January 1969). <i>Makers of Arab History</i>. St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Makers+of+Arab+History&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1969-01-01&rft.aulast=Hitti&rft.aufirst=Philip+Khuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIskandar2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Iskandar, Albert Z. (2008). "Al-Rāzī". In <a href="/wiki/Helaine_Selin" title="Helaine Selin">Selin, Helaine</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i> (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 155–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=155-156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft.aulast=Iskandar&rft.aufirst=Albert+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahl2015" class="citation book cs1">Kahl, Oliver (2015). <i>The Sanskrit, Syriac and Persian Sources in the Comprehensive Book of Rhazes</i>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29024-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29024-2"><bdi>978-90-04-29024-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit%2C+Syriac+and+Persian+Sources+in+the+Comprehensive+Book+of+Rhazes&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-29024-2&rft.aulast=Kahl&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxford_Reference2022" class="citation web cs1">Oxford Reference (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100406326">"Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al- Razi"</a>. <i>Oxford Reference</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition (1913–1936)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3693">10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+First+Edition+%281913%E2%80%931936%29&rft.date=1913%2F1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2214-871X_ei1_SIM_3693&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Pines%2C+Shlomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalzer1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rudolf_Walzer" title="Richard Rudolf Walzer">Walzer, Richard</a> (1962). <i>Greek Into Arabic Essays on Islamic Philosophy</i> (Oriental Studies I ed.). Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674362758" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674362758"><bdi>978-0674362758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Into+Arabic+Essays+on+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.edition=Oriental+Studies+I&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0674362758&rft.aulast=Walzer&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichter-Bernburg2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Richter-Bernburg, Lutz (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hawi-medical-book">"Ḥāwi, al-"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XII/1: Harem I–Hedāyat al-mota'allemin</i>. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 64–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933273-74-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933273-74-0"><bdi>978-0-933273-74-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B8%A4%C4%81wi%2C+al-&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica%2C+Volume+XII%2F1%3A+Harem+I%E2%80%93Hed%C4%81yat+al-mota%27allemin&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=64-67&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-933273-74-0&rft.aulast=Richter-Bernburg&rft.aufirst=Lutz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fhawi-medical-book&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarton1927" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" title="George Sarton">Sarton, George</a> (1927). <i>Introduction to the History of Science, Volume 1</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0443092060" title="Special:BookSources/978-0443092060"><bdi>978-0443092060</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+History+of+Science%2C+Volume+1&rft.date=1927&rft.isbn=978-0443092060&rft.aulast=Sarton&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStroumsa1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Stroumsa" title="Sarah Stroumsa">Stroumsa, Sarah Stroumsa</a> (1999). <i>Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn al-Rāwandī, Abū Bakr al-Rāzī, and Their Impact on Islamic Thought</i>. Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science. Texts and Studies. Vol. 35. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11374-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11374-9"><bdi>978-90-04-11374-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freethinkers+of+Medieval+Islam%3A+Ibn+al-R%C4%81wand%C4%AB%2C+Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB%2C+and+Their+Impact+on+Islamic+Thought&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Islamic+Philosophy%2C+Theology+and+Science.+Texts+and+Studies&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11374-9&rft.aulast=Stroumsa&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Stroumsa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUllmann1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Ullmann" class="extiw" title="de:Manfred Ullmann">Ullmann, Manfred</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (February 1997). <i>Islamic Medicine</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748609079" title="Special:BookSources/9780748609079"><bdi>9780748609079</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Medicine&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997-02&rft.isbn=9780748609079&rft.aulast=Ullmann&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Walker, Paul E. (1998). "al-Razi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya' (d. 925)". In <a href="/wiki/Edward_Craig_(philosopher)" title="Edward Craig (philosopher)">Craig, Edward</a> (ed.). <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-H043-1">10.4324/9780415249126-H043-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415250696" title="Special:BookSources/9780415250696"><bdi>9780415250696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-Razi%2C+Abu+Bakr+Muhammad+ibn+Zakariyya%27+%28d.+925%29&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-H043-1&rft.isbn=9780415250696&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiai2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hossein_Ziai" title="Hossein Ziai">Ziai, Hossein</a> (2005). "Recent trends in Arabic and Persian philosophy". In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a>; Taylor, Richard C. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 405–425. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521520690" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521520690"><bdi>978-0521520690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recent+trends+in+Arabic+and+Persian+philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=405-425&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521520690&rft.aulast=Ziai&rft.aufirst=Hossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_literature">Primary literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Primary literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_al-Razi">By al-Razi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: By al-Razi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArberry1950" class="citation book cs1">Arberry, A.J. (1950). <i>The Spiritual Physick of Rhazes</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spiritual+Physick+of+Rhazes&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Arberry&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Brockelmann" title="Carl Brockelmann">Brockelmann, Carl</a>. <i>Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur</i>, I, pp. 268–71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418–21. (overview of extant manuscripts of al-Razi's works)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Butterworth_(philosopher)" title="Charles Butterworth (philosopher)">Butterworth, Charles E.</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120723063106/http://interpretationjournal.com/backissues/Vol_20-3.pdf#page=5">The Book of the Philosophic Life</a>". <i>Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDānish-pazhūh1964" class="citation book cs1">Dānish-pazhūh, Muḥammad Taqī (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/columbia_aco001618"><i>Kitāb al-asrār wa-Sirr al-asrār</i></a>. Tehran: Commission Nationale Iranienne pour l'UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kit%C4%81b+al-asr%C4%81r+wa-Sirr+al-asr%C4%81r&rft.place=Tehran&rft.pub=Commission+Nationale+Iranienne+pour+l%27UNESCO&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=D%C4%81nish-pazh%C5%ABh&rft.aufirst=Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+Taq%C4%AB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdlib.nyu.edu%2Faco%2Fbook%2Fcolumbia_aco001618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (edition of the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitāb al-asrār</i></span> and fascimile of the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sirr al-asrār</i></span> in ms. Goharshad 953)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarimov1957" class="citation book cs1">Karimov, Usmon I. (1957). <i>Neizvestnoe sochinenie ar-Razi "Kniga taĭny taĭn"</i>. Tashkent: Izd-vo Akademii nauk Uzbekskoĭ SSR. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/246883935">246883935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neizvestnoe+sochinenie+ar-Razi+%22Kniga+ta%C4%ADny+ta%C4%ADn%22&rft.place=Tashkent&rft.pub=Izd-vo+Akademii+nauk+Uzbeksko%C4%AD+SSR&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F246883935&rft.aulast=Karimov&rft.aufirst=Usmon+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (fascimile of the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sirr al-asrār</i></span> in a Tashkent ms., with Russian translation) <ul><li>Review in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFigurovsky1962" class="citation journal cs1">Figurovsky, N.A. (1962). "Review of Karimov 1957". <i>Ambix</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 146–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=Review+of+Karimov+1957&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=146-149&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Figurovsky&rft.aufirst=N.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoetschet2019" class="citation book cs1">Koetschet, Pauline (2019). <i>Abū Bakr al-Rāzī: Doutes sur Galien. Introduction, édition et traduction</i>. Scientia Graeco-Arabica. Vol. 25. Berlin: De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110629767">10.1515/9783110629767</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110629767" title="Special:BookSources/9783110629767"><bdi>9783110629767</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189234965">189234965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB%3A+Doutes+sur+Galien.+Introduction%2C+%C3%A9dition+et+traduction&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Scientia+Graeco-Arabica&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A189234965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110629767&rft.isbn=9783110629767&rft.aulast=Koetschet&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (critical edition and French translation of <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs</i></span>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraus1939" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Kraus, Paul</a> (1939). <i>Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis: Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae supersunt. Pars Prior</i>. Universitatis Fouadi I litterarum facultatis publicationum. Vol. 22. Cairo: Jāmiʿat Fuʾād al-Awwal. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/496583777">496583777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abi+Bakr+Mohammadi+Filii+Zachariae+Raghensis%3A+Opera+Philosophica%2C+fragmentaque+quae+supersunt.+Pars+Prior&rft.place=Cairo&rft.series=Universitatis+Fouadi+I+litterarum+facultatis+publicationum&rft.pub=J%C4%81mi%CA%BFat+Fu%CA%BE%C4%81d+al-Awwal&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F496583777&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (edition of extant philosophical works)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohaghegh1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mehdi_Mohaghegh" title="Mehdi Mohaghegh">Mohaghegh, Mehdi</a> (1993). <i>Kitâb Al – Shukûk ʻAlâ Jâlînûs</i>. Tehran: International Institute of Islamic Though and Civilization. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/257281952">257281952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kit%C3%A2b+Al+%E2%80%93+Shuk%C3%BBk+%CA%BBAl%C3%A2+J%C3%A2l%C3%AEn%C3%BBs&rft.place=Tehran&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Islamic+Though+and+Civilization&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F257281952&rft.aulast=Mohaghegh&rft.aufirst=Mehdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (edition of <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs</i></span>, superseded by <a href="#CITEREFKoetschet2019">Koetschet 2019</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuska1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Ruska" title="Julius Ruska">Ruska, Julius</a> (1937). <i>Al-Rāzī's Buch Geheimnis der Geheimnisse. Mit Einleitung und Erläuterungen in deutscher Übersetzung</i>. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin. Vol. VI. Berlin: Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB%27s+Buch+Geheimnis+der+Geheimnisse.+Mit+Einleitung+und+Erl%C3%A4uterungen+in+deutscher+%C3%9Cbersetzung&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Quellen+und+Studien+zur+Geschichte+der+Naturwissenschaften+und+der+Medizin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Ruska&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (German translation of the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitāb al-asrār</i></span>) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2015" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Gail Marlow (2015). <i>The Alchemy of Al-Razi: A Translation of the "Book of Secrets"</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781507778791" title="Special:BookSources/9781507778791"><bdi>9781507778791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Alchemy+of+Al-Razi%3A+A+Translation+of+the+%22Book+of+Secrets%22&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781507778791&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Gail+Marlow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (English translation of Ruska 1937's translation of the Arabic)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapletonAzo1910" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ernest_Stapleton" title="Henry Ernest Stapleton">Stapleton, Henry E.</a>; Azo, Rizkallah F. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofasiatic03asia/page/n69">"An Alchemical Compilation of the 13th Century"</a>. <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 57–94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=An+Alchemical+Compilation+of+the+13th+Century&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=57-94&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft.au=Azo%2C+Rizkallah+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemoirsofasiatic03asia%2Fpage%2Fn69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (contains edited extracts from the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitāb al-Shawāhid</i></span> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofasiatic03asia/page/n83">68ff.</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ernest_Stapleton" title="Henry Ernest Stapleton">Stapleton, Henry E.</a>; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270">"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."</a> <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>. <b>VIII</b> (6): 317–418. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706947607">706947607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=Chemistry+in+Iraq+and+Persia+in+the+Tenth+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=317-418&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706947607&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft.au=Azo%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Hidayat+Husain%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southasiaarchive.com%2FContent%2Fsarf.100203%2F231270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (pp. 369–393 contain an English translation of two introductory sections of the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitāb al-asrār</i></span>; contains an edition of <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Madkhal al-Talʿlīmī</i></span>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_others">By others</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: By others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ibn Al-Nadim, <i>Fihrist</i>, (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq. <ul><li>Translated in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFück1951" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johann_F%C3%BCck" title="Johann Fück">Fück, Johann W.</a> (1951). "The Arabic Literature on Alchemy According to An-Nadīm (A.D. 987)". <i>Ambix</i>. <b>4</b> (3–4): 81–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Famb.1951.4.3-4.81">10.1179/amb.1951.4.3-4.81</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=The+Arabic+Literature+on+Alchemy+According+to+An-Nad%C4%ABm+%28A.D.+987%29&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=81-144&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Famb.1951.4.3-4.81&rft.aulast=F%C3%BCck&rft.aufirst=Johann+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_Al-Andalusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Said Al-Andalusi">Sa'id al-Andalusi</a>, <i>Tabaqat al-Umam</i>, p. 33</li> <li>Ibn Juljul, <i>Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama</i>, (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77–78</li> <li>J. Ruska, <i>Al-Biruni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis</i>, Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26–50.</li> <li>Al-Biruni, <i>Epitre de Beruni, contenant le répertoire des oeuvres de Muhammad</i> ibn <i>Zakariya ar-Razi</i>, publié par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936</li> <li>Al-Baihaqi, <i>Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma</i>, (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932</li> <li>Al-Qifti,<i>Tarikh al-Hukama</i>, (ed. Lippert), pp. 27–177</li> <li>Ibn Abi Usaibi'ah,<i>Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba</i>, Vol. I, pp. 309–21</li> <li>Abu Al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),<i>Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal</i>, (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khallikan" title="Ibn Khallikan">Ibn Khallikan</a>, <i>Wafayat al-A'yan</i>, (ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244–47</li> <li>Al-Safadi, <i>Nakt al-Himyan</i>, pp. 249–50</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-%27Imad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-'Imad">Ibn al-'Imad</a>, <i>Shadharat al-Dhahab</i>, Vol. II, p. 263</li> <li>Al-'Umari, <i>Masalik al-Absar</i>, Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_literature">Secondary literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Secondary literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a> (2016). "Atomismus bei ar-Rāzī". In Buchheim, Thomas; Meißner, David; Wachsmann, Nora (eds.). <i>Sōma: Körperkonzepte und körperliche Existenz in der antiken Philosophie und Literatur</i>. Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte, Sonderheft 13. Hamburg: Meiner. pp. 345–360.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Atomismus+bei+ar-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.btitle=S%C5%8Dma%3A+K%C3%B6rperkonzepte+und+k%C3%B6rperliche+Existenz+in+der+antiken+Philosophie+und+Literatur&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.series=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Begriffsgeschichte%2C+Sonderheft+13&rft.pages=345-360&rft.pub=Meiner&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a> (2017). "Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (d. 925), The Spiritual Medicine". In El-Rouayheb, Khaled; Schmidtke, Sabine (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 63–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB+%28d.+925%29%2C+The+Spiritual+Medicine&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=63-82&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2021b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a> (2021b). <i>Great Medieval Thinkers: al-Rāzī</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197555033.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780197555033.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197555033" title="Special:BookSources/9780197555033"><bdi>9780197555033</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Medieval+Thinkers%3A+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197555033.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780197555033&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdurrahman_Badawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdurrahman Badawi">Badawi, Abdurrahman</a>, <i>Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica</i>, Vol. II, Cairo, 1945, pp. 198–228.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaiber2017" class="citation book cs1">Daiber, Hans (2017) [2012]. "Abū Bakr al-Rāzī". In Rudolph, Ulrich; Hansberger, Rotraud; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(philosopher)" title="Peter Adamson (philosopher)">Adamson, Peter</a> (eds.). <i>Philosophy in the Islamic World. Volume 1: 8th–10th Centuries</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 381–420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2543-2729_PIWO_COM_001601">10.1163/2543-2729_PIWO_COM_001601</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32316-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-32316-2"><bdi>978-90-04-32316-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Islamic+World.+Volume+1%3A+8th%E2%80%9310th+Centuries&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=381-420&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2543-2729_PIWO_COM_001601&rft.isbn=978-90-04-32316-2&rft.aulast=Daiber&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Eisen, A. <i>Kimiya al-Razi</i>, RAAD, DIB, 62/4.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lenn_E._Goodman" title="Lenn E. Goodman">Goodman, Lenn E.</a> (1971). "The Epicurean Ethic of M. b. Zakariya' al-Razi". <i>Studia Islamica</i>. <b>34</b>: 5–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595324">10.2307/1595324</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595324">1595324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Islamica&rft.atitle=The+Epicurean+Ethic+of+M.+b.+Zakariya%27+al-Razi&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=5-26&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1595324&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595324%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1972" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lenn_E._Goodman" title="Lenn E. Goodman">Goodman, Lenn E.</a> (1972). "Razi's Psychology". <i>Philosophical Forum</i>. <b>4</b>: 26–48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Forum&rft.atitle=Razi%27s+Psychology&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=26-48&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lenn_E._Goodman" title="Lenn E. Goodman">Goodman, Lenn E.</a> (1975). "Razi's Myth of the Fall of the Soul: Its Function in His Philosophy". In Hourani, G. (ed.). <i>Essays in Islamic Philosophy and Science</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 25–40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Razi%27s+Myth+of+the+Fall+of+the+Soul%3A+Its+Function+in+His+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Islamic+Philosophy+and+Science&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pages=25-40&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lenn_E._Goodman" title="Lenn E. Goodman">Goodman, Lenn E.</a> (2015). "How Epicurean was Rāzī?". <i>Studia graeco-arabica</i>. <b>5</b>: 247–280.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+graeco-arabica&rft.atitle=How+Epicurean+was+R%C4%81z%C4%AB%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=247-280&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGüngör2023" class="citation journal cs1">Güngör, Hüseyin (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philarchive.org/rec/GNGRPR">"Razian prophecy rationalized"</a>. <i>British Journal for the History of Philosophy</i>. <b>32</b> (3): 401–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09608788.2023.2235613">10.1080/09608788.2023.2235613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Razian+prophecy+rationalized&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=401-425&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09608788.2023.2235613&rft.aulast=G%C3%BCng%C3%B6r&rft.aufirst=H%C3%BCseyin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilarchive.org%2Frec%2FGNGRPR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeym1938" class="citation journal cs1">Heym, Gerard (1938). "Al-Rāzī and Alchemy". <i>Ambix</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 184–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Famb.1938.1.3.184">10.1179/amb.1938.1.3.184</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=Al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB+and+Alchemy&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=184-191&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Famb.1938.1.3.184&rft.aulast=Heym&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hirschberg,<i>Geschichte der Augenheilkunde</i>, p. 101.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpenkoNorris2002" class="citation journal cs1">Karpenko, Vladimír; Norris, John A. 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The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages"</a>. <i>Micrologus</i>. <b>28</b>: 87–141. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2078.1%2F211340">2078.1/211340</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Micrologus&rft.atitle=Min+al-k%C4%ABmiy%C4%81%CA%BE+ad+alchimiam.+The+Transmission+of+Alchemy+from+the+Arab-Muslim+World+to+the+Latin+West+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=87-141&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2078.1%2F211340&rft.aulast=Moureau&rft.aufirst=S%C3%A9bastien&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2078.1%2F211340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (a survey of all Latin alchemical texts attributed to authors writing in Arabic, including Latin texts attributed to al-Razi)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulthauf1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Multhauf" title="Robert P. Multhauf">Multhauf, Robert P.</a> (1966). <i>The Origins of Chemistry</i>. London: Oldbourne. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/977570829">977570829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chemistry&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oldbourne&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F977570829&rft.aulast=Multhauf&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartington1938" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">Partington, J. R.</a> (1938). "The Chemistry of Rāzī". <i>Ambix</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 192–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Famb.1938.1.3.192">10.1179/amb.1938.1.3.192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=The+Chemistry+of+R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=192-196&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Famb.1938.1.3.192&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pines, S. <i>Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi's in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre</i>, Berlin, 1936, pp. 34–93.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormannSelove2017" class="citation journal cs1">Pormann, Peter E.; Selove, Emily (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.2.0279">"Two New Texts on Medicine and Natural Philosophy by Abū Bakr al-Rāzī"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>137</b> (2): 279–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.2.0279">10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.2.0279</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.2.0279">10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.2.0279</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Two+New+Texts+on+Medicine+and+Natural+Philosophy+by+Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.volume=137&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=279-299&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.2.0279&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.2.0279%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pormann&rft.aufirst=Peter+E.&rft.au=Selove%2C+Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7817%252Fjameroriesoci.137.2.0279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ranking, G. S. A. (1913). <i>The Life and Works of Rhazes</i>, in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, pp. 237–68.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRashed2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marwan_Rashed&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marwan Rashed (page does not exist)">Rashed, Marwan</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alkindi.ideo-cairo.org/manifestation/211468">"Abū Bakr Al-Rāzī Et La Prophétie"</a>. <i>MIDÉO</i>: 169–182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MID%C3%89O&rft.atitle=Ab%C5%AB+Bakr+Al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB+Et+La+Proph%C3%A9tie&rft.pages=169-182&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Rashed&rft.aufirst=Marwan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falkindi.ideo-cairo.org%2Fmanifestation%2F211468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Renaud, H. P. J. (1931). <i>A propos du millenaire de Razes</i>, in Bulletin de la Société Française d'Histoire de la Médicine, Mars-avril, pp. 203 et seq.</li> <li>Rockey, Denyse and Johnstone, Penelope (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/374430">"Medieval Arabic views on speech disorders: Al-Razi (c. 865–925)"</a>, in: <i>Journal of Communication Disorders</i>, 12(3):229-43.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuska1924" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Ruska" title="Julius Ruska">Ruska, Julius</a> (1924). "Über den gegenwärtigen Stand der Raziforschung". <i>Archeion</i>. <b>V</b>: 335–347. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FJ.arch.3.159">10.1484/J.arch.3.159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archeion&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+den+gegenw%C3%A4rtigen+Stand+der+Raziforschung&rft.volume=V&rft.pages=335-347&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FJ.arch.3.159&rft.aulast=Ruska&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuska1928" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Ruska" title="Julius Ruska">Ruska, Julius</a> (1928). "Der Salmiak in der Geschichte der Alchemie". <i>Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie</i>. <b>41</b> (50): 1321–1324. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928AngCh..41.1321R">1928AngCh..41.1321R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fange.19280415006">10.1002/ange.19280415006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+angewandte+Chemie&rft.atitle=Der+Salmiak+in+der+Geschichte+der+Alchemie&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=50&rft.pages=1321-1324&rft.date=1928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fange.19280415006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1928AngCh..41.1321R&rft.aulast=Ruska&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuska1935" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Ruska" title="Julius Ruska">Ruska, Julius</a> (1935). "Die Alchemie ar-Rāzī's". <i>Der Islam</i>. <b>22</b> (4): 281–319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1935.22.4.281">10.1515/islm.1935.22.4.281</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161271862">161271862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&rft.atitle=Die+Alchemie+ar-R%C4%81z%C4%AB%27s&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=281-319&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1935.22.4.281&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161271862%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ruska&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuska1939" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Ruska" title="Julius Ruska">Ruska, Julius</a> (1939). "Pseudepigraphe Rasis-Schriften". <i>Osiris</i>. <b>7</b>: 31–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368502">10.1086/368502</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143373785">143373785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Osiris&rft.atitle=Pseudepigraphe+Rasis-Schriften&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=31-94&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F368502&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143373785%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ruska&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (argues that most Latin texts attributed to al-Razi are <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigraphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudepigraphs">pseudepigraphs</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuskaGarbers1939" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Ruska" title="Julius Ruska">Ruska, Julius</a>; Garbers, Karl (1939). "Vorschriften zur Herstellung von scharfen Wässern bei Gabir und Razi". <i>Der Islam</i>. <b>25</b>: 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1938.25.1.1">10.1515/islm.1938.25.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161055255">161055255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&rft.atitle=Vorschriften+zur+Herstellung+von+scharfen+W%C3%A4ssern+bei+Gabir+und+Razi&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=1-34&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1938.25.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161055255%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ruska&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft.au=Garbers%2C+Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (contains a comparison of <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a>'s and Abu Bakr al-Razi's knowledge of chemical apparatus, processes and substances)</li> <li>Shader, H. H., ZDMG, 79, pp. 228–35 (see translation into Arabic by <a href="/wiki/Abdurrahman_Badawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdurrahman Badawi">Abdurrahman Badawi</a> in <i>al-Insan al-Kamil</i>, Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37–44).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapletonAzoHidayat_Husain1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ernest_Stapleton" title="Henry Ernest Stapleton">Stapleton, Henry E.</a>; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270">"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."</a> <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>. <b>VIII</b> (6): 317–418. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706947607">706947607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=Chemistry+in+Iraq+and+Persia+in+the+Tenth+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=317-418&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706947607&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft.au=Azo%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Hidayat+Husain%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southasiaarchive.com%2FContent%2Fsarf.100203%2F231270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span> (contains an in-depth analysis of the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitāb al-asrār</i></span>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2010" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Gail (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41858601">"The Kitab al-Asrar: An Alchemy Manual in Tenth-Century Persia"</a>. <i>Arab Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 6–27. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41858601">41858601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arab+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Kitab+al-Asrar%3A+An+Alchemy+Manual+in+Tenth-Century+Persia&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-27&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41858601%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Gail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41858601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Von Lippmann, E. O. <i> Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie</i>, Vol. II, p. 181.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._W%C3%BCstenfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="F. Wüstenfeld">Wüstenfeld, F.</a>, <i>Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher</i>, ftn. 98.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://soundcloud.com/user-542495654-897696505/city-tour-baghdad">Dr Al Razi's city tour of Baghdad</a>." Educational podcast released by the Leiden Learning & Innovation Centre as part of the Massive Open Online Course "Cosmopolitan Medieval Arabic World."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Adamson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Peter Adamson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abu-bakr-al-razi/">"Abu Bakr al-Razi"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abu+Bakr+al-Razi&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.au=Peter+Adamson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fabu-bakr-al-razi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbu+Bakr+al-Razi" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H043">"al-Razi" on Islamic Philosophy Online</a>, encyclopedia article about al-Razi by Paul E. Walker.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7476"><i>Lives of the Physicians</i></a>, dating from 1882, features a biography, in Arabic, about Rhazes.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemists_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world">Alchemists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umayl" title="Ibn Umayl">Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Waḥshiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_Muwaffaq" title="Abu Mansur Muwaffaq">Abū Manṣūr al-Muwaffaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">pseudo-Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi_al-Khati" title="Al-Khwarizmi al-Khati">al-Khawārizmī al-Kāthī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27izz_ibn_Badis" title="Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis">al-Muʿizz ibn Bādīs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_%27Imad_al-Din" title="Ahmad ibn 'Imad al-Din">Aḥmad ibn ʿImād al-Dīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wafid" title="Ibn al-Wafid">Ibn al-Wāfid (pharmacist)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughra%27i" title="Al-Tughra'i">al-Ṭughrāʾī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arfa%27_Ra%27s" title="Ibn Arfa' Ra's">Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artephius" title="Artephius">Artephius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi">al-Simāwī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baytar" title="Ibn al-Baytar">Ibn al-Bayṭār (pharmacist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_al-Nabati" title="Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati">Abū l-ʿAbbās al-Nabātī (pharmacist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Rammah" title="Hasan al-Rammah">Ḥasan al-Rammāḥ (engineer)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">al-Jildakī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rassam" title="Ibn Rassam">Ibn al-Rassām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Ashba_ibn_Tammam" title="Abul Ashba ibn Tammam">Abū l-Ashbā ibn Tammām</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosopher's stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">al-iksīr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">Alembic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">Athanor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_works_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Alchemical works of the medieval Islamic world">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mercy_(alchemical_treatise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Mercy (alchemical treatise)">Book of Mercy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Books of the Balances">Books of the Balances</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki"><i>al-Burhān fī asrār ʿilm al-mīzān</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae">Masāʾil Khālid li-Maryānus al-rāhib</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Tablet" title="Emerald Tablet">Emerald Tablet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Five_Hundred_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Hundred Books">Five Hundred Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi"><i>al-ʿIlm al-muktasab fī zirāʿat al-dhahab</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mifthah_al-hikma" class="mw-redirect" title="Mifthah al-hikma"><i>Mifthāḥ al-ḥikma</i> (<i>Clavis sapientiae</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki"><i>al-Miṣbāḥ fī ʿilm al-miftāḥ</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" title="The Nabataean Agriculture"><i>Nabataean Agriculture</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Hundred_and_Twelve_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="One Hundred and Twelve Books">One Hundred and Twelve Books</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seventy_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventy Books">Seventy Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (pseudo-Aristotle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (al-Rāzī)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa"><i>Sirr al-khalīqa</i> (<i>Secret of Creation</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba Philosophorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Nasr_ibn_Abdallah_al-Shayzari" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Nasr ibn Abdallah al-Shayzari"><i>Nihāyat al-rutba fī ṭalab al-ḥisba</i> (al-Nabarawi)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alchemy_(general)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alchemy" title="Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alchemy" title="Template talk:Alchemy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alchemy_(general)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy (general)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemists" title="List of alchemists">Alchemists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greco-Egyptian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agathodaemon_(alchemist)" title="Agathodaemon (alchemist)">Agathodaemon (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chymes" title="Chymes">Chymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">pseudo-Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">pseudo-Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetica" title="Hermetica">Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_of_Alexandria" title="Moses of Alexandria">pseudo-Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostanes" title="Ostanes">Ostanes (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphnutia_the_Virgin" title="Paphnutia the Virgin">Paphnutia the Virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Ancient Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fang_(alchemist)" title="Fang (alchemist)">Fang (alchemist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Geng" title="Master Geng">Master Geng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">pseudo-Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Alexandria" title="Stephanus of Alexandria">Stephanus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic-Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphidius" title="Alphidius">Alphidius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artephius" title="Artephius">Artephius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">pseudo-Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arfa%27_Ra%27s" title="Ibn Arfa' Ra's">Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umayl" title="Ibn Umayl">Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Waḥshiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi">al-ʿIrāqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">al-Jildakī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">al-Ṭughrāʾī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Albertus" title="Pseudo-Albertus">pseudo-Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova" title="Arnaldus de Villa Nova">(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(alchemist)" title="George Ripley (alchemist)">George Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_di_Montanor" title="Guido di Montanor">Guido di Montanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Evesham" title="Hugh of Evesham">Hugh of Evesham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_of_Laz" title="Johann of Laz">Johann of Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dastin" title="John Dastin">John Dastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Roquetaillade" title="Jean de Roquetaillade">John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_Salernus" title="Magister Salernus">Magister Salernus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">pseudo-Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ortolanus" title="Ortolanus">Ortolanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Taranto" title="Paul of Taranto">Paul of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Bonus" title="Petrus Bonus">Petrus Bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">pseudo-Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">(pseudo-)Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taddeo_Alderotti" title="Taddeo Alderotti">Taddeo Alderotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Thomas Norton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Libavius" title="Andreas Libavius">Andreas Libavius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Valentine" title="Basil Valentine">Basil Valentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Trevisan" title="Bernard Trevisan">pseudo-Bernard of Treviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Starkey" title="George Starkey">George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Dorn" title="Gerhard Dorn">Gerhard Dorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Mercurio_da_Correggio" title="Giovanni Mercurio da Correggio">Giovanni da Correggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Khunrath" title="Heinrich Khunrath">Heinrich Khunrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hennig_Brand" title="Hennig Brand">Hennig Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Glauber" title="Johann Rudolf Glauber">Johann Rudolf Glauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maier" title="Michael Maier">Michael Maier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sendivogius" title="Michael Sendivogius">Michael Sendivogius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Jean_Fabre" title="Pierre-Jean Fabre">Pierre-Jean Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Samuel Norton (alchemist)">Samuel Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Vaughan_(philosopher)" title="Thomas Vaughan (philosopher)">Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Homberg" title="Wilhelm Homberg">Wilhelm Homberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung#Alchemy" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Canseliet" title="Eugène Canseliet">Eugène Canseliet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frater_Albertus" title="Frater Albertus">Frater Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulcanelli" title="Fulcanelli">Fulcanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Atwood" title="Mary Anne Atwood">Mary Anne Atwood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_documents" title="Category:Alchemical documents">Writings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Atalanta_Fugiens" title="Atalanta Fugiens">Atalanta fugiens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aurora_consurgens" title="Aurora consurgens">Aurora consurgens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae"><i>Liber de compositione alchemiae</i> (<i>Morienus</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Silvery_Water_and_the_Starry_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth">Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mercy_(alchemical_treatise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Mercy (alchemical treatise)">Book of Mercy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Books of the Balances">Books of the Balances</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buch_der_heiligen_Dreifaltigkeit" title="Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit">Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cantong_qi" title="Cantong qi">Cantong Qi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chymical_Wedding_of_Christian_Rosenkreutz" title="Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz">Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavis_sapientiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Clavis sapientiae"><i>Clavis sapientiae</i> (<i>Miftāḥ al-ḥikma</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_consideratione_quintae_essentiae" class="mw-redirect" title="De consideratione quintae essentiae">De consideratione quintae essentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Tablet" title="Emerald Tablet"><i>Emerald Tablet</i> (<i>Tabula Smaragdina</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leyden_papyrus_X" title="Leyden papyrus X">Leyden papyrus X</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Hermetis_de_alchemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Hermetis de alchemia"><i>Liber Hermetis de alchemia</i> (<i>Liber dabessi</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Ignium" title="Liber Ignium">Liber ignium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_lucis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber lucis">Liber lucis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mappae_clavicula" title="Mappae clavicula">Mappae clavicula</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_of_Alchimy" title="The Mirror of Alchimy">Mirror of Alchimy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mutus_Liber" title="Mutus Liber">Mutus liber</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" title="The Nabataean Agriculture">Nabataean Agriculture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Ordinal of Alchemy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Graecus_Holmiensis" title="Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis">Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Physika_kai_mystika" class="mw-redirect" title="Physika kai mystika">Physika kai mystika</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosary_of_the_Philosophers" title="Rosary of the Philosophers">Rosary of the Philosophers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutbat_al-hakim" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutbat al-hakim"><i>Rutbat al-ḥakīm</i> (<i>Step of the Sage</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seventy_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventy Books">Seventy Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa"><i>Sirr al-khalīqa</i> (<i>Secret of Creation</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (pseudo-Aristotle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (al-Rāzī)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Splendor_Solis" title="Splendor Solis">Splendor solis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summa_perfectionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa perfectionis">Summa perfectionis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suspicions_about_the_Hidden_Realities_of_the_Air" title="Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air">Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba philosophorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Keys_of_Basil_Valentine" title="The Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine">Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compilations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Trismosin#Aureum_Vellus" title="Salomon Trismosin">Aureum vellus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Chemica_Curiosa" title="Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa">Bibliotheca chemica curiosa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Alchemia" title="De Alchemia">De alchemia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum">Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciculus_Chemicus" title="Fasciculus Chemicus">Fasciculus chemicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Musaeum_Hermeticum" title="Musaeum Hermeticum">Musaeum Hermeticum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum">Theatrum chemicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum_Britannicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum">Theatrum chemicum Britannicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tripus_Aureus" title="Tripus Aureus">Tripus aureus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Various</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">Alembic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">Athanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azoth" title="Azoth">Azoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">Chrysopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">Elixir of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homunculus" title="Homunculus">Homunculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">Iatrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_art_and_entertainment" title="Alchemy in art and entertainment">In art/entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">Magnum opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouroboros" title="Ouroboros">Ouroboros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pill_of_Immortality" title="Pill of Immortality">Pill of Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosophers' stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prima_materia" title="Prima materia">Prima materia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebis" title="Rebis">Rebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yliaster" title="Yliaster">Yliaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_processes" title="Category:Alchemical processes">Processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances" title="List of alchemical substances">Substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">Symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alchemical_Symbols_(Unicode_block)" title="Alchemical Symbols (Unicode block)">Unicode</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suns_in_alchemy" title="Suns in alchemy">Suns in alchemy</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemy" title="Category:Alchemy">All articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_medicine" title="Template:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_medicine" title="Template talk:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Physicians_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Physicians of the medieval Islamic world">Physicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">7th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hafsa_Yazid" title="Abu Hafsa Yazid">Abu Hafsa Yazid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Kalada" title="Al-Harith ibn Kalada">Al-Harith ibn Kalada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Ramtha_al-Tamimi" title="Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi">Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Uthal" title="Ibn Uthal">Ibn Uthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masarjawaih" title="Masarjawaih">Masarjawaih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafi_ibn_al-Harith" title="Nafi ibn al-Harith">Nafi ibn al-Harith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufaida_Al-Aslamia" title="Rufaida Al-Aslamia">Rufaida Al-Aslamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaynab_al-Awadiya" title="Zaynab al-Awadiya">Zaynab al-Awadiya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Ja'ar al-Sadiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ruhawi" title="Al-Ruhawi">Al-Ruhawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albubather" title="Albubather">Albubather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishaq_ibn_Hunayn" title="Ishaq ibn Hunayn">Ishaq ibn Hunayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabril_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Jabril ibn Bukhtishu">Jabril ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masawaiyh" title="Masawaiyh">Masawaiyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmawaih_ibn_Bunan" title="Salmawaih ibn Bunan">Salmawaih ibn Bunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_ibn_Sahl" title="Shapur ibn Sahl">Shapur ibn Sahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Sarafyun" title="Yahya ibn Sarafyun">Yahya ibn Sarafyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuhanna_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu">Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Khuri" title="Yusuf al-Khuri">Yusuf al-Khuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%27Ali_ibn_al-%27Abbas_al-Majusi" title="'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi">'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aayon_Ibn_Aayon" title="Aayon Ibn Aayon">Aayon Ibn Aayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Rabee_Ibn_Ahmad_Al-Akhawyni_Bokhari" title="Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari">Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sahl_%27Isa_ibn_Yahya_al-Masihi" title="Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi">Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Tabari" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari">Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_Muqane%27i" title="Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i">Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_ul-Ala_Shirazi" title="Abu ul-Ala Shirazi">Abu ul-Ala Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kashkari" title="Al-Kashkari">Al-Kaŝkarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Natili" title="Al-Natili">Al-Natili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tamimi,_the_physician" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tamimi, the physician">Al-Tamimi, the physician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutychius_of_Alexandria" title="Eutychius of Alexandria">Eutychius of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Ash%CA%BFath" title="Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath">Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juljul" title="Ibn Juljul">Ibn Juljul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Jazzar" title="Ibn al-Jazzar">Ibn al-Jazzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Baks" title="Ibrahim ibn Baks">Ibrahim ibn Baks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ibn_Abdun_al-Jabali" title="Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali">Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_Muwaffaq" title="Abu Mansur Muwaffaq">Muvaffak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qumri" title="Qumri">Qumri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa" title="Qusta ibn Luqa">Qusta ibn Luqa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_ibn_Bukhtishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu">Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_%27Ubayd_al-Juzjani" title="Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani">Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hakam_al-Kirmani" title="Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani">Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_al-Kahhal" title="Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal">Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Yusuf_al-Ilaqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi">Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammar_al-Mawsili" title="Ammar al-Mawsili">Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Badi%27_al-Asturlabi" title="Al-Badi' al-Asturlabi">Badi' al-Asturlabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Sadiq" title="Ibn Abi Sadiq">Ibn Abi Sadiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Al-Thahabi" title="Ibn Al-Thahabi">Ibn Al-Thahabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Butlan" title="Ibn Butlan">Ibn Butlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hindu" title="Ibn Hindu">Ibn Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jazla" title="Ibn Jazla">Ibn Jazla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kattani" title="Ibn al-Kattani">Ibn al-Kattani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wafid" title="Ibn al-Wafid">Ibn al-Wafid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_ibn_Janah" title="Jonah ibn Janah">Jonah ibn Janah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masawaih_al-Mardini" title="Masawaih al-Mardini">Masawaih</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Jafar_ibn_Harun_al-Turjali" title="Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali">Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Bayan_ibn_al-Mudawwar" title="Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar">Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Majd_ibn_Abi_al-Hakam" title="Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam">Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Farrokh" title="Ahmad ibn Farrokh">Ahmad ibn Farrokh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Samawal_al-Maghribi" title="Al-Samawal al-Maghribi">Al-Samawal al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Habal" title="Ibn Habal">Ibn Habal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jumay%CA%BF" title="Ibn Jumayʿ">Ibn Jumay‘</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Tilmidh" title="Ibn al-Tilmidh">Ibn al-Tilmīdh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Moshe ben Maimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Aslam_Al-Ghafiqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi">Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger" title="Serapion the Younger">Serapion the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qub_ibn_Ishaq_al-Israili" title="Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili">Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayn_al-Din_Gorgani" title="Zayn al-Din Gorgani">Zayn al-Din Gorgani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maimonides" title="Abraham Maimonides">Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dakhwar" title="Al-Dakhwar">Al-Dakhwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrazuri" title="Al-Shahrazuri">Al-Shahrazuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Din_Rashid_al-Din_Vatvat" title="Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat">Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Suwaydi_(physician)" title="As-Suwaydi (physician)">As-Suwaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%27ud_Abu_al-Fadl" title="Da'ud Abu al-Fadl">Da'ud Abu al-Fadl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussam_al-Din_al-Jarrahi" title="Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi">Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumlus" title="Ibn Tumlus">Ibn Tumlus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baytar" title="Ibn al-Baytar">Ibn al-Baitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Quff" title="Ibn al-Quff">Ibn al-Quff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Raqqam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Raqqam">Ibn al‐Raqqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najib_ad-Din_Samarqandi" title="Najib ad-Din Samarqandi">Najib ad-Din Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_al-Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun al-Suri">Rashidun al-Suri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27ad_al-Dawla" title="Sa'ad al-Dawla">Sa'ad al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">Zakariya al-Qazwini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nagawri" title="Al-Nagawri">Al-Nagawri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqsara%27i" title="Aqsara'i">Aqsara'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shuayb" title="Ibn Shuayb">Ibn Shuayb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Akfani" title="Ibn al-Akfani">Ibn al-Akfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaghmini" title="Jaghmini">Jaghmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_ibn_Ilyas" title="Mansur ibn Ilyas">Mansur ibn Ilyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mas%CA%BDud_ibn_Muhammad_Sijzi" title="Masʽud ibn Muhammad Sijzi">Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad Sijzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Mahmud_Amuli" title="Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli">Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al-Din_Mahmud_ibn_Ilyas_al-Shirazi" title="Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi">Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakhshabi" title="Nakhshabi">Nakhshabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadid_al-Din_al-Kazaruni" title="Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni">Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Ismail_al-Kutubi" title="Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi">Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayn-e-Attar" title="Zayn-e-Attar">Zayn-e-Attar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_al-Afif" title="Abu Sa'id al-Afif">Abu Sa'id al-Afif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhan-ud-din_Kermani" title="Burhan-ud-din Kermani">Burhan-ud-din Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayni_Isfahani" title="Husayni Isfahani">Husayni Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Astarabadi" title="Muhammad Ali Astarabadi">Muhammad Ali Astarabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Yusuf_al-Harawi" title="Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi">Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurbakhshi" title="Nurbakhshi">Nurbakhshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Muhammad_ibn_Thaleb" title="Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb">Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabuncuo%C4%9Flu_%C5%9Eerafeddin" title="Sabuncuoğlu Şerafeddin">Şerafeddin Kadir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rostam_Gorgani" title="Rostam Gorgani">Rostam Gorgani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BDImad_Shirazi" title="ʽImad Shirazi">ʽImad Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Qasim_ibn_Mohammed_al-Ghassani" title="Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani">Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawud_al-Antaki" title="Dawud al-Antaki">Dawud al-Antaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim-e-Gilani" title="Hakim-e-Gilani">Hakim-e-Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Khorasani" title="Sultan Ali Khorasani">Sultan Ali Khorasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiwam_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Hasani" title="Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani">Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_El_Razzaq_Al-Jaza%C3%AFri" title="Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri">Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurayshi_al-Shirazi" title="Qurayshi al-Shirazi">Qurayshi al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunakabuni" title="Tunakabuni">Tunakabuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqsud-Ali_Tabrizi" title="Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi">Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khurasani_al-Shirazi" title="Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi">Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_works_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Medical works of the medieval Islamic world">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah" title="Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah">Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_Charts_of_the_Arabs" title="Anatomy Charts of the Arabs">Anatomy Charts of the Arabs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Ten_Treatises_of_the_Eye" title="Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye">Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Gradibus" title="De Gradibus">De Gradibus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">Al-Tasrif</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakhireye_Khwarazmshahi" title="Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi">Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adab_al-Tabib" title="Adab al-Tabib">Adab al-Tabib</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamel_al-Sanaat_al-Tibbyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya">Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Hawi" title="Al-Hawi">Al-Hawi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna%27s_Canon" title="Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon">Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Lives of the Physicians</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-%27Adudi_Hospital" title="Al-'Adudi Hospital">Al-'Adudi Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimarestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan" title="Nur al-Din Bimaristan">Nur al-Din Bimaristan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Ancient Greek medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_medicine" title="Ancient Iranian medicine">Ancient Iranian medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina_Academy_of_Medieval_Medicine_and_Sciences" title="Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences">Ibn Sina Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learned_medicine" title="Learned medicine">Learned medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medical Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medieval medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology"><i>Aqidah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(theology)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'<i>Aql</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(intellect)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">medieval astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam"><i>Kalam</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(dialectic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(jurisprudence)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Natural philosophy <span style="font-size:85%;">(physics)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa"><i>Madrasah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(education)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism <span style="font-size:85%;">(mysticism)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_psychology" title="Sufi psychology">psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">ʻAṣabīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Ḥāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">Iʻjaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ʼIjtihād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)">ʻIlm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">ʻIrfān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijmāʿ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shūrā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawḥīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophers_by_century_(CE)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_philosophers" title="List of Muslim philosophers">Philosophers</a> by century (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th–10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Apharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hatim_Ahmad_ibn_Hamdan_al-Razi" title="Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi">Abu Hatim al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmany%C4%81r" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmanyār">Bahmanyār</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_fi%27l-Din_al-Shirazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi">Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw" title="Nasir Khusraw">Nasir Khusraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afdal_al-Din_Kashani" title="Afdal al-Din Kashani">Afdal al-Din Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahi_Evren" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahi Evren">Ahi Evren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja_Akhmet_Yassawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoja Akhmet Yassawi">Ahmad Yasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn-al-Quzat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyám</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_Tabrizi" title="Shams Tabrizi">Shams Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Hajji Bektash Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab’in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ath%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Abhar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī">al-Abharī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Din_al-Qunawi" title="Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi">Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th–16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_Emre" title="Yunus Emre">Yunus Emre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bayram_Veli" title="Haji Bayram Veli">Hajji Bayram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaladdin_Davani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalaladdin Davani">Jalaladdin Davani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_ad-Din_Dashtaki" title="Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki">Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hudayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud Hudayi">Aziz Mahmud Hudayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Mir_Husayn_al-Maybudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi">Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Shabestari" title="Mahmoud Shabestari">Mahmud Shabistari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Haydar_Amuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Haydar Amuli">Sayyid Haydar Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daw%C5%ABd_al-Qay%E1%B9%A3ar%C4%AB" title="Dawūd al-Qayṣarī">Dawūd al-Qayṣarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jami" title="Jami">Jami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th–19th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji" title="Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajab_Ali_Tabrizi" title="Rajab Ali Tabrizi">Rajab Ali Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazi_Sa%E2%80%99id_Qumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qazi Sa’id Qumi">Qazi Sa’id Qumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadi_Sabzavari" title="Hadi Sabzavari">Hādī Sabzavārī</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%27i" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i">Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riaz_Ahmed_Gohar_Shahi" title="Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi">Gohar Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" title="Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Faruqi" title="Ismail al-Faruqi">Ismail al-Faruqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammad_Naquib_al-Attas" title="Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas">Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolkarim_Soroush" title="Abdolkarim Soroush">Abdolkarim Soroush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gholamhossein_Ebrahimi_Dinani" title="Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani">Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Abdurrahman" title="Taha Abdurrahman">Taha Abdurrahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abed_al-Jabri" title="Mohammed Abed al-Jabri">Mohammed Abed al-Jabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Arkoun" title="Mohammed Arkoun">Mohammed Arkoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouad_Zakariyya" title="Fouad Zakariyya">Fouad Zakariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Davari_Ardakani" title="Reza Davari Ardakani">Reza Davari Ardakani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fardid" title="Ahmad Fardid">Ahmad Fardid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_Malekian" title="Mostafa Malekian">Mostafa Malekian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Hassanzadeh_Amoli" title="Hassan Hassanzadeh Amoli">Hasanzadeh Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_Javadi-Amoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah Javadi-Amoli">Javadi Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_Nasir_Hunzai" title="Nasir al-Din Nasir Hunzai">Partawi Shah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medieval_philosophers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template talk:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_philosophers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">11–12th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon" title="Anselm of Laon">Anselm of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint_Victor" title="Richard of Saint Victor">Richard of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander of Hales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Lille" title="Alain de Lille">Alain de Lille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">13–14th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boetius_of_Dacia" title="Boetius of Dacia">Boetius of Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Fontaines" title="Godfrey of Fontaines">Godfrey of Fontaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durandus_of_Saint-Pour%C3%A7ain" title="Durandus of Saint-Pourçain">Durandus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Aureolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrus Aureolus">Petrus Aureolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Eiximenis" title="Francesc Eiximenis">Francesc Eiximenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ferrer" title="Vincent Ferrer">Vincent Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertus_de_Monte" title="Lambertus de Monte">Lambertus de Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hennon" title="John Hennon">John Hennon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medieval" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">al-Nazzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi (Alkindus)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Matta ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al-Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali (Algazel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">Athir al-Din al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_anaesthesia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_anaesthesia" title="Template:Ancient anaesthesia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_anaesthesia" title="Template talk:Ancient anaesthesia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_anaesthesia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient anaesthesia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_anaesthesia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_anesthesia" title="History of general anesthesia">Ancient anaesthesia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants / animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aconitum" title="Aconitum">Aconitum</a></i> (aconite)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atropa_belladonna" title="Atropa belladonna">Atropa belladonna</a></i> (belladonna)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">Cannabis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_cannabis" title="Medical cannabis">medical use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castoreum" title="Castoreum">Castoreum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coca" title="Coca">Coca</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conium" title="Conium">Conium</a></i> (hemlock)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Datura_innoxia" title="Datura innoxia">Datura innoxia</a></i> (thorn-apple)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Datura_metel" title="Datura metel">Datura metel</a></i> (devil's trumpet)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hyoscyamus_niger" title="Hyoscyamus niger">Hyoscyamus niger</a></i> (henbane)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactucarium" title="Lactucarium">Lactucarium</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandragora_officinarum" title="Mandragora officinarum">Mandragora officinarum</a></i> (mandrake)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">Opium</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saussurea" title="Saussurea">Saussurea</a></i> (saw-wort)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">Willow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compounds</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alcohols_(medicine)" title="Alcohols (medicine)">medical use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aconitine" title="Aconitine">Aconitine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">Atropine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coniine" title="Coniine">Coniine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyoscine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyoscine">Hyoscine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">Δ9-THC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyoscyamine" title="Hyoscyamine">Hyoscyamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salicylic_acid" title="Salicylic acid">Salicylate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abulcasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Avenzoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Celsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabuncuoglu_Sherefeddin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabuncuoglu Sherefeddin">Sabuncuoğlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushrutha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhongjing" title="Zhang Zhongjing">Zhang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169234#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169234#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169234#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121031816">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/95154093">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/52506664">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/8084149416775289730005">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/593159234083703370572">4</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/279145857130322922986">5</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/62301/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkXvbQhP4cg48GDcfkYyd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118864173">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80133010">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11921300b">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11921300b">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="al-Razi, Abu-Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/BVEV018935">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36535339">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000079199&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1767430">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1372249">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p07438838X">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/98004723">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/vs69hhdd0rcqf1c">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810614308005606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/14152">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007256719305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14805478">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03879193?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:ar-razi.">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/530484">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1278414">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118864173.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/128232153">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027091716">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w67085zn">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/razi-ebu-bekir">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/razi-muhammed-b-ebu-bekir">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&oldid=1259117278#Alchemy">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abu_Bakr_al-Razi&oldid=1259117278#Alchemy</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Category:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:864_births" title="Category:864 births">864 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:865_births" title="Category:865 births">865 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:925_deaths" title="Category:925 deaths">925 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:935_deaths" title="Category:935 deaths">935 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:9th-century_Iranian_physicians" title="Category:9th-century Iranian physicians">9th-century Iranian physicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:10th-century_Iranian_physicians" title="Category:10th-century Iranian physicians">10th-century Iranian physicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:9th-century_Iranian_philosophers" title="Category:9th-century Iranian philosophers">9th-century Iranian philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:10th-century_Iranian_philosophers" title="Category:10th-century Iranian philosophers">10th-century Iranian philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemists_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world">Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Inventors_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Inventors of the medieval Islamic world">Inventors of the medieval Islamic world</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iranian_inventors" title="Category:Iranian inventors">Iranian inventors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_Iranian_pharmacologists" title="Category:Medieval Iranian pharmacologists">Medieval Iranian pharmacologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_Ray,_Iran" title="Category:People from Ray, Iran">People from Ray, Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scholars_from_the_Samanid_Empire" title="Category:Scholars from the Samanid Empire">Scholars from the Samanid Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_religions" title="Category:Critics of religions">Critics of religions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iranian_psychologists" title="Category:Iranian psychologists">Iranian psychologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iranian_ethicists" title="Category:Iranian ethicists">Iranian ethicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:9th-century_inventors" title="Category:9th-century inventors">9th-century inventors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology in the medieval Islamic 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