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<span>Soft rot</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soft_rot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_rot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_rot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>White rot</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-White_rot-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle White rot subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-White_rot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Biochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lignin_metabolism_through_peroxidases" 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</a> <ul id="toc-Cellulose_metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hemicellulose_metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hemicellulose_metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Hemicellulose metabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hemicellulose_metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-White_rot_competitive_ability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_rot_competitive_ability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>White rot competitive ability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_rot_competitive_ability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_and_future_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_and_future_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Current and future applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_and_future_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Induced_fungal_decay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Induced_fungal_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Induced fungal decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Induced_fungal_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_durability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_durability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Natural durability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_durability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wood_preservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood_preservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Wood preservation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wood_preservation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wood preservation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wood_preservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Wood-decay fungus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%99evokazn%C3%A9_houby" title="Dřevokazné houby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dřevokazné houby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%A6nedbrydende_svamp" title="Trænedbrydende svamp – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Trænedbrydende svamp" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holzf%C3%A4ule" title="Holzfäule – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Holzfäule" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lign%C3%ADcola" title="Lignícola – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lignícola" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignovora_fungo" title="Lignovora fungo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lignovora fungo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onddo_xilofago" title="Onddo xilofago – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Onddo xilofago" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A8_%DA%86%D9%88%D8%A8" title="قارچ‌های مخرب چوب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قارچ‌های مخرب چوب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champignon_lignivore" title="Champignon lignivore – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Champignon lignivore" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A9%EC%9E%AC%EB%B6%80%ED%9B%84%EA%B7%A0" title="목재부후균 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="목재부후균" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carie_del_legno" title="Carie del legno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carie del legno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabont%C3%B3_gomb%C3%A1k" title="Fabontó gombák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fabontó gombák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houtrotschimmels" title="Houtrotschimmels – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Houtrotschimmels" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%9D%90%E8%85%90%E6%9C%BD%E8%8F%8C" title="木材腐朽菌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="木材腐朽菌" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussopp" title="Hussopp – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hussopp" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungo_lignol%C3%ADtico" title="Fungo lignolítico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fungo lignolítico" data-language-autonym="Português" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Any species of fungus that digests moist wood, causing it to rot</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg/220px-Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg/330px-Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg/440px-Braunfaeule_Holz_FI20070208.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1447" /></a><figcaption>Wood decay caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Serpula_lacrymans" title="Serpula lacrymans">Serpula lacrymans</a></i> (called <i>true dry rot</i>, a type of brown-rot).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fomes_fomentarius_(Zunderschwamm).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fomes_fomentarius_%28Zunderschwamm%29.jpg/170px-Fomes_fomentarius_%28Zunderschwamm%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fomes_fomentarius_%28Zunderschwamm%29.jpg/255px-Fomes_fomentarius_%28Zunderschwamm%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fomes_fomentarius_%28Zunderschwamm%29.jpg/340px-Fomes_fomentarius_%28Zunderschwamm%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2255" data-file-height="3221" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Fomes_fomentarius" title="Fomes fomentarius">Fomes fomentarius</a></i> is a stem decay <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant pathogen">plant pathogen</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg/220px-Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg/330px-Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg/440px-Dry_rot_and_water_damage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Dry rot and water damage</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>wood-decay</b> or <b>xylophagous fungus</b> is any species of <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a> that digests moist <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, causing it to <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">rot</a>. Some species of wood-decay fungi attack dead wood, such as brown rot, and some, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Armillaria" title="Armillaria">Armillaria</a></i> (honey fungus), are <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic</a> and colonize living trees. Excessive moisture above the <a href="/wiki/Fibre_saturation_point" title="Fibre saturation point">fibre saturation point</a> in wood is required for fungal colonization and proliferation.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_2001_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris_2001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In nature, this process causes the breakdown of complex molecules and leads to the return of nutrients to the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wood-decay fungi consume wood in various ways; for example, some attack the <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> in wood, and some others decay <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>. The rate of decay of wooden materials in various climates can be estimated by empirical models.<sup id="cite_ref-Towards_modelling_of_decay_risk_of_wooden_materials_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Towards_modelling_of_decay_risk_of_wooden_materials-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wood-decay fungi can be classified according to the type of decay that they cause. The best-known types are <b>brown rot</b>, <b>soft rot</b>, and <b>white rot</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-deacon-www_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deacon-www-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-minnesota_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-minnesota-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each produce different enzymes, can degrade different plant materials, and can colonise different environmental niches.<sup id="cite_ref-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brown rot and soft rot both digest a tree's <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a> but not its lignin; white rot digests lignin as well. The residual products of decomposition from fungal action have variable pH, solubility and redox potentials. Over time this residue becomes incorporated in the soil and sediment so can have a noticeable effect on the environment of that area.<sup id="cite_ref-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wood decay fungi are considered key species in the forest ecosystems <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because the process of decomposing dead wood creates new habitats for other species, helps in the nutrient recycling, participate in the energy transportation and transformation and provides food to other species.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also used as indicator species for conservation projects. </p><p>Wood decay fungi are dependent on wood. Due to forestry, cutting trees and removal of decaying wood, many species are classified as threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brown_rot">Brown rot</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Brown rot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg/220px-Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg/330px-Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg/440px-Cubical_rot_checked_quercus_bialowieza_1_beentree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Cubical brown rot on <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Brown-rot fungi break down <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> that form the wood structure. Cellulose is broken down by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) that is produced during the breakdown of hemicellulose.<sup id="cite_ref-deacon-www_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deacon-www-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because hydrogen peroxide is a small <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>, it can diffuse rapidly through the wood, leading to a decay that is not confined to the direct surroundings of the fungal <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>. As a result of this type of decay, the wood shrinks, shows a brown discoloration, and cracks into roughly cubical pieces, a phenomenon termed cubical fracture. The fungi of certain types remove cellulose compounds from wood, and hence the wood turns brown.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Brown rot in a dry, crumbly condition is sometimes incorrectly referred to as <i>dry rot</i> in general. The term <i>brown rot</i> replaced the general use of the term <i>dry rot</i>, as wood must be damp to decay, although it may become dry later. <a href="/wiki/Dry_rot" title="Dry rot">Dry rot</a> is a generic name for certain species of brown-rot fungi. Brown-rot fungi of particular economic importance include <i><a href="/wiki/Serpula_lacrymans" title="Serpula lacrymans">Serpula lacrymans</a></i> (true dry rot), <i><a href="/wiki/Fibroporia_vaillantii" title="Fibroporia vaillantii">Fibroporia vaillantii</a></i> (mine fungus), and <i><a href="/wiki/Coniophora_puteana" title="Coniophora puteana">Coniophora puteana</a></i> (cellar fungus), which may attack timber in buildings. Other brown-rot fungi include the <a href="/wiki/Laetiporus_sulphureus" title="Laetiporus sulphureus">sulfur shelf</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Phaeolus_schweinitzii" title="Phaeolus schweinitzii">Phaeolus schweinitzii</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Fomitopsis_pinicola" title="Fomitopsis pinicola">Fomitopsis pinicola</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-stamets_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stamets-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brown-rot fungal decay is characterised by extensive demethylation of lignins whereas white-rot tends to produce low yields of molecules with demethylated functional groups.<sup id="cite_ref-the_effect_of_fungal_decay_on_wheat_straw_lignin_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_effect_of_fungal_decay_on_wheat_straw_lignin-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are very few brown rot fungi in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climates</a> or in southern <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate</a> zones. Most brown rot fungi have a <a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">geographical range</a> north of the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Tropic of Cancer</a> (23.5° latitude), and most of these are found north of the 35° latitude, corresponding to a roughly <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">boreal</a> distribution. Those brown rot fungi between latitudes 23.5° and 35° are typically found at high elevations in pine forest regions, or in <a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">coniferous forest</a> regions such as the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SymposiumIsaac1993_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SymposiumIsaac1993-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soft_rot">Soft rot</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Soft rot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg/170px-Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg/255px-Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg/340px-Wood_decayed_Fungi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Wood decay fungus growing on rotting wood</figcaption></figure> <p>Soft-rot fungi secrete <i><a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulase</a></i> from their hyphae, an enzyme that breaks down cellulose in wood.<sup id="cite_ref-deacon-www_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deacon-www-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leads to the formation of microscopic cavities inside the wood and, sometimes, to a discoloration and cracking-pattern, similar to brown rot.<sup id="cite_ref-deacon-www_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deacon-www-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-minnesota_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-minnesota-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soft-rot fungi need <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen#Biological_role" title="Nitrogen">fixed nitrogen</a> in order to synthesize enzymes, which they obtain either from the wood or from the environment. Examples of soft-rot-causing fungi are <i><a href="/wiki/Chaetomium" title="Chaetomium">Chaetomium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ceratocystis" title="Ceratocystis">Ceratocystis</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Kretzschmaria_deusta" title="Kretzschmaria deusta">Kretzschmaria deusta</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Soft-rot fungi are able to colonise conditions that are normally too hot, cold or wet for brown- or white-rot to inhabit. They can also decompose woods containing high levels of protective from the compounds that are resistant to biological attack; the <a href="/wiki/Tree_bark" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree bark">bark</a> of many woody plants contains a high concentration of <a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannins</a>, which are difficult for fungi to decompose, as well as <a href="/wiki/Suberin" title="Suberin">suberin</a>, which may act as a microbial barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-bark_decay_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bark_decay-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bark acts as a form of protection for the more vulnerable interior of the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-bark_decay_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bark_decay-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soft-rot fungi are, apparently, not able to decompose matter as effectively as white-rot fungi, as they are less aggressive decomposers.<sup id="cite_ref-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="White_rot">White rot</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: White rot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hvidmuld.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hvidmuld.JPG/200px-Hvidmuld.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hvidmuld.JPG/300px-Hvidmuld.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hvidmuld.JPG/400px-Hvidmuld.JPG 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="416" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">White rot on <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:White_rot_on_oak.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/White_rot_on_oak.JPG/200px-White_rot_on_oak.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/White_rot_on_oak.JPG/300px-White_rot_on_oak.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/White_rot_on_oak.JPG/400px-White_rot_on_oak.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2976" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">... and on <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a></div></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"White rot" redirects here. For the onion pathogen, see <a href="/wiki/Allium_white_rot" class="mw-redirect" title="Allium white rot">Allium white rot</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lignin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lignin.png/220px-Lignin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lignin.png/330px-Lignin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lignin.png/440px-Lignin.png 2x" data-file-width="4828" data-file-height="2559" /></a><figcaption>Lignin</figcaption></figure> <p>White-rot fungi are a type of fungi comprising <a href="/wiki/Agaricomycetes" title="Agaricomycetes">agaricomycetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">basidiomycetes</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">ascomycetes</a> that are capable of decomposing many tree species. It is now recognized that <a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">saprotrophic</a> interactions have profound effects on forest biomes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White-rot fungi are characterized by their ability to break down the lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose of wood. As a result of this ability, white-rot fungi are considered a vital component of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, because of their ability to access carbon pools that would otherwise remain inaccessible. The name “white rot” derives from the white color and rotting texture of the remaining crystalline cellulose from wood degraded by these fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most knowledge of white-rot fungi comes from <i>Coriolus versicolor</i> and <i>Phanerochaete chrysosporium</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White-rot fungi show strong participation in <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">interspecific competition</a>, culminating in the evolution of lignin <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolism</a> specificity. The current and future applications of white-rot fungi as a potential component of <a href="/wiki/Mycoremediation" title="Mycoremediation">mycoremediation</a> merit greater study of these saprotrophs.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen02_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen02-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Compared to other saprotrophs, white-rot fungi possess the specialized ability to cleave lignin into smaller, more processable molecules. Lignin is a biopolymer which combines with cellulose to form the lignocellulose complex, an important complex that confers strength and durability to plant cell walls. Lignin is a macromolecule formed from the combination of many phenolic aromatic groups via <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_coupling" title="Oxidative coupling">oxidative coupling</a>. Because of its high stability, lignin is incapable of being broken down through simple decomposition. As a result, white-rot fungi employ a series of enzymes that break lignin down into smaller aromatic rings. The relative abundance of <a href="/wiki/Propylbenzene" title="Propylbenzene">phenylpropane</a> alkyl <a href="/wiki/Side_chain" title="Side chain">side chains</a> of lignin characteristically decreases when decayed by white-rot fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-the_effect_of_fungal_decay_on_wheat_straw_lignin_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_effect_of_fungal_decay_on_wheat_straw_lignin-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since lignin is the specialized food source of white-rot fungi, understanding the two different catabolic pathways is important. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lignin_metabolism_through_peroxidases">Lignin metabolism through peroxidases</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lignin metabolism through peroxidases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first way white-rot fungi can break down lignin involves a high-redox-potential catalyzed <a href="/wiki/Peroxidase" title="Peroxidase">peroxidase</a> attack on the heme pocket, thus reducing the stability of lignin. The process starts with creation of extracellular hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), a process completed via glyoxal oxidase (GLX). Extracellular hydrogen peroxide may be responsible for creation of hydroxyl radical (·OH) via the <a href="/wiki/Fenton_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Fenton reaction">Fenton reaction</a>: Fe<sup>2+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> → Fe<sup>3+</sup> + ·OH + OH<sup>−</sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The peroxidases used to oxidize lignin are lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), and versatile peroxidase (VP).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These peroxidases are commonly referred to as fungal class II peroxidases (PODs). Research suggests there may be another group of POD enzymes: basal peroxidases, including novel peroxidase (NoP). The NoP of <i>Postia placenta</i> is characterized by its inability to bind Mn<sup>2+</sup> and its low redox potential.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PODs developed in the common ancestor of white-rot, brown-rot and mycorrhizal fungi but these enzyme families have undergone <a href="/wiki/Secondary_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary loss">secondary loss</a> or contraction in the latter two groups.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> LiPs are oxidioreductases specific to lignin degradation. VPs are a class of peroxidase that combines elements of both LiPs and MnPs. LiPs and VPs are specific to heme product architecture allowing direct oxidation of benzene groups regardless of linkages.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct oxidation of benzene groups results in the creation of an unstable radical aromatic. However, the hydrogen peroxide, bound to the heme group on the heme pocket, is unable to access the bulky lignin due to steric hindrance. As a result, LiP and VP enzymes create a <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a> radical on their protein surface which allows long-range electron transfer from the aromatic substrate to the activated cofactor.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lignin_metabolism_through_laccase">Lignin metabolism through laccase</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lignin metabolism through laccase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg/220px-Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg/330px-Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg/440px-Illustration_of_the_cellulose_composition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Cellulose</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hemicellulose.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Hemicellulose.png/220px-Hemicellulose.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Hemicellulose.png 1.5x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>Hemicellulose</figcaption></figure> <p>The second mechanism for breaking down lignin involves <a href="/wiki/Laccase" title="Laccase">laccase</a>, a low-redox-potential oxidase incapable of direct attack. Laccase can be used both in breaking and forming lignin. It cleaves lignin by reducing oxygen, creating a free radical which allows a hydroxyl radical (·OH) to attack the ring and deposit an alcohol group (OH). Deprotonation follows, resulting in the breaking of C-C (aryl-alphaC) bond into two aromatic rings. These products enter the fungal hyphae to be further broken down via catabolic processes. After the lignin complex is broken down, other saprotrophs can enter and begin degrading the newly created products.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final products of these transformations are carbon dioxide and water. While it is known that brown-rot fungi can also target lignin, they are only capable of modifying and are not capable of completely recycling it with a few exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to degrade lignin, previously supposed to only occur in white-rot fungi which have PODs, was found in <i>Botryobasidium botryosum</i> and <i>Jappia argillacea</i>, two brown-rot fungi, lacking PODs. While the general pathway is currently unknown, research supports the existence of a continuum of features that separate the two fungal types rather than distinct categories.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cellulose_metabolism">Cellulose metabolism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cellulose metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While white-rot fungi specialized in catabolizing lignin, they are also capable of metabolizing other common organic forms of carbon like cellulose. Cellulose is also a laborious molecule to cleave.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, cellobiohydrolases, found in all white-rot fungi, hydrolyze the 1,4-beta-D-glycosidic bonds partially degrading cellulose.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GH61 enzymes initiate a copper-dependent oxidative (LPMO) attack on crystalline cellulose. LPMOs boost degradation by activating oxygen using a copper-containing <a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">histidine</a> brace that increases glycoside hydrolase activity, effectively lowering the activation cost of the reaction, making cleavage much cheaper, and therefore, more profitable for the fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Products from the cleavage are glucose and cellobiose. Another method involves endoglucanases hydrolyzing cellulose at random points before cellobiohydrolases cleave the chains, resulting in cellobiose. At the end of both processes, Beta-glucosidases further catabolize cellobiose into glucose.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hemicellulose_metabolism">Hemicellulose metabolism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hemicellulose metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another main food source of white-rot fungi is <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a>, a heteropolymer like cellulose that is not exclusively catabolized by white-rot fungi. The prevalent hemicellulose found in soft wood trees is Galactoglucomannan, a molecule made up of b-1,4-linked D-mannopyranose and D-glucopyranose units. Endo-1,4-b-D-mannanase breaks the prior linkages along the main chain of galactoglucomannan.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent studies have found that LPMOs, previously only thought to be used in cellulose cleavage, were also found to be important in the catabolism of hemicellulose in conjunction with glycoside hydrolase enzymes (GHs).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The availability of non white-rot fungi to catabolize cellulose and hemicellulose results in the creation of interspecific competition for access to these resources. Understanding the methods white-rot fungi use to dominate a resource and prevent competition will prove an important facet to understanding white-rot fungi.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecology">Ecology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="White_rot_competitive_ability">White rot competitive ability</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: White rot competitive ability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since white-rot fungi aren't the only saprotrophs capable of accessing cellulose and hemicellulose, competition ensues. Researchers attempted to estimate the effect of competition on white rot fungi. They reported that in sterile environments with no microbiota competitors present, white-rot fungi had good growth, but in soil with natural microbiota present, white-rot growth was variable. Even though white-rot fungi have a very specialized process for acquiring carbon, they are still vulnerable to competitors. Researchers clarified that white-rot fungi survival is dependent on its ability to defend lignocellulose substrate against attack by soil microbiota and its ability to establish itself within the soil bulk. These findings suggest that white-rot fungi and soil microbiota remain largely antagonistic in interactions, with only the highly competitive <i><a href="/wiki/Pleurotus" title="Pleurotus">Pleurotus</a></i> species capable of establishing themselves with only negligible negative impact due to soil microbiota. Less competitive white-rot fungi either failed to establish or produced lower enzyme concentrations associated with respiration. Successful interactions are characterized by which microbe arrives first and establishes a foothold.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brown-rot fungi and white-rot fungi have similar interspecific mycelial interactions. When white-rot fungal species occupied the same host distinct districts formed known as ‘decay columns’. Interactions were classified as interspecific competition.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were two important results when competition occurs: ‘deadlock’, when neither species could dominate the other; and ‘replacement’ when once species achieved complete colonization and replaced the other. A different study noted a third option: ‘reciprocal replacement’ when fungi successfully captured some territory and simultaneously lost other territory.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a> between two white-rot fungi was noted to be very rare.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Findings suggested the important distinction between primary competition, that is competition to colonize unoccupied territory and antagonistic capture and defense of territory. Many competitive interactions were ‘intransitive’, meaning interactions involved more than two fungal species each often deploying a different antagonistic mechanism that gave it an advantage over one species but a disadvantage over others. Research further highlighted the importance of environmental factors including temperature, water potential, and invertebrate interactions in influencing competition. Findings suggested that competition increased decay, due to competition being expensive and saprotrophs needing to access more resources to fund it. Similarly, decay rates increased in smaller environments where natural resources were limited and competition intense. Even though brown-rot fungi lack the ability to decompose lignin, a relatively energetically expensive molecule, brown-rot fungi were slightly more competitive than white-rot fungi since they could still access the relatively cheaper cellulose and hemicellulose and devote more energy to competition and less to extracting nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further evidence for white-rot fungi possessing long-term advantages was found in a study that determined that a longer time was required for white-rot fungal invasion of wood chips than for foliage litters. The data they collected on white-rot mass loss was sigmoid-shaped. This finding suggests that while white-rot fungi are not as competitive at decomposing carbon from common sources as other decomposers within the first year, but they proved to be more competitive after one year due to their specialized ability to access carbon from lignin.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Competition is not just limited between fungi. The presence of white rot fungi, in this case <i>Hypholoma fasciculare</i> and <i>Resinicium bicolor</i>, on sterilized <a href="/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a> wood blocks resulted in a lower number of wood-inhabiting bacteria, even though lignin is not a food source of these bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding points to an antagonistic relationship between white-rot fungi and bacteria that both compete for cellulose and hemicellulose, as well as the existence of <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bactericidal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent" title="Bacteriostatic agent">bacteriostatic</a> weapons utilized by white-rot fungi against competitor bacteria. Though the mechanism is unknown, researchers suggested that white-rot fungi may utilize lignin decomposing enzymes, hydroxyl radicals, and aryl alcohols to create a toxic environment. Further environmental manipulation involved the release of PODs to lower the pH and create a more acidic habitat.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The resulting conclusion is that peroxides not only make lignin accessible, but create a more accessible environment for white-rot fungi to compete in. Even with a specialized catabolic mechanism, competition remains a highly selective force on white-rot evolution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evolution">Evolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Insight on the evolutionary development of white-rot fungi comes from the evolution of lignin catabolism. Lignin is a precursor to the development of coal. During the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> (360-300 mya) and <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> (300-250 mya) there was a very high carbon accumulation. However, near the end of the Permian there was a sharp decline in carbon accumulation. White-rot fungi and their ability to cleave lignin evolved at the end of the Permian period.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers attempted to reconstruct the evolution of saprotrophic capabilities. Results suggested that white-rot saprotrophs were the common ancestors of brown-rot fungi and ectomycorrhiza (ECM), but that in the latter two groups genes coding for PODs were lost.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To gain insight on the evolution of lignolytic peroxidases, researchers resurrected ancestral lignolytic peroxidases from the <a href="/wiki/Polyporales" title="Polyporales">Polyporales</a>, a basidiomycete order that emerged 150 mya, and analyzed the lineage from that ancestor to the modern <i>P. chrysosporium</i>. One of the major findings was that ancestral versatile peroxidase (AVP) was not capable of functioning efficiently at low pH, a characteristic associated with modern LiPs. Findings also suggested that AVP possessed a much wider substrate specificity, the loss of which being an evolutionary cost of developing further specificity.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early peroxidases were unable to directly degrade lignin and relied on metal cations to separate phenol groups. Only later would peroxidases acquire the ability use a tryptophanyl radical, interacting with a bulky polymer at the surface of the peroxidase, to attack non-phenolic lignin. These findings highlight the importance of taking plant evolution into account when analyzing the evolution of white-rot fungus. Researchers note that plant cell walls have been steadily increasing and show evidence of convergent evolution. White-rot PODs also demonstrated convergent evolution. As plant cell walls have become more efficient, so have the peroxidases that destroy them.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  </p><p>Researchers attempted to further understand the evolutionary development of white-rot fungi by using bioinformatics. They analyzed sixty-two genomes of Agaricomycetes of white-rot, brown-rot, ECM and other nutritional modes. Given that both white-rot and brown-rot share the ability to cleave cellulose and hemicellulose, they suggest that PODs developed after cellulolytic enzymes and that white-rot mechanisms were an elaboration based on the already existing saprotrophic model, not just on the utilization of PODs.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding the evolutionary development of white-rot fungi provides insight onto a variety of potential uses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Current_and_future_applications">Current and future applications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Current and future applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>White-rot fungi have historically been valued as food, but in recent years exploration of their enzymatic capabilities has revealed white-rot fungi’s potential in depollution. White-rot fungi have long since been staples of human diet and remain an important source of nutrition for people around the world. White-rot fungi are commercially grown as a source of food – for example the <a href="/wiki/Shiitake_mushroom" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiitake mushroom">shiitake mushroom</a>, which in 2003 constituted approximately 25% of total mushroom production.<sup id="cite_ref-monitoring_decay_of_black_gum_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-monitoring_decay_of_black_gum-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to white-rot fungi’s important ability to degrade lignin, they have been increasingly explored as potential sources in mycoremediation applications, applications focused on removing organic pollutants from the environment. All three enzyme types of lignin decomposition (LiPs, MnP, and Laccase) have been explored. White-rot fungi have been determined to degrade chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons (<a href="/wiki/Chlorinated_polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">CAHs</a>), <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lindane" title="Lindane">lindane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">PCP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">polychlorinated dibenzo(p)dioxins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Azo_dye" title="Azo dye">azo dyes</a> when studied in <i><a href="/wiki/Phanerochaete_chrysosporium" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanerochaete chrysosporium">Phanerochaete chrysosporium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Trametes_versicolor" title="Trametes versicolor">Trametes versicolor</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bjerkandere_adusta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bjerkandere adusta (page does not exist)">Bjerkandere adusta</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Pleurotus_ostreatus" title="Pleurotus ostreatus">Pleurotus ostreatus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Noted limitations of white-rot fungi as pollutant cleaners is due to difficulty establishing the fungi in non-natural conditions. Other applications include <a href="/wiki/Biosorption" title="Biosorption">biosorption</a>, a process where biomass is utilized to remove solute wastes preventing pollution. Researchers studied the effect white-rot fungi could have on absorbing heavy metal ions via <a href="/wiki/Alginic_acid" title="Alginic acid">alginic acid</a>, a linear polysaccharide composed of 1,4-linked <a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta-D-mannuronic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beta-D-mannuronic acid (page does not exist)">beta-D-mannuronic</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alpha-L-guluronic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-L-guluronic acid (page does not exist)">alpha-L-guluronic acid</a>. The findings from the study indicated that <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fungalia_trogii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fungalia trogii (page does not exist)">Fungalia trogii</a></i> was capable of biosorption of Hg<sup>2+</sup>, Cd<sup>2+</sup>, and Zn<sup>2+</sup> in low pH environments.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The potential establishment of white-rot fungi as a stable mycoremediator remains an important future discovery. White-rot fungi remain an important source of great unrealized potential. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Induced_fungal_decay">Induced fungal decay</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Induced fungal decay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg/220px-Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg/330px-Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg/440px-Kugelschreiber_Buche_gestockt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8681" data-file-height="2542" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ballpoint_pen" title="Ballpoint pen">Ballpoint pen</a> with case made of wood showing induced fungal decay</figcaption></figure> <p>A special way of giving grown wood an unusual structure is to infect it with a <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic</a> fungus by storing it in a humid environment (<i>fungal decay</i>). The fungus penetrates the layers of the wood and changes the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. This process creates individual patterns and shades of colour. The wood treated in this way is then excellently suited for the production of all kinds of design objects. In order to stabilise the wood structure weakened by the fungus, <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resins</a> or plastics are usually introduced into the material by special <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> processes. This also kills the residual fungus after the desired pattern has been achieved, thus preserving the wood from being further consumed by the fungus.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A special icing process applied to <a href="/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a> wood leads to results similar to those obtained with fungal decay. After the wood has been soaked, it is iced and then dried. The result is a very light wood with an almost black <a href="/wiki/Wood_grain" title="Wood grain">grain</a>. This result, which also occurs very rarely in nature, is called <i>ice-beech</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_durability">Natural durability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Natural durability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural durability is the inherent capability of wood to tolerate and resist fungal decay and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> attacks, such as <a href="/wiki/Woodboring_beetle" title="Woodboring beetle">woodboring beetles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-APA_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APA-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This protective feature is attributable to specific biological compounds, called <i>extractives</i> that are toxic to wood-destroying organisms. Along with the tree’s growth, the <a href="/wiki/Sapwood_(wood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapwood (wood)">sapwood</a> converts into <a href="/wiki/Heartwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartwood">heartwood</a> and this brings physical and chemical changes to the wood.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the permeability decreases while the natural durability increases. Thus, the extractives responsible for natural durability are mainly present in the heartwood, although they may also be contained in small amounts in the sapwood.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different chemicals have been isolated from the heartwood of naturally rot-resistant trees and have shown to be protectants, including <a href="/wiki/Polyphenol" title="Polyphenol">polyphenols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lignans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lignans">lignans</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gmelinol" title="Gmelinol">gmelinol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plicatic_acid" title="Plicatic acid">plicatic acid</a>), <a href="/wiki/Flavonoid" title="Flavonoid">flavonoids</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mesquitol" title="Mesquitol">mesquitol</a>), <a href="/wiki/Tropolone" title="Tropolone">tropolones</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hinokitiol" title="Hinokitiol">hinokitiol</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Thujaplicin" title="Thujaplicin">thujaplicins</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sesquiterpene#Sesquiterpenoids" title="Sesquiterpene">sesquiterpenoids</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Alpha-cadinol" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-cadinol">α-cadinol</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The natural durability varies between tree species, geographic regions, environmental conditions, growth stage, and increases with the age. Thereby, some trees are more resistant to fungal diseases and insects and their <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> lasts longer than other trees. Notably, the timber of these trees remain durable for a long-time period, even around a century, thereby they have been used as a reliable building material for centuries. Since the young trees do not produce enough protecting chemicals, some trees grow with a hollow, rotten trunk at an early age.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the stands of <a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">old-growth trees</a> are more naturally durable than <a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">second-growth stands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tree species that have significant natural durability include <i><a href="/wiki/Lagarostrobos_franklinii" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagarostrobos franklinii">Lagarostrobos franklinii</a></i> (Huon pine), <i><a href="/wiki/Intsia_bijuga" title="Intsia bijuga">Intsia bijuga</a></i> (ipil), some <i><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Eucalyptus</a></i> species (<a href="/wiki/Ironbark" title="Ironbark">ironbark</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/Podocarpus_totara" title="Podocarpus totara">Podocarpus totara</a></i> (totara), <i><a href="/wiki/Vitex_lucens" title="Vitex lucens">Vitex lucens</a></i> (puriri), <i><a href="/wiki/Agathis_australis" title="Agathis australis">Agathis australis</a></i> (kauri), and trees of the <a href="/wiki/Cupressaceae" title="Cupressaceae">Cupressaceae</a> family, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Chamaecyparis_obtusa" title="Chamaecyparis obtusa">Chamaecyparis obtusa</a></i> (Hinoki cypress), <i><a href="/wiki/Thuja_plicata" title="Thuja plicata">Thuja plicata</a></i> (Western red cedar), <i><a href="/wiki/Thujopsis" title="Thujopsis">Thujopsis dolabrata</a></i> (Hinoki asunaro), <i><a href="/wiki/Juniperus_cedrus" title="Juniperus cedrus">Juniperus cedrus</a></i> (Canary Islands juniper), <i><a href="/wiki/Cedrus_atlantica" title="Cedrus atlantica">Cedrus atlantica</a></i> (Atlas cedar), <i><a href="/wiki/Chamaecyparis_taiwanensis" title="Chamaecyparis taiwanensis">Chamaecyparis taiwanensis</a></i> (Taiwan cypress), among others.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apawood-europe.org/official-guidelines/european-standards/individual-standards/en-350/">EN 350:2016 standards</a> by the <a href="/wiki/APA_%E2%80%93_The_Engineered_Wood_Association" title="APA – The Engineered Wood Association">APA – The Engineered Wood Association</a>, the durability of wood and wood-based products to fungal decay can be classified into five categories: very durable (DC1); durable (DC2); moderately durable (DC3); slightly durable (DC4); and not durable (DC5). The durability to insect attacks can be categorized as durable (DC D); moderately durable (DC M); and not durable (DC S).<sup id="cite_ref-APA_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APA-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, the heartwood of durable tree species is considered as very durable, whereas the sapwood of all tree species is considered as not durable and is the most vulnerable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wood_preservation">Wood preservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Wood preservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wood_preservation" title="Wood preservation">Wood preservation</a></div> <p>A wide selection of timber preservation has been developed to give the wood an improved durability and to protect it from decay. The wood can be treated according to the purpose (biological protection, e.g. fungi, insects, marine organisms) and the environment (interior, exterior, above ground, in ground, in water) of its use.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Timber preservatives include <a href="/wiki/Chromated_copper_arsenate" title="Chromated copper arsenate">chromated copper arsenate</a> (CCA), <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_copper_quaternary" title="Alkaline copper quaternary">alkaline copper quaternary</a> (ACQ), <a href="/wiki/Wood_preservation#Copper_azole" title="Wood preservation">copper azole</a> (CuAz), <a href="/wiki/Borates" class="mw-redirect" title="Borates">borates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_silicate" title="Sodium silicate">sodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_silicate" title="Potassium silicate">potassium silicate</a>, oil-based preservatives, such as <a href="/wiki/Creosote" title="Creosote">creosote</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pentachlorophenol" title="Pentachlorophenol">pentachlorophenol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood_preservation#Light_organic_solvent_preservatives" title="Wood preservation">light organic solvent preservatives</a> (LOSP), <a href="/wiki/Propiconazole" title="Propiconazole">propiconazole</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tebuconazole" title="Tebuconazole">tebuconazole</a>-<a href="/wiki/Imidacloprid" title="Imidacloprid">imidacloprid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epoxy" title="Epoxy">epoxy</a> resins, wood acetylation, natural or biological preservation, such as treatment with heat (<a href="/wiki/Thermally_modified_wood" title="Thermally modified wood">thermally modified wood</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">mud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tung_oil" title="Tung oil">tung oil</a>, impregnation using biopolymers from agricultural waste (<a href="/wiki/Wood_preservation#Biological_modified_timber" title="Wood preservation">biological modified timber</a>), covering wood with <a href="/wiki/Copper_sheathing" title="Copper sheathing">copper sheathes</a>, etc. Treatment of timber with natural extractives derived from rot-resistant trees, such as <a href="/wiki/Hinokitiol" title="Hinokitiol">hinokitiol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tannins" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannins">tannins</a>, and tree extracts, is another promising environmentally-friendly wood preservation method.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more permeable is the wood, the easier is it to treat. According to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apawood-europe.org/official-guidelines/european-standards/individual-standards/en-350/">EN 350:2016 standards</a>, the treatability of woods can be categorized in four levels: (1) easy to treat; (2) moderately easy to treat; (3) difficult to treat; and (4) extremely difficult to treat.<sup id="cite_ref-APA_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APA-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safety">Safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the years a lot of concerns have arisen regarding the <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> contents of <a href="/wiki/Chromated_copper_arsenate" title="Chromated copper arsenate">CCA</a>. In 1986, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) recognized arsenic as a human carcinogen.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water contamination with arsenic and its compounds is a serious public health issue, and their release to the environment and <a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">soil pollution</a> is another environmental problem.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different regulatory interventions have been undertaken worldwide to restrict their use in the wood industry, especially in timber for residential use. By the end of 2003, the U.S EPA and the wood industry agreed to discontinue the use of CCA in treating timber for residential use.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its use is also prohibited in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/25px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/38px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/51px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 2x" data-file-width="1105" data-file-height="1215" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Fungi" title="Portal:Fungi">Fungi portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Snag_(ecology)" title="Snag (ecology)">Snag (ecology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmentalization_of_decay_in_trees" title="Compartmentalization of decay in trees">Compartmentalization of decay in trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_preservation" title="Wood preservation">Wood preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_ear" title="Wood ear">Wood ear</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Harris_2001-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harris_2001_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarris,_Samuel_Y.2001" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Samuel Y. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ClnQtqipTtsC&pg=PA106"><i>Building Pathology: Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-33172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-33172-8"><bdi>978-0-471-33172-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+Pathology%3A+Deterioration%2C+Diagnostics%2C+and+Intervention&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-471-33172-8&rft.au=Harris%2C+Samuel+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DClnQtqipTtsC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220124134710/https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs97.pdf">"Wood Decay in Living and Dead Trees: A Pictorial Overview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs97.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2022-01-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wood+Decay+in+Living+and+Dead+Trees%3A+A+Pictorial+Overview&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrs.fs.fed.us%2Fpubs%2Fgtr%2Fgtr_nrs97.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Towards_modelling_of_decay_risk_of_wooden_materials-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Towards_modelling_of_decay_risk_of_wooden_materials_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Viitanen, T. et al. (2010). Towards modelling of decay risk of wooden materials. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 68:303-313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-deacon-www-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deacon-www_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deacon-www_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deacon-www_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deacon-www_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Deacon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/FungalBiology/woodrots.htm">Wood decay and wood-rotting fungi</a>. University of Edinburgh (2005?).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-minnesota-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-minnesota_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-minnesota_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forestpathology.cfans.umn.edu/microbes.htm">Microorganisms causing decay in trees and wood</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200220185049/http://forestpathology.cfans.umn.edu/microbes.htm">Archived</a> 2020-02-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. University of Minnesota.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Decay_of_cultivated_apricot_wood_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vane, C. H., et al. (2005). "Decay of cultivated apricot wood (<i>Prunus armeniaca</i>) by the ascomycete <i>Hypocrea sulphurea</i>, using solid state 13C NMR and off-line TMAH thermochemolysis with GC–MS." International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 55(3): 175-185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsson2008" class="citation thesis cs1">Olsson, Jörgen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-1907"><i>Colonization Patterns of Wood-inhabiting Fungi in Boreal Forest</i></a> (PhD thesis). Umeå University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Colonization+Patterns+of+Wood-inhabiting+Fungi+in+Boreal+Forest&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Ume%C3%A5+University&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Olsson&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rgen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furn.kb.se%2Fresolve%3Furn%3Durn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Aumu%3Adiva-1907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite 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Chris Daum, Jérôme Mariette, Christophe Klopp, Daniel Cullen, Ronald P de Vries, Allen C Gathman, Matthieu Hainaut, Bernard Henrissat, Kristiina S Hildén, Ursula Kües, Walt Lilly, Anna Lipzen, Miia R Mäkelä, Angel T Martinez, Mélanie Morel-Rouhier, Emmanuelle Morin, Jasmyn Pangilinan, Arthur F J Ram, Han A B Wösten, Francisco J Ruiz-Dueñas, Robert Riley, Eric Record, Igor V Grigoriev, Marie-Noëlle Rosso (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/dnares/dsaa011">"Conserved white-rot enzymatic mechanism for wood decay in the Basidiomycota genus Pycnoporus"</a>. <i>DNA Research</i>. <b>27</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fdnares%2Fdsaa011">10.1093/dnares/dsaa011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7406137">7406137</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32531032">32531032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=DNA+Research&rft.atitle=Conserved+white-rot+enzymatic+mechanism+for+wood+decay+in+the+Basidiomycota+genus+Pycnoporus&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7406137%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32531032&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fdnares%2Fdsaa011&rft.au=Shingo+Miyauchi%2C+Hayat+Hage%2C+Elodie+Drula%2C+Laurence+Lesage-Meessen%2C+Jean-Guy+Berrin%2C+David+Navarro%2C+Anne+Favel%2C+Delphine+Chaduli%2C+Sacha+Grisel%2C+Mireille+Haon%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois+Piumi%2C+Anthony+Levasseur%2C+Anne+Lomascolo%2C+Steven+Ahrendt%2C+Kerrie+Barry%2C+Kurt+M+LaButti%2C+Didier+Chevret%2C+Chris+Daum%2C+J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me+Mariette%2C+Christophe+Klopp%2C+Daniel+Cullen%2C+Ronald+P+de+Vries%2C+Allen+C+Gathman%2C+Matthieu+Hainaut%2C+Bernard+Henrissat%2C+Kristiina+S+Hild%C3%A9n%2C+Ursula+K%C3%BCes%2C+Walt+Lilly%2C+Anna+Lipzen%2C+Miia+R+M%C3%A4kel%C3%A4%2C+Angel+T+Martinez%2C+M%C3%A9lanie+Morel-Rouhier%2C+Emmanuelle+Morin%2C+Jasmyn+Pangilinan%2C+Arthur+F+J+Ram%2C+Han+A+B+W%C3%B6sten%2C+Francisco+J+Ruiz-Due%C3%B1as%2C+Robert+Riley%2C+Eric+Record%2C+Igor+V+Grigoriev%2C+Marie-No%C3%ABlle+Rosso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fdnares%2Fdsaa011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennaNereaAtteSeppo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Jenna, Purhonen; Nerea, Abrego; Atte, Komonen; Seppo, Huhtinen; Heikki, Kotiranta; Thomas, Læssøe; Panu, Halme (2021-07-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8285386">"Wood-inhabiting fungal responses to forest naturalness vary among morpho-groups"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 14585. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatSR..1114585J">2021NatSR..1114585J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-021-93900-7">10.1038/s41598-021-93900-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10138%2F332607">10138/332607</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span 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"Widespread Arsenic Contamination of Soils in Residential Areas and Public Spaces: An Emerging Regulatory or Medical Crisis?". <i>International Journal of Toxicology</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 109–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10915810305087">10.1080/10915810305087</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12745992">12745992</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20986621">20986621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Toxicology&rft.atitle=Widespread+Arsenic+Contamination+of+Soils+in+Residential+Areas+and+Public+Spaces%3A+An+Emerging+Regulatory+or+Medical+Crisis%3F&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=109-128&rft.date=2003-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20986621%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12745992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10915810305087&rft.aulast=Belluck&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+S.+L.&rft.au=Baveye%2C+P.&rft.au=Sampson%2C+J.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2003/04/09/03-8372/response-to-requests-to-cancel-certain-chromated-copper-arsenate-cca-wood-preservative-products-and">"Response to Requests to Cancel Certain Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) Wood Preservative Products and Amendments to Terminate Certain Uses of other CCA Products"</a>. <i>Federal Register</i>. 9 April 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Register&rft.atitle=Response+to+Requests+to+Cancel+Certain+Chromated+Copper+Arsenate+%28CCA%29+Wood+Preservative+Products+and+Amendments+to+Terminate+Certain+Uses+of+other+CCA+Products&rft.date=2003-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2003%2F04%2F09%2F03-8372%2Fresponse-to-requests-to-cancel-certain-chromated-copper-arsenate-cca-wood-preservative-products-and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanada2014" class="citation web cs1">Canada, Environment and Climate Change (26 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/management-toxic-substances/publications/environmental-recommendations-wood-preservation-facilities/chromated-copper-arsenate/chapter-1.html">"Wood preservation facilities, chromated copper arsenate: chapter B-1"</a>. <i>Government of Canada</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Government+of+Canada&rft.atitle=Wood+preservation+facilities%2C+chromated+copper+arsenate%3A+chapter+B-1&rft.date=2014-02-26&rft.aulast=Canada&rft.aufirst=Environment+and+Climate+Change&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.canada.ca%2Fen%2Fenvironment-climate-change%2Fservices%2Fmanagement-toxic-substances%2Fpublications%2Fenvironmental-recommendations-wood-preservation-facilities%2Fchromated-copper-arsenate%2Fchapter-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apvma.gov.au/node/11751">"New restrictions in place for arsenic-treated timber"</a>. <i>Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority</i>. 22 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Pesticides+and+Veterinary+Medicines+Authority&rft.atitle=New+restrictions+in+place+for+arsenic-treated+timber&rft.date=2014-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapvma.gov.au%2Fnode%2F11751&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2003/2/oj">"EUR-Lex - 32003L0002 - EN - EUR-Lex"</a>. <i>Eur-lex.europa.eu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eur-lex.europa.eu&rft.atitle=EUR-Lex+-+32003L0002+-+EN+-+EUR-Lex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.europa.eu%2Feli%2Fdir%2F2003%2F2%2Foj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wood-decay_fungus&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarzeEngelsMattheck2000" class="citation book cs1">Schwarze, Francis W. M. R.; Engels, Julia; Mattheck, Claus (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LZssbJ6g6PUC"><i>Fungal Strategies of Wood Decay in Trees</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67205-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67205-0"><bdi>978-3-540-67205-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fungal+Strategies+of+Wood+Decay+in+Trees&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-540-67205-0&rft.aulast=Schwarze&rft.aufirst=Francis+W.+M.+R.&rft.au=Engels%2C+Julia&rft.au=Mattheck%2C+Claus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLZssbJ6g6PUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage" title="Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage">Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteRoss2014" class="citation book cs1">White, Robert H.; Ross, Robert J. (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo54780"><i>Wood and Timber Condition Assessment Manual</i></a> (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wood+and+Timber+Condition+Assessment+Manual&rft.place=Madison%2C+WI&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Agriculture%2C+Forest+Service%2C+Forest+Products+Laboratory&rft.date=2014-11&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft.au=Ross%2C+Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpurl.fdlp.gov%2FGPO%2Fgpo54780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserEngels2014" class="citation book cs1">Wasser, Zmitrovich I. V.; Engels, Tura (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.wix.com/ugd/b65817_2690a71af41f4486863a9b220827d7b5.pdf"><i>Wood-inhabiting fungi</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Fungi from different substrates / J. K. Misra, J. P. Tewari, S. K. Deshmukh, C. Vágvölgyi (eds). N. Y.: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wood-inhabiting+fungi&rft.pub=Fungi+from+different+substrates+%2F+J.+K.+Misra%2C+J.+P.+Tewari%2C+S.+K.+Deshmukh%2C+C.+V%C3%A1gv%C3%B6lgyi+%28eds%29.+N.+Y.%3A+CRC+Press%2C+Taylor+and+Francis+group&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Wasser&rft.aufirst=Zmitrovich+I.+V.&rft.au=Engels%2C+Tura&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.wix.com%2Fugd%2Fb65817_2690a71af41f4486863a9b220827d7b5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWood-decay+fungus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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