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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_Yuan_Shikai_(1912–1916)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_Yuan_Shikai_(1912–1916)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Under Yuan Shikai (1912–1916)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_Yuan_Shikai_(1912–1916)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revival_of_the_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival_of_the_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Revival of the monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival_of_the_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_beginning_of_the_Warlord_Era_(1916–1920)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_beginning_of_the_Warlord_Era_(1916–1920)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The beginning of the Warlord Era (1916–1920)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_beginning_of_the_Warlord_Era_(1916–1920)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ascendancy_of_the_Zhili_clique_(1920–1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascendancy_of_the_Zhili_clique_(1920–1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Ascendancy of the Zhili clique (1920–1924)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascendancy_of_the_Zhili_clique_(1920–1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provisional_Executive_Government_(1924–1926)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provisional_Executive_Government_(1924–1926)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Provisional Executive Government (1924–1926)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provisional_Executive_Government_(1924–1926)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Expedition_and_military_government_(1926–1927)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Expedition_and_military_government_(1926–1927)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Northern Expedition and military government (1926–1927)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Expedition_and_military_government_(1926–1927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demise_(1928)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demise_(1928)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Demise (1928)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demise_(1928)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps_of_China_from_1911_to_1928" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps_of_China_from_1911_to_1928"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Maps of China from 1911 to 1928</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps_of_China_from_1911_to_1928-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_attempts_at_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_attempts_at_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Japanese attempts at revival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_attempts_at_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Beiyang government</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobiernu_de_Beiyang" title="Gobiernu de Beiyang – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gobiernu de Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pak-i%C3%BB%E2%81%BF_Ch%C3%A8ng-h%C3%BA" title="Pak-iûⁿ Chèng-hú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pak-iûⁿ Chèng-hú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyang-regeringen" title="Beiyang-regeringen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Beiyang-regeringen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyang-Regierung" title="Beiyang-Regierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Beiyang-Regierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobierno_de_Beiyang" title="Gobierno de Beiyang – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gobierno de Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A6%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF" title="بئی یانگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بئی یانگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouvernement_de_Beiyang" title="Gouvernement de Beiyang – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gouvernement de Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%81%EC%96%91%EC%A0%95%EB%B6%80" title="북양정부 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="북양정부" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemerintahan_Beiyang" title="Pemerintahan Beiyang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemerintahan Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_Beiyang" title="Governo Beiyang – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Governo Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92" title="ממשלת בייאנג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממשלת בייאנג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beija%C5%86as_vald%C4%ABba" title="Beijaņas valdība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Beijaņas valdība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyangregering" title="Beiyangregering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Beiyangregering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="北京政府 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="北京政府" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyangregjeringen" title="Beiyangregjeringen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Beiyangregjeringen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_de_Beiyang" title="Governo de Beiyang – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Governo de Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guvernul_Beiyang" title="Guvernul Beiyang – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Guvernul Beiyang" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Бэйянское правительство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бэйянское правительство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyan%C5%A1ka_vlada" title="Beiyanška vlada – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Beiyanška vlada" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_(1912-1928)" title="முதல் சீனக் குடியரசு (1912-1928) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முதல் சீனக் குடியரசு (1912-1928)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="รัฐบาลเป่ย์หยาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐบาลเป่ย์หยาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Ҳукумати Бэйян – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳукумати Бэйян" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyang_h%C3%BCk%C3%BBmeti" title="Beiyang hükûmeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beiyang hükûmeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADnh_ph%E1%BB%A7_B%E1%BA%AFc_D%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Chính phủ Bắc Dương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chính phủ Bắc Dương" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="北洋政府 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="北洋政府" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="北洋政府 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="北洋政府" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q814959#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="View the 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href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Beiyang_government&params=39_54_N_116_23_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">39°54′N</span> <span class="longitude">116°23′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">39.900°N 116.383°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">39.900; 116.383</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Government of the early Republic of 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For the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan), see <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government of the Republic of China</a>. For the government of the People's Republic of China, see <a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government of China</a>. 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Republic of China</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國</span></span></span><br /><i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá Mínguó</i></span></i></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1912–1928</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931928).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Beiyang government"><img alt="Flag of Beiyang government" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Five Races Under One Union">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National Emblem of Beiyang government"><img alt="National Emblem of Beiyang government" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg/85px-Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg/128px-Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg/170px-Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="506" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Symbols_national_emblem" title="Twelve Symbols national emblem">National Emblem</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <br /><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Various</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span lang="zh">五族共和歌</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union" title="Song of Five Races Under One Union">Song of Five Races Under One Union</a>"</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">(1912–1913)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="28" data-mwtitle="五族共和歌_(Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union).flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%AD%8C_%28Song_of_Five_Races_Under_One_Union%29.flac&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span lang="zh">卿雲歌</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Song_to_the_Auspicious_Cloud" title="Song to the Auspicious Cloud">Song to the Auspicious Cloud</a>"</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">(1913–1915)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="27" data-mwtitle="Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg/Qing_Yun_Ge_1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span lang="zh">中華雄立宇宙間</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe" title="China Heroically Stands in the Universe">China Heroically Stands in the Universe</a>"</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">(1915–1921)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="43" data-mwtitle="中國雄立宇宙間_(China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe).flac" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac" type="audio/flac" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%9B%84%E7%AB%8B%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E9%96%93_%28China_Heroically_Stands_in_the_Universe%29.flac&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span lang="zh">卿雲歌</span></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Song_to_the_Auspicious_Cloud" title="Song to the Auspicious Cloud">Song to the Auspicious Cloud</a>" (modified version)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">(1921–1928)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="42" data-mwtitle="Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-卿雲歌-Modified_from_1921-1928_(Beiyang_government)_Anthem.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg/Song-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASong-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASong-to-the-Auspicious-Cloud-%E5%8D%BF%E9%9B%B2%E6%AD%8C-Modified_from_1921-1928_%28Beiyang_government%29_Anthem.ogg&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>National seal:</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中華民國之璽</span></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_(%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_%28%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%29.svg/85px-%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_%28%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_%28%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%29.svg/128px-%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_%28%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_%28%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%29.svg/170px-%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%B9%8B%E7%92%BD_%28%E5%8C%97%E6%B4%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:China_old_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Republic of China between 1912 and 1928."><img alt="Republic of China between 1912 and 1928." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/China_old_map.jpg/250px-China_old_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/China_old_map.jpg/375px-China_old_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/China_old_map.jpg/500px-China_old_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1868" data-file-height="1380" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Republic of China between 1912 and 1928.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Beiyang_government&params=39_54_N_116_23_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">39°54′N</span> <span class="longitude">116°23′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">39.900°N 116.383°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">39.900; 116.383</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest city</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary republic</a> (1912–14, 1916–23, 1924, 1926–27)<br /><a href="/wiki/Presidential_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential republic">Presidential republic</a> (1914–16, 1923–24, 1924–26, 1927–28) under <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorship</a> (1927–28)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the Republic of China">President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1912–1916 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1927–1928 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_premiers_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="List of premiers of the Republic of China">Premier</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1912 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tang_Shaoyi" title="Tang Shaoyi">Tang Shaoyi</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1927–1928 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pan_Fu" title="Pan Fu">Pan Fu</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Beiyang_government)" title="National Assembly (Beiyang government)">National Assembly</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Beiyang_government)" title="National Assembly (Beiyang government)">Senate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Beiyang_government)" title="National Assembly (Beiyang government)">House of Representative</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Presidential inauguration of <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10 March 1912</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Legislative Yuan</a> opened meeting </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 April 1913</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 May 1919</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> started </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 July 1926</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Collapse of military government</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 June 1928</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Chinese reunification</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29 December 1928</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_(currency)" title="Yuan (currency)">Chinese yuan</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty"><small><b>1912:</b></small><br />Qing dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)"><small><b>1912:</b></small><br />Provisional Government</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="625" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)"><small><b>1916:</b></small><br />Empire of China</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)"><small><b>1915:</b></small><br />Empire of China</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Empire_of_China_%281915%E2%80%931916%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="625" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)"><small><b>1927:</b></small><br />Soviet Zone</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government"><small><b>1928:</b></small><br />Nationalist government</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Beiyang government</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the internationally recognized government of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> between 1912 and 1928, based in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. It was dominated by the generals of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, giving it its name. </p><p>Beiyang general <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> gave <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> the military support he needed to overthrow the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and establish the Republic of China in 1912. Through his control of the army, Yuan was quickly able to dominate the new Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the government and the state were nominally under civilian control through the Republic's constitution, Yuan and his generals were effectively in charge of it. After Yuan's death in 1916, the army split into various warlord factions competing for power, leading to a period of civil war called the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a>. Nevertheless, the government maintained its legitimacy among the <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>, receiving diplomatic recognition, foreign <a href="/wiki/Loan" title="Loan">loans</a>, and access to tax and customs revenue. </p><p>Its legitimacy was seriously challenged in 1917, by <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Junta" title="Constitutional Protection Junta">government movement</a>. His successor <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> defeated the Beiyang warlords during the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> between 1926 and 1928, and overthrew the factions and the government, effectively <a href="/wiki/Chinese_reunification_(1928)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese reunification (1928)">unifying the country in 1928</a>. The Kuomintang proceeded to install its <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">nationalist government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China's political order became a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> government subsequently received international recognition as the legitimate government of China. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_system">Political system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg/300px-%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg/450px-%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg/600px-%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E9%96%8B%E6%9C%83%E7%B4%80%E5%BF%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>The first Congress of the Republic of China in 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China">Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China</a>, as drawn up by the provisional senate in February 1912, the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Beiyang_government)" title="National Assembly (Beiyang government)">National Assembly</a> (parliament) elected the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_ROC" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the ROC">president</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_ROC" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President of the ROC">vice president</a> for five-year terms, and appointed a <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_ROC" class="mw-redirect" title="Premier of the ROC">premier</a> to choose and lead the cabinet.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relevant ministers had to <a href="/wiki/Countersign_(legal)" title="Countersign (legal)">countersign</a> executive <a href="/wiki/Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Decrees">decrees</a> for them to be binding. The most important ministries were army, finance, communications, and interior. The navy ministry's importance declined significantly after most of its ships defected to the <a href="/wiki/Southern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern China">South</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a> in 1917. The communications ministry was also responsible for transportation, mail, and the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Communications" title="Bank of Communications">Bank of Communications</a> and was the base of the influential <a href="/wiki/Communications_Clique" title="Communications Clique">Communications Clique</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Interior_ministry" title="Interior ministry">interior ministry</a> was responsible for policing and security while the weaker <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_justice" title="Ministry of justice">ministry of justice</a> handled judicial affairs and prisons. The ministry of foreign affairs had a renowned diplomatic corps with figures such as <a href="/wiki/Wellington_Koo" title="Wellington Koo">Wellington Koo</a>. Because the generals required their skills, the foreign affairs ministry was given substantial independence. The ministry's greatest accomplishment was the 1922 return of <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Concessions in China">concessions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong</a> that were seized by <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> during World War I, which greatly boosted the government's reputation. The foreign affairs ministry successfully denied the South's government of any international recognition all the way until the Beiyang government collapsed. China was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. </p><p>The assembly was bicameral with a senate that had six-year terms divided into two classes and a house of representatives with three-year terms. The senators were chosen by the provincial assemblies and the representatives were chosen by an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">electoral college</a> picked by a limited public franchise. The task of the assembly was to write a permanent constitution, draft legislation, approve the budget and treaties, ratify the cabinet, and impeach corrupt officials. An independent judiciary with a supreme court was also provided. Early law codes were based on reforming the <a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a> into something akin to <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">German civil law</a>. </p><p>In reality, these institutions were undermined by strong personal and factional ties. Overall, the government was extremely corrupt, incompetent, and tyrannical. Most of the revenue was spent on the military forces of whichever faction was currently in power. The short-lived legislatures did have civilian cliques and debates, but were subject to bribery, forced resignations, or dissolution altogether.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a>, the government remained very unstable, with seven heads of state, five caretaker administrations, 34 heads of government, 25 cabinets, five parliaments, and four charters within the span of twelve years. It was near bankruptcy several times where a mere million dollars could decide the fate of the bureaucracy. Its income came primarily from the customs revenue, foreign loans, and government bonds, as it had difficulty collecting taxes outside the capital even if the surrounding regions were controlled by allied warlords. After the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a>, no taxes were remitted to Beijing other than <a href="/wiki/Zhili" title="Zhili">Zhili</a> province. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origins of the Beiyang government lie in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1895, after which the defeated armies of the Qing dynasty instituted a series of military reforms known as the <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a> reforms, headed by general <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a>. Among the regional armies that emerged from these reforms was the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, named such due to being primarily based in the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang" title="Beiyang">Beiyang</a> region. Commanded by general <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the Beiyang Army grew to become the largest and most modernized of China's New Armies, and Yuan began to become a highly influential figure in the Qing government. In 1907, Yuan was appointed to the high positions of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Councillor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Secretary of Foreign Affairs</a>, which he held until being relieved of both positions by Imperial Regent <a href="/wiki/Zaifeng,_Prince_Chun" title="Zaifeng, Prince Chun">Prince Chun</a> in 1909. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> in October 1911, after which the armies of the southern provinces rebelled against the Qing, Yuan Shikai was recalled to Beijing to command the Beiyang Army against the rebellion. The Qing became a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, with Yuan Shikai holding the position of <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Imperial_Cabinet" title="Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet">Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet</a>. His cabinet was made up primarily of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> members, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> who had traditionally comprised the Qing political elite. Fearing he would lose his administrative powers after his Beiyang Army suppressed the revolution, Yuan decided to come to a deal with the revolutionaries, and on 12 February 1912 he deposed the <a href="/wiki/Xuantong_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuantong Emperor">Xuantong Emperor</a>, thus effectively abolishing the Qing dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_Yuan_Shikai_(1912–1916)"><span id="Under_Yuan_Shikai_.281912.E2.80.931916.29"></span>Under Yuan Shikai (1912–1916)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Under Yuan Shikai (1912–1916)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg/300px-Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg/450px-Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg/600px-Yuan_Shikai_sworn_in_as_Provisional_President_-_10_March_1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Yuan Shikai's inauguration as the provisional president.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> of 1911–1912, the rebels established a republican <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> under President <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> and Vice President <a href="/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a>. Since they only controlled southern China, they had to negotiate with Yuan Shikai to put an end to the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. On 10 March 1912, Yuan became provisional president while located in Beijing, his power base. He refused to move to Nanjing, fearing further assassination attempts. It was also more economical to keep the existing Qing bureaucracy in Beijing, so the provisional senate moved north as well; the government thereby began its administration from Beijing on 10 October 1912. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CHINE,_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/CHINE%2C_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg/220px-CHINE%2C_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/CHINE%2C_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg/330px-CHINE%2C_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/CHINE%2C_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg/440px-CHINE%2C_1_Yuan_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_du_Pr%C3%A9sident_Yuan_Shikai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>The Yuan Shikai "dollar" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_yuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese yuan">yuan</a> in Chinese), issued for the first time in 1914, became a dominant coin type of the Republic of China.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1912_Republic_of_China_National_Assembly_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1912 Republic of China National Assembly elections">1912–1913 National Assembly elections</a> gave over half the seats and control of both houses to Sun's <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist Party</a> (KMT). The second-largest party, the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(China)" title="Progressive Party (China)">Progressives</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>, generally favored Yuan. <a href="/wiki/Song_Jiaoren" title="Song Jiaoren">Song Jiaoren</a> was expected<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2014)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to become the next premier, but he riled Yuan by promising to pick a cabinet with only KMT ministers. He was assassinated less than two weeks before the assembly convened. An investigation pinned the blame on Premier <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Bingjun" title="Zhao Bingjun">Zhao Bingjun</a>, which suggested Yuan had played a part. Yuan denied that either he or Zhao killed Song, but the Nationalists remained unconvinced. Yuan then took out a huge foreign loan without parliament's consent. Sun led a faction of Nationalists against Yuan in a <a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a> during the summer of 1913 but suffered complete defeat within two months. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revival_of_the_monarchy">Revival of the monarchy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Revival of the monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (1915–1916)</a></div> <p>In response to threats and bribes, parliament elected Yuan for a five-year term beginning on 10 October 1913. He then expelled the Nationalist legislators causing the assembly to lose quorum which forced it to adjourn. In 1914, a Constitutional Conference rigged in his favor produced the Constitutional Compact, which gave the presidency sweeping powers. The new legislature, the National Council, had the power to impeach him but Yuan also had the power to dismiss it at whim before any proceedings could take place. Still not satisfied, he reasoned that the Chinese people were used to <a href="/wiki/Autocratic_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic rule">autocratic rule</a> and that he should seek to install himself as a new emperor. Yuan furthermore began participating in old Confucian rites connected to the monarchy. </p><p>In 1915, Yuan crafted a monarchist movement which symbolically begged him to take to the throne. He would politely and humbly refuse each time until a special national convention of nearly two thousand delegates unanimously endorsed him. Yuan Shikai "reluctantly" accepted and was crowned Emperor of China. </p><p>Former Justice Minister Liang Qichao saw through the ruse and encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan clique</a> to rebel against Yuan, sparking the <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a>. The war went badly for Yuan, as he faced almost universal opposition. Most of his lieutenants deserted him. In order to win them back he announced the end of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China</a> on 22 March 1916. However, his enemies called for his resignation as president. In June, Yuan died of <a href="/wiki/Uremia" title="Uremia">uremia</a>, leaving a fractured republic in his wake. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_beginning_of_the_Warlord_Era_(1916–1920)"><span id="The_beginning_of_the_Warlord_Era_.281916.E2.80.931920.29"></span>The beginning of the Warlord Era (1916–1920)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The beginning of the Warlord Era (1916–1920)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DuanQirui.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/DuanQirui.jpg/220px-DuanQirui.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/DuanQirui.jpg/330px-DuanQirui.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/DuanQirui.jpg/440px-DuanQirui.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3420" data-file-height="4551" /></a><figcaption>Duan Qirui, Chief Executive of the Republic of China</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Li_Yuanhong" title="Li Yuanhong">Li Yuanhong</a> succeeded Yuan as president on June 7. Due to his anti-monarchist stance in Nanjing, <a href="/wiki/Feng_Guozhang" title="Feng Guozhang">Feng Guozhang</a> became vice president. <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a> retained his position as premier. The original parliament elected in 1913 reconvened on August 1 and restored the provisional constitution. There were three factions in parliament now: Sun Yat-sen's <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Revolutionary_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Revolutionary Party">Chinese Revolutionary Party</a>, Liang Qichao's Constitution Research Clique, and <a href="/wiki/Tang_Hualong" title="Tang Hualong">Tang Hualong</a>'s Constitution Discussions Clique. </p><p>The first order of business was the creation of a national army. This was problematic as the southerners reacted suspiciously in fear that they may be deprived of their commands to untrustworthy Beiyang generals. No progress was made on this issue. </p><p>The second issue was World War I. Premier Duan and Liang Qichao was in favor of entering the war on the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Allied side</a>. President Li and Sun Yat-sen were opposed. Duan managed to strongarm parliament into breaking ties with the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>. Li fired Duan when his <a href="/wiki/Nishihara_Loans" title="Nishihara Loans">secret loans from Japan</a> were revealed. Duan denounced his removal as illegal and set up base in <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>. Most of the Beiyang generals sided with Duan and demanded the dissolution of parliament. In June 1917, General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a> offered to mediate and went to Beijing with his soldiers. Backed with German funds and arms, he occupied the capital and forced Li to dissolve parliament. On July 1, he shocked the country by restoring <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a> as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a>. </p><p>After escaping to the Japanese legation, Li reappointed Duan Qirui as premier and charged him with protecting the republic. Duan led an army that quickly defeated the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a>. Li resigned as president and was succeeded by Feng Guozhang. Duan refused to restore parliament due to his unpleasant experiences with it in the past. He argued that his victory over the Manchu Restoration counted as a second Xinhai Revolution and set out to craft a new provisional senate which will draft the election rules for a new parliament. This senate cut the number of seats in the future parliament by nearly half. </p><p>His opponents disagreed claiming that under Duan's argument, he should resign as the premier's position cannot exist independently from parliament. Sun Yat-sen and his followers moved to <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> to set up a rival government under the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a> with the backing of the Yunnan clique and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi clique</a>. A rump of the old parliament held an extraordinary session. </p><p>The Beiyang government <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_declaration_of_war_on_Germany" title="Republic of China declaration of war on Germany">declared war</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> in August 1917 and began sending <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Labour_Corps" title="Chinese Labour Corps">labor battalions</a> to <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">token force to Siberia</a>. Duan took out <a href="/wiki/Nishihara_Loans" title="Nishihara Loans">large loans</a> from Japan, claiming that he planned to build an army of a million men to send to Europe but his rivals knew this army would never leave the country: its true purpose was to crush internal dissent, since it existed outside the jurisdiction of the army ministry. Meanwhile, the war between the northern and southern governments led to a stalemate as neither side could defeat the other. Duan's favoritism in promoting relatives, friends, Anhuites, and proteges to high positions in the military and government caused strong divisions within the Beiyang army. His followers became known as the <a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui clique</a>. His detractors rallied around President Feng and formed the <a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a>. The Zhili clique favored peaceful negotiations with the south while Duan wanted to conquer it. Duan resigned as premier due to the president's interference but his underlings pressured Feng to restore him. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1918_Republic_of_China_National_Assembly_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 Republic of China National Assembly elections">1918 elections</a> for the new parliament were rigged to favor Duan's <a href="/wiki/Anfu_Club" title="Anfu Club">Anfu Club</a> which took three-fourths of the seats. The rest went to <a href="/wiki/Liang_Shiyi" title="Liang Shiyi">Liang Shiyi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Communications_Clique" title="Communications Clique">Communications Clique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Research_Clique" class="mw-redirect" title="Research Clique">Research Clique</a>, or to independents. Because President Feng was simply finishing the five-year term Yuan began in 1913, he was obliged to resign in October. Duan replaced his archrival with <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shichang" title="Xu Shichang">Xu Shichang</a> as president, the closest to a normal transfer of power in this government's history. Duan promised Feng's ally, <a href="/wiki/Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a>, the vice presidency but the Communications Clique and the Research Clique opposed it after newspapers reported that Cao lavished enormous amounts of money on a prostitute. They also preferred to give it to a figure in the renegade South as a token of reconciliation. However, no southerner took up the offer and this left the vice presidency vacant. This set up an enmity between Cao Kun and Duan. When Feng relinquished the presidency, Duan resigned his premiership. Duan, however, remained the country's most powerful man through his network in the government and military. Convening on 12 August, the new parliament spent much of its time trying to draft a new constitution to replace the 1912 provisional one and engaged in polemics against the rump old parliament in the south. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_(May_4,_1919).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg/220px-Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg/330px-Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg/440px-Chinese_protestors_march_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1372" data-file-height="988" /></a><figcaption>Protests during the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/1919_Paris_Peace_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="1919 Paris Peace Conference">1919 Paris Peace Conference</a>, Duan's ally, <a href="/wiki/Cao_Rulin" title="Cao Rulin">Cao Rulin</a>, promised Japan all of Germany's concessions in <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong</a>. This sparked the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> which seriously weakened the Anhui clique's hold in government. Though the First World War had ended, the army Duan had created to send to the trenches was not disbanded. Instead, it was given to his deputy <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shuzheng" title="Xu Shuzheng">Xu Shuzheng</a> to <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">invade Outer Mongolia</a>. This soured relations with <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a> who considered such a large army bordering his territory as a threat. The Zhili clique demanded more influence in the government but in December Feng Guozhang died leaving the group momentarily leaderless. Cao Kun and <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> emerged as the leaders of the Zhili clique and they issued circular telegrams denouncing the Anhui clique. Cao and Zhang pressured the president to dismiss Xu Shuzheng. The president was already leaning against Duan for sabotaging his Shanghai peace talks with the South in 1919. Both Xu and Duan denounced the dismissal and promptly declare war on 6 July 1920. On July 14, the two sides clashed in the <a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a>. Within a few days, the Anhui clique was defeated and Duan retired from the military. The new parliament was dissolved on August 30. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ascendancy_of_the_Zhili_clique_(1920–1924)"><span id="Ascendancy_of_the_Zhili_clique_.281920.E2.80.931924.29"></span>Ascendancy of the Zhili clique (1920–1924)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ascendancy of the Zhili clique (1920–1924)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a> played a minor role assisting the Zhili clique in the war, they were allowed to share power in Beijing. <a href="/wiki/Jin_Yunpeng" title="Jin Yunpeng">Jin Yunpeng</a>, who had ties to both sides, was chosen as premier. President Xu called for parliamentary elections in the summer of 1921 but because only 11 provinces took part the elections became invalid and no assembly was convened. </p><p>Zhang became worried over Wu Peifu's growing military strength and anti-Japanese stance which threatened his backers in Japan. Using a financial crisis as a pretext, he removed Jin and replaced him with Liang Shiyi in December 1921. Wu forced Liang to resign after a month accusing him of being pro-Japanese. He exposed Liang's telegram ordering diplomats to back Japan on the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a>. Zhang then formed an alliance with the Duan Qirui and Sun Yatsen. Both sides sent circular telegrams to rally their officers and denounce their enemies. On April 28, the <a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a> began with Wu clashed with Zhang's army in <a href="/wiki/Shanhaiguan_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanhaiguan District">Shanhaiguan</a> and won a major victory forcing Zhang to retreat to <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>. </p><p>Next, the Zhili clique started a national campaign to restore Li Yuanhong as president. Despite having co-existed with Xu Shichang for two years after the fall of Duan, they declared his presidency illegal as he was elected by an illegal parliament. They demanded Xu and Sun Yatsen resign their rival presidencies in favor of a unified government. Wu convinced <a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Chen Jiongming</a> to oust Sun from Guangzhou in return for recognition of his control over <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. Enough members of the old parliament moved to Beijing to constitute a quorum which superficially gave the government an appearance that it operated as it did before the Manchu Restoration in 1917. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cao_Kun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cao_Kun.jpg/220px-Cao_Kun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cao_Kun.jpg/330px-Cao_Kun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cao_Kun.jpg/440px-Cao_Kun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>President Cao Kun.</figcaption></figure> <p>Li's new administration was more powerless than his first. His cabinet appointments had to be approved by Wu Peifu. Wu's growing power and prestige outshone his mentor and superior officer, Cao Kun, which strained relations between the two. Cao wanted to become president himself but Wu tried to restrain his ambitions. President Li tried to create an "Able Men Cabinet" consisting of experts but he ruined it by arresting Finance Minister <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luo_Wengan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luo Wengan (page does not exist)">Luo Wengan</a> on spurious rumours supplied by the speakers of parliament. The cabinet resigned en-masse and Wu was no longer able to shield Li. Cao Kun's followers controlled the new cabinet and bribed parliament to impeach Li. Next, Cao orchestrated strikes by unpaid police and had the utilities for the presidential manor cut. Li tried to take the presidential seal with him but was intercepted. </p><p>Cao Kun spent the next few months promoting his presidency by openly offering five thousand dollars to any member of parliament willing to elect him. This created universal condemnation but he was nevertheless elected and was inaugurated on <a href="/wiki/Double_Ten_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Double Ten Day">Double Ten Day</a>, 1923 with a new constitution, the only formal constitution promulgated until 1947. He neglected his presidential duties and would rather meet with his officers than the cabinet. The vice presidency was again left vacant to entice Zhang Zuolin, Duan Qirui, or <a href="/wiki/Lu_Yongxiang_(warlord)" title="Lu Yongxiang (warlord)">Lu Yongxiang</a> but none wanted to associate with Cao's infamy. </p><p>In September 1924, the Zhili clique general and <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> governor <a href="/wiki/Qi_Xieyuan" title="Qi Xieyuan">Qi Xieyuan</a> demanded control of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, which belongs in his province, from Lu Yongxiang's <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> the last province controlled by the Anhui clique. Fighting broke out between the two provinces with Qi quickly gaining ground. Sun Yatsen and Zhang Zuolin pledged to protect Zhejiang, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a>. Zhejiang fell and for the next two months Wu was gradually winning against Zhang. </p><p>In the early morning hours of October 23, General <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> betrayed the Zhili clique by pulling off the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a>. He put President Cao under house arrest. Wu reacted furiously at this betrayal by pulling his army from the front to rescue Cao. Zhang pursued and attacked Wu's rear, defeating him at Tianjin. Wu escaped to the Central Plains where <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a> held the line against Zhang. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provisional_Executive_Government_(1924–1926)"><span id="Provisional_Executive_Government_.281924.E2.80.931926.29"></span>Provisional Executive Government (1924–1926)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Provisional Executive Government (1924–1926)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijingbelltower4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beijingbelltower4.jpg/200px-Beijingbelltower4.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beijingbelltower4.jpg/300px-Beijingbelltower4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Beijingbelltower4.jpg/400px-Beijingbelltower4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gulou_and_Zhonglou_(Beijing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)">Beijing bell and drum towers</a> ceased being official timepieces after the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Beijing coup">coup</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 2 November 1924, <a href="/wiki/Huang_Fu" title="Huang Fu">Huang Fu</a> was made acting president after Feng Yuxiang's request. He declared Cao Kun's presidency illegal as it was obtained by bribery. Any member of parliament who voted for him was subject to arrest. The 1923 constitution was invalidated and replaced with "Regulations for the Provisional Government". <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a> was expelled from the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a> and several other reforms were made. Zhang, a monarchist, objected to the expulsion and Huang's government. Feng and Zhang agreed to make Duan Qirui the head of the provisional government and permanently dissolve the old parliament. The Provisional Chief Executive had the combined powers of the president and premier, the ability to pick his cabinet freely, and could rule without a legislature. While theoretically very powerful, in reality, Duan was at the mercy of Feng and Zhang. </p><p>Feng, Zhang, and Duan invited Sun Yat-sen north to discuss national reunification. Sun travelled to Beijing but his liver cancer progressed. Duan created a 160-member Reconstruction Conference on 1 February. Sun was skeptical of Duan and Zhang who toyed with the idea of restoring Puyi. Sun died in March, leaving his southern followers divided. </p><p>Duan created a provisional legislature on July 30, the Beiyang government's last assembly. A constitutional drafting commission was also held from August to December but its draft was never accepted as warfare broke out after Fengtian clique general <a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a> defected to Feng Yuxiang's <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a> in November, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a>. Wu Peifu made an alliance with Zhang against Feng in revenge for the coup. Guo was killed on December 24 and fighting went so badly against the Guominjun, Feng resigned and moved to the Soviet Union but was recalled by his officers in a few months. When the tide turned against the Guominjun, Duan restored the office of premier to shift responsibilities away from himself. The <a href="/wiki/March_18_Massacre" title="March 18 Massacre">March 18 Massacre</a> of protesters in Beijing led to Duan's downfall. Under heavy pressure, Duan held a special session of the provisional legislature that passed a resolution condemning the massacre. It did not stop Guominjun soldiers from disarming Duan's guards and forcing the Chief Executive to flee to a diplomatic legation the next month. When Zhang's troops retook the capital weeks later, he refused to restore Duan whom he saw as a treacherous double-dealing opportunist. The capital suffered heavily during the initial occupation as Zhang and Wu's troops raped and pillaged the city's inhabitants. </p><p>Zhang and Wu disagreed on who should succeed Duan. Wu wanted to restore Cao Kun as president but Zhang was vehemently opposed. What followed was a series of weak interim governments. The civil service collapsed due to the pillaging and lack of pay and the ministries existed in name only. There were mass resignations with remaining cabinet ministers pressured by the military to stay on. The only functioning parts of the bureaucracy were the postal service, customs revenue service, and the salt administration which was staffed by foreign employees. No legislature was created as it would have been too expensive and difficult to assemble. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Expedition_and_military_government_(1926–1927)"><span id="Northern_Expedition_and_military_government_.281926.E2.80.931927.29"></span>Northern Expedition and military government (1926–1927)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Northern Expedition and military government (1926–1927)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fengtian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Fengtian.jpg/220px-Fengtian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Fengtian.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Kuomintang" class="mw-redirect" title="Flag of the Kuomintang">flag of the Kuomintang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">the new national flag</a> crested on a building in <a href="/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a>, Manchuria.</figcaption></figure> <p>In July 1926, the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> launched their <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> to reunify China and defeat the warlords. They rapidly defeated the armies of Beiyang-affiliated warlords Wu Peifu and Sun Chuanfang, sparking Zhang Zuolin to establish the <a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a> (NPA; also known as the <i>Anguojun</i>/<i>Ankuochun</i>) anti-Kuomintang warlord coalition in November 1926. Following a series of <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_nationalist_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan nationalist government">internal struggles within the KMT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> purged the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Communists</a> from his <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> in April 1927, and the expedition was halted. During this period, a conference of the warlord leaders of the NPA was held in June 1927. They resolved that all civil and military power would be concentrated in the person of Zhang Zuolin.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang was declared "<a href="/wiki/Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">Generalissimo</a>", and consequently formed a new military government. This was the only time in the history of the Beiyang regime that it was explicitly a military government. <a href="/wiki/Pan_Fu" title="Pan Fu">Pan Fu</a> was made Prime Minister and Minister of Communications, Liu Changqing was made Minister of Agriculture and Labor, Yan Zebo was made Minister of Finance, Wang Yingtai was made Minister of Foreign Affairs, Liu Zhe was made Minister of Education, <a href="/wiki/He_Fenglin" title="He Fenglin">He Fenglin</a> was made Minister of Military Affairs (including the navy), Shen Ruilin was made Minister of the Interior, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a> was made Minister of Industry, Yao Zhen was made Minister of Justice, and Xia Renhu was made Chief Cabinet Secretary. Zhang published a manifesto for the new government, declaring that he would free China from Bolshevism (the "Reds") and chaos, and that he would reverse the unequal treaties through negotiation. Soon after, Zhang's Foreign Office sent a request to the Japanese Legation in China to request the withdrawal of Japanese troops from Shandong.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The civil service began to improve and start functioning again. The navy and army ministries were merged to create the Ministry of Military Affairs. </p><p>In early 1927, the NPA Political Commission, in an effort to make Zhang Zuolin seem more legitimate and popular, declared that a new policy would be taken by Zhang: "Development of the democratic spirit and opposition to oppression by force. Restoration of the national sovereignty and abolition of the "unequal treaties." Improvement of economic conditions and co-operation between capital and labor. Encouragement of popular education. Enforcement of a system of local self government. Reclamation of the frontiers and colonization of undeveloped areas. Preservation of the national sovereignty and characteristics. Readjustment of official morality and development of the morality of the people."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Immediately following the defeat of Wu Peifu, the Fengtian clique and the KMT had to decide what to do with the political situation in Manchuria. In August 1926, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiang_Zuobin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jiang Zuobin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zuobin</a>, a KMT general in Hubei, was sent from Guangzhou to Mukden to discuss a possible alliance. Towards Winter 1926–1927, foreign observers were predicting the possibility of a Fengtian–KMT settlement. On 14 January, <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> reported that Yang Yuting was working with <a href="/wiki/Liang_Shiyi" title="Liang Shiyi">Liang Shiyi</a> to draw up a compromise between the two governments.<sup id="cite_ref-WilburHow1989_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilburHow1989-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the early 1927 Fengtian–KMT negotiations, the KMT promised to "end the Northern Expedition (at Hubei, where they had already reached)", and allow the Fengtian clique to expand towards the south. According to the KMT, Zhang Zuolin would be made the Chair of the Central Executive Committee of the government according to the KMT, while Zhang himself wanted either himself or another Fengtian representative to be made President, with KMT representatives in the positions of Vice President and Premier. Zhang asked the KMT to stay to the provinces of Hunan, Hubei, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong and Guangxi, as well as ridding themselves of any foreign influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 113">: 113 </span></sup> </p><p>The military government was seen as something that could be redeemed from warlordism. There was a push for reform and reconstruction, as well as adopting a new modernity in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 128">: 128 </span></sup> Below is an extract from <i>Dagongbao</i> in August 1927, after the NPA defeated the Kuomintang in <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If [the North] could do what the KMT promulgates and shake off decadence and warlordism, [the KMT defeat in Xuzhou] might be the end of the KMT... Success and failure depend on one's action rather than the others’ failure...<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 128">: 128 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, the military government was never really able to establish its legitimacy well, as Zhang Zuolin lacked the political power to make reforms. Additionally, NPA military failures were detrimental to the public view of the NPA.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 142">: 142 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demise_(1928)"><span id="Demise_.281928.29"></span>Demise (1928)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Demise (1928)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></div> <p>The National Pacification Army attempted to make other warlords, and, to some extent, ordinary people, perceive it as a peaceful unifying force, in contrast to the violent, revolutionary unification offered by the Kuomintang.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92">: 92 </span></sup> The militarists in the NPA tried to reach a compromise with moderates in the KMT, believing that they could unify the country without bloodshed. From March to August 1927, the Fengtian clique and the KMT entered into negotiations. However, the leaders of the KMT were determined to pursue the destruction of the Beijing Government, and in mid-1927, <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a> army swore allegiance to Chiang's <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">KMT government in Nanjing</a>, dealing a substantial blow to the Beiyang government.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 93">: 93 </span></sup> </p><p>Following their retreat from Henan, NPA leaders (excluding Sun Chuanfang and Zhang Zongchang) came together on 7 June 1927. The generals agreed to try to seek rapprochement with Nanjing and to endorse the <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a>. They proposed a new principle of "morality" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">民德</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">míndé</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">min<sup>2</sup>-te<sup>2</sup></span></i>). They agreed on a reformation of the national government and suggested for Zhang a choice to either return to Manchuria and distance himself from politics or to establish his position as an important politician in the government. Two of the clauses agreed upon were the total destruction of Feng Yuxiang and joint decision-making in diplomacy between both the Beijing and Nanjing governments.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 123">: 123 </span></sup> </p><p>With the continuing advance of the KMT, Zhang was forced to abandon Beijing on June 3, 1928. On the way back to his power-base in Manchuria the next morning, his train was blown up by officers of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a>, killing him, in what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a>. Yan Xishan's troops soon occupied Beijing, effectively dissolving the Beiyang government; unification was declared on June 16 by the Nationalists.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beijing was renamed Beiping until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> in 1949. Zhang's son, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a>, took over the National Pacification Army and retained a <a href="/wiki/Government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government in exile">government in exile</a> led by Premier <a href="/wiki/Pan_Fu" title="Pan Fu">Pan Fu</a>. However, many civil servants, including former ministers and presidents, had already switched over to the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a>. The United States became the first major power to switch recognition to the Nationalist government in Nanjing on October 1. Japan was the last major power to switch because they detested the anti-Japanese attitude of the KMT. Zhang negotiated with Chiang Kai-shek to end this pretense leading to the dissolution of the Beiyang government, the NPA, and the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">unification of China under the Nationalist flag on 29 December 1928</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maps_of_China_from_1911_to_1928">Maps of China from 1911 to 1928</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Maps of China from 1911 to 1928"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1911-1916.png" class="mw-file-description" title="From 1911 to 1916."><img alt="From 1911 to 1916." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Chine_1911-1916.png/120px-Chine_1911-1916.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Chine_1911-1916.png/180px-Chine_1911-1916.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Chine_1911-1916.png/240px-Chine_1911-1916.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From 1911 to 1916.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png" class="mw-file-description" title="From 1916 to 1920."><img alt="From 1916 to 1920." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png/120px-Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png/180px-Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png/240px-Chine_de_1917_%C3%A0_1920.png 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="3500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From 1916 to 1920.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1921-1922.png" class="mw-file-description" title="From 1921 to 1922."><img alt="From 1921 to 1922." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chine_1921-1922.png/120px-Chine_1921-1922.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chine_1921-1922.png/180px-Chine_1921-1922.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chine_1921-1922.png/240px-Chine_1921-1922.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From 1921 to 1922.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1923-1924.png" class="mw-file-description" title="From 1923 to 1924."><img alt="From 1923 to 1924." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Chine_1923-1924.png/120px-Chine_1923-1924.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Chine_1923-1924.png/180px-Chine_1923-1924.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Chine_1923-1924.png/240px-Chine_1923-1924.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From 1923 to 1924.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1925-1926.png" class="mw-file-description" title="From 1925 to 1926."><img alt="From 1925 to 1926." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Chine_1925-1926.png/120px-Chine_1925-1926.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Chine_1925-1926.png/180px-Chine_1925-1926.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Chine_1925-1926.png/240px-Chine_1925-1926.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From 1925 to 1926.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1927-1928.png" class="mw-file-description" title="From 1927 to 1928."><img alt="From 1927 to 1928." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Chine_1927-1928.png/120px-Chine_1927-1928.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Chine_1927-1928.png/180px-Chine_1927-1928.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Chine_1927-1928.png/240px-Chine_1927-1928.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">From 1927 to 1928.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Japanese_attempts_at_revival">Japanese attempts at revival</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Japanese attempts at revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> had poor relations with the new KMT <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> in Nanjing. When the Japanese created the separatist <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> in 1932, the new country used Beiyang symbolism. These were followed by <a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1937%E2%80%931940)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)">Provisional Government</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Reformed Government of the Republic of China">Reformed Government</a>; which all used Beiyang symbols. When the high ranking Nationalist <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a> defected to the Japanese, he was put in charge of the <a href="/wiki/Reorganized_National_Government_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Reorganized National Government of China">Reorganized Government</a> in 1940. Wang insisted upon adopting Nationalist symbols to create a parallel rival government against the <a href="/wiki/Free_China_(Second_Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)">KMT government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> instead of reviving the Beiyang government. Both Wang's government and Chongqing's <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> used near identical symbols and claimed their continuity from Sun Yat-sen's rather than Yuan Shikai's regime. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> (1924–1948)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As the <i><a href="/wiki/Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">Generalissimo</a></i> of the military government of the Republic of China.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">北洋政府</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Běiyáng Zhèngfǔ</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Pei-yang Chêng-fu</span></i>; sometimes <a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">romanized</a> as the <b>Peiyang Government</b></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGao2009" class="citation book cs1">Gao, James Z. (2009). <i>Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949)</i>. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810863088" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810863088"><bdi>978-0810863088</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/592756156">592756156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+dictionary+of+modern+China+%281800%E2%80%931949%29&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F592756156&rft.isbn=978-0810863088&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=James+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakabayashi2007" class="citation book cs1">Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nankingatrocity100btwa/page/202"><i>The Nanking atrocity, 1937–38 : complicating the picture</i></a>. Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nankingatrocity100btwa/page/202">202</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845451806" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845451806"><bdi>978-1845451806</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/76898087">76898087</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nanking+atrocity%2C+1937%E2%80%9338+%3A+complicating+the+picture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F76898087&rft.isbn=978-1845451806&rft.aulast=Wakabayashi&rft.aufirst=Bob+Tadashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnankingatrocity100btwa%2Fpage%2F202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeon2016" class="citation web cs1">Teon, Aris (2016-05-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://china-journal.org/2016/05/31/provisional-constitution-of-the-republic-of-china-1931/">"Provisional Constitution of the Republic Of China (1931)"</a>. <i>The Greater China Journal</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190712140714/https://china-journal.org/2016/05/31/provisional-constitution-of-the-republic-of-china-1931/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-07-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Greater+China+Journal&rft.atitle=Provisional+Constitution+of+the+Republic+Of+China+%281931%29&rft.date=2016-05-31&rft.aulast=Teon&rft.aufirst=Aris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchina-journal.org%2F2016%2F05%2F31%2Fprovisional-constitution-of-the-republic-of-china-1931%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChung1998" class="citation book cs1">Chung, Stephanie Po-Yin (1998). <i>Chinese business groups in Hong Kong and political change in South China, 1900–25</i>. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0585032696" title="Special:BookSources/0585032696"><bdi>0585032696</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43474551">43474551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+business+groups+in+Hong+Kong+and+political+change+in+South+China%2C+1900%E2%80%9325&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43474551&rft.isbn=0585032696&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+Po-Yin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6J8VAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Week in China</i></a>. 1927. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230413185555/https://books.google.com/books?id=6J8VAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Week+in+China&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1927&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6J8VAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Chang Tso-Lin's New Position." <i>Advocate of Peace through Justice</i>, vol. 89, no. 8, 1927, pp. 473–474. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20661678">20661678</a>. Accessed 4 Feb. 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">“The Chinese Crisis.” <i>Advocate of Peace through Justice</i>, vol. 89, no. 4, 1927, pp. 211–212. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20661555">20661555</a>. Retrieved 22 January 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WilburHow1989-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WilburHow1989_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence_Martin_WilburJulie_Lien-ying_How1989" class="citation book cs1">Clarence Martin Wilbur; Julie Lien-ying How (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/missionariesofre0000wilb"><i>Missionaries of Revolution: Soviet Advisers and Nationalist China, 1920–1927</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/missionariesofre0000wilb/page/394">394</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-57652-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-57652-0"><bdi>978-0-674-57652-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Missionaries+of+Revolution%3A+Soviet+Advisers+and+Nationalist+China%2C+1920%E2%80%931927&rft.pages=394-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-674-57652-0&rft.au=Clarence+Martin+Wilbur&rft.au=Julie+Lien-ying+How&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmissionariesofre0000wilb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kwong2017-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kwong2017_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChi_Man_Kwong2017" class="citation book cs1">Chi Man Kwong (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gBu9DgAAQBAJ&pg=1"><i>War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria: Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique during the Northern Expedition</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34084-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34084-8"><bdi>978-90-04-34084-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230413185550/https://books.google.com/books?id=gBu9DgAAQBAJ&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Geopolitics+in+Interwar+Manchuria%3A+Zhang+Zuolin+and+the+Fengtian+Clique+during+the+Northern+Expedition&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34084-8&rft.au=Chi+Man+Kwong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgBu9DgAAQBAJ%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Guomindang zhi chengbai yu guomin yundong</i>. DGB, 20 August 1927.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1928/06/17/archives/nationalists-declare-their-aims-for-china-nanking-statement-pledges.html">"Nationalists Declare Their Aims for China; Nanking Statement Pledges End of Militarism and Asks Equality With Other States"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. June 17, 1928. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210124030919/https://www.nytimes.com/1928/06/17/archives/nationalists-declare-their-aims-for-china-nanking-statement-pledges.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nationalists+Declare+Their+Aims+for+China%3B+Nanking+Statement+Pledges+End+of+Militarism+and+Asks+Equality+With+Other+States.&rft.date=1928-06-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1928%2F06%2F17%2Farchives%2Fnationalists-declare-their-aims-for-china-nanking-statement-pledges.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_C._Kirby2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_C._Kirby" title="William C. Kirby">William C. Kirby</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nPSFp79lG6MC"><i>State and Economy in Republican China: A Handbook for Scholars, Vol. 2</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Asia_Center" title="Harvard University Asia Center">Harvard University Asia Center</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674003682" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674003682"><bdi>978-0674003682</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=State+and+Economy+in+Republican+China%3A+A+Handbook+for+Scholars%2C+Vol.+2&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0674003682&rft.au=William+C.+Kirby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnPSFp79lG6MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_R._LewEdwin_Pak-wah_Leung2013" class="citation book cs1">Christopher R. Lew; Edwin Pak-wah Leung (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8WYSAAAAQBAJ"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Civil War</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810878747" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810878747"><bdi>978-0810878747</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Chinese+Civil+War&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0810878747&rft.au=Christopher+R.+Lew&rft.au=Edwin+Pak-wah+Leung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8WYSAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeiyang+government" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beiyang_government&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="extiw" title="commons:Beiyang Government"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Beiyang Government</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1923)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of the Republic of China (1923)">Constitution of the Republic of China (1923)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(1644–1912)</span></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Beiyang government </b><br />1912–1927 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(1927–1948)</span></span></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/22px-Beiyang_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/33px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/44px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="571" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a> and warlordism during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1915–1924</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1925–1934</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Factions</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1911–1914</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bai_Lang_Rebellion" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang Rebellion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1913</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915–1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Death of Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Golok_rebellions_(1917%E2%80%931949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golok rebellions (1917–1949)">Golok rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1918–1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Occupation of Outer Mongolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China">1st National CPC Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923–1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Lincheng_Outrage" title="Lincheng Outrage">Lincheng Outrage</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1924</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton_Merchants%27_Corps_Uprising" title="Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising">Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926–1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_government#Nanjing–Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Nanjing–Wuhan Split</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Nationalist-Communist Civil War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">July 15 Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927–1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conflict_in_Gansu_(1927%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30)">Muslim conflict in Gansu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Red_Spears%27_uprising_in_Shandong_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Red Spears' uprising in Shandong (1928–1929)">Third Red Spears' uprising in Shandong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Chiang-Gui_War" title="Chiang-Gui War">Chiang-Gui War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Revolt" title="Beijing Revolt">Beijing Revolt</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930–1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1931–1935</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Liu_War" title="Han–Liu War">Han–Liu War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1934</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/War_in_Ningxia_(1934)" title="War in Ningxia (1934)">War in Ningxia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Guangdong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang <span style="font-size:85%;">(KMT)</span></a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party <span style="font-size:85%;">(CCP)</span></a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority 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