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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crisis_and_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis_and_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Crisis and recovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crisis_and_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Member_of_Parliament:_1628–29_and_1640–42" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Member_of_Parliament:_1628–29_and_1640–42"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Member of Parliament: 1628–29 and 1640–42 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Member_of_Parliament:_1628–29_and_1640–42-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_Civil_War_begins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_Civil_War_begins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 English Civil War begins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_Civil_War_begins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marston_Moor,_1644" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marston_Moor,_1644"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1.1 Marston Moor, 1644 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marston_Moor,_1644-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Naseby,_1645" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Naseby,_1645"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1.2 Battle of Naseby, 1645 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Naseby,_1645-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics:_1647–49" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics:_1647–49"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.2 Politics: 1647–49 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics:_1647–49-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Civil_War_&_King's_execution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Civil_War_&_King's_execution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.3 Second Civil War & King's execution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Civil_War_&_King's_execution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Commonwealth:_1649" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_Commonwealth:_1649"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Commonwealth:_1649-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irish_campaign:_1649–50" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irish_campaign:_1649–50"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Irish campaign: 1649–50 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irish_campaign:_1649–50-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scottish_campaign:_1650–51" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scottish_campaign:_1650–51"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Scottish campaign: 1650–51 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scottish_campaign:_1650–51-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scots_proclaim_Charles_II_as_king" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scots_proclaim_Charles_II_as_king"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 Scots proclaim Charles II as king </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scots_proclaim_Charles_II_as_king-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Dunbar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Dunbar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.2 Battle of Dunbar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Dunbar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Worcester" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Worcester"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.3 Battle of Worcester </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Worcester-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_England_and_dissolution_of_the_Rump_Parliament:_1651–53" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_England_and_dissolution_of_the_Rump_Parliament:_1651–53"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–53 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_England_and_dissolution_of_the_Rump_Parliament:_1651–53-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_Barebone's_Parliament:_1653" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_Barebone's_Parliament:_1653"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Establishment of Barebone's Parliament: 1653 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_Barebone's_Parliament:_1653-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Protectorate:_1653–58" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Protectorate:_1653–58"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 The Protectorate: 1653–58 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Protectorate:_1653–58-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_posthumous_execution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_posthumous_execution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Death and posthumous execution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_posthumous_execution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Character assessment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Character_assessment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Character assessment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Character_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Irish_campaign_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irish_campaign_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Irish campaign controversy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irish_campaign_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Military assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monuments_and_posthumous_honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monuments_and_posthumous_honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Monuments and posthumous honours </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monuments_and_posthumous_honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biographical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Biographical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Military studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surveys_of_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys_of_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Surveys of era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys_of_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Oliver Cromwell</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" > 93 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A6%E1%88%8A%E1%89%A8%E1%88%AD_%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%AE%E1%88%9D%E1%8B%8C%E1%88%8D" title="ኦሊቨር ክሮምዌል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኦሊቨር ክሮምዌል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%B1_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84" title="أوليفر كرومويل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أوليفر كرومويل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Kromvel" title="Oliver Kromvel – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Oliver Kromvel" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Олівер Кромвель – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Олівер Кромвель" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%9E%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Олівэр Кромўэл – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Олівэр Кромўэл" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Оливър Кромуел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Оливър Кромуел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%81_%CE%9A%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Όλιβερ Κρόμγουελ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Όλιβερ Κρόμγουελ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84" title="الیور کرامول – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الیور کرامول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilibh%C3%A9ar_Cromail" title="Oilibhéar Cromail – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Oilibhéar Cromail" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%AC%EB%A6%AC%EB%B2%84_%ED%81%AC%EB%A1%AC%EC%9B%B0" title="올리버 크롬웰 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="올리버 크롬웰" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%80_%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Օլիվեր Կրոմվել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օլիվեր Կրոմվել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="ऑलिवर क्रॉमवेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऑलिवर क्रॉमवेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C" title="אוליבר קרומוול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוליבר קרומוול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D" title="ಆಲಿವರ್ ಕ್ರಾಮ್ವೆಲ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಲಿವರ್ ಕ್ರಾಮ್ವೆಲ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ოლივერ კრომველი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოლივერ კრომველი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Оливер Кромвель – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Оливер Кромвель" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Оливер Кромвель – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Оливер Кромвель" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliverius_Cromwellus" title="Oliverius Cromwellus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Oliverius Cromwellus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivers_Kromvels" title="Olivers Kromvels – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Olivers Kromvels" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Оливер Кромвел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Оливер Кромвел" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%92%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD" title="ഒലിവർ ക്രോംവെൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഒലിവർ ക്രോംവെൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="ऑलिव्हर क्रॉमवेल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ऑलिव्हर क्रॉमवेल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ოლივერ კრომველი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ოლივერ კრომველი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%B1_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84" title="اوليفر كرومويل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اوليفر كرومويل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Оливер Кромвелл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Оливер Кромвелл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%97%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%80%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA" title="အိုလီဗာ ကရွမ်းဝဲလ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အိုလီဗာ ကရွမ်းဝဲလ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AA%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E3%83%A0%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AB" title="オリバー・クロムウェル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オリバー・クロムウェル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Кромвель, Оливер – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Кромвель, Оливер" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%94%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%88%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B2" title="ਔਲੀਵਰ ਕਰੌਮਵੈੱਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਔਲੀਵਰ ਕਰੌਮਵੈੱਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84" title="اولیور کرامویل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اولیور کرامویل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%DB%90%D9%84" title="اولیور کروموېل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اولیور کروموېل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Кромвель, Оливер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кромвель, Оливер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aw-li-bow.Ke-lun-wi-al" title="Aw-li-bow.Ke-lun-wi-al – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Aw-li-bow.Ke-lun-wi-al" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="आलिवर क्रामवेल – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आलिवर क्रामवेल" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Оливер Кромвел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Оливер Кромвел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆலிவர் கிராம்வெல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆலிவர் கிராம்வெல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C" title="โอลิเวอร์ ครอมเวลล์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โอลิเวอร์ ครอมเวลล์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Олівер Кромвель – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Олівер Кромвель" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84" title="اولیور کرامویل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اولیور کرامویل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Oliver Cromwell" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" 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navigation-not-searchable">Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Oliver Cromwell (disambiguation)">Oliver Cromwell (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cromwell_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cromwell (disambiguation)">Cromwell (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cromwellian (disambiguation)">Cromwellian (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/His_Highness" class="mw-redirect" title="His Highness">His Highness</a></div><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Oliver Cromwell</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/220px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/330px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/440px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2916" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(painter)" title="Samuel Cooper (painter)">Samuel Cooper</a>, 1656</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector#Cromwellian_Commonwealth" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England,_Scotland_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland">Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">English Council of State</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of Parliament for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)">Cambridge</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 29 February 1640 – 20 April 1653</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> (until 30 January 1649)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Thomas Purchase</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of Parliament for <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Huntingdon (UK Parliament constituency)">Huntingdon</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 31 January 1628 – 3 March 1629</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data">Charles I</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Mainwaring" title="Arthur Mainwaring">Arthur Mainwaring</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">25 April 1599 (1599-04-25) <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon" title="Huntingdon">Huntingdon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">3 September 1658(1658-09-03) (aged 59) <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England,_Scotland_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland">Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge" title="Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge">Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge</a> (head)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bourchier" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Bourchier">Elizabeth Bourchier</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1620)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Robert Cromwell</li><li>Oliver Cromwell</li><li><a href="/wiki/Bridget_Cromwell" title="Bridget Cromwell">Bridget Cromwell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cromwell" title="Henry Cromwell">Henry Cromwell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Claypole" title="Elizabeth Claypole">Elizabeth Cromwell</a></li><li>James Cromwell</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cromwell,_Countess_Fauconberg" title="Mary Cromwell, Countess Fauconberg">Mary Cromwell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Russell,_n%C3%A9e_Cromwell" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Russell, née Cromwell">Frances Cromwell</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cromwell" title="Robert Cromwell">Robert Cromwell</a> (father)</li><li>Elizabeth Steward (mother)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cromwell_family" title="Cromwell family">Cromwell family</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge" title="Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge">Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data">Soldier and statesman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oliver Cromwell's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg/128px-Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg/192px-Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg/256px-Oliver_Cromwell_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="416" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nicknames</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Old Noll<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></li> <li>Old Ironsides</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Military service</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> (pre-1642) <a href="/wiki/Roundhead" title="Roundhead">Parliamentarian</a> (1642–1651) <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England,_Scotland_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland">Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland</a> (1651–1658)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Branch/service</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(English)" class="mw-redirect" title="Militia (English)">Militia</a> (pre-1642)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Association" title="Eastern Association">Eastern Association</a> (1642–1645)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> (1645–1653)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years of service</th><td class="infobox-data">Pre-1642 (militia service) 1642–1651 (civil war)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Colonel (1642 – bef. 1644)</li> <li>Lieutenant-General of Horse (bef. 1644 – 1645)</li> <li>Lieutenant-General of Cavalry (1645–1646)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Commands</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Cambridgeshire <a href="/wiki/Ironside_(cavalry)" title="Ironside (cavalry)">Ironsides</a> (1643 – bef. 1644)</li> <li>Eastern Association (bef. 1644 – 1645)</li> <li>New Model Army (1645–1653)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Battles/wars</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gainsborough" title="Battle of Gainsborough">Gainsborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marston_Moor" title="Battle of Marston Moor">Marston Moor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Newbury" title="Second Battle of Newbury">2nd Newbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naseby" title="Battle of Naseby">Naseby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langport" title="Battle of Langport">Langport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preston_(1648)" title="Battle of Preston (1648)">Preston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drogheda" title="Siege of Drogheda">Siege of Drogheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Wexford" title="Sack of Wexford">Sack of Wexford</a></li> <li>First <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Waterford" title="Siege of Waterford">Siege of Waterford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dunbar_(1650)" title="Battle of Dunbar (1650)">Dunbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Worcester" title="Battle of Worcester">Worcester</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1654%E2%80%931660)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)">Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English statesman, politician, and soldier, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British</a> history. He came to prominence during the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a>, initially as a senior commander in the <a href="/wiki/Roundhead" title="Roundhead">Parliamentarian</a> army and latterly as a politician. A leading advocate of the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">execution of Charles I</a> in January 1649, which led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>, he ruled as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> from December 1653 until his death in September 1658. Although elected <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" title="Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)">member of parliament</a> for <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Huntingdon (UK Parliament constituency)">Huntingdon</a> in <a href="/wiki/3rd_Parliament_of_Charles_I" title="3rd Parliament of Charles I">1628</a>, much of Cromwell's life prior to 1640 was marked by failure. He briefly contemplated emigration to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, but became a religious <a href="/wiki/Independent_(religion)" title="Independent (religion)">Independent</a> in the 1630s and thereafter believed his successes were the result of <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">divine providence</a>. In 1640, Cromwell was returned as MP for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)">Cambridge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Short_Parliament" title="Short Parliament">Short</a> and <a href="/wiki/Long_Parliament" title="Long Parliament">Long Parliaments</a>. He joined the Parliamentarian army when the <a href="/wiki/First_English_Civil_War" title="First English Civil War">First English Civil War</a> began in August 1642 and quickly demonstrated his military abilities. In 1645, he was appointed commander of the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> cavalry under Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fairfax" title="Thomas Fairfax">Thomas Fairfax</a>, and played a key role in winning the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>. The death of Charles I and exile of his <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">son</a>, followed by military victories in Ireland and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Scottish_war_(1650%E2%80%931652)" title="Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)">Scotland</a>, firmly established the Commonwealth and Cromwell's dominance of the new regime. In December 1653, he was named Lord Protector,<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> a position he retained until his death in September 1658, when he was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard</a>, whose weakness led to a <a href="/wiki/Power_vacuum" title="Power vacuum">power vacuum</a>. This culminated in the 1660 <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Stuart Restoration</a>, after which Cromwell's body was removed from <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> and re-hanged at <a href="/wiki/Tyburn" title="Tyburn">Tyburn</a> on 30 January 1661. His head was cut off and displayed on the roof of <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Hall" title="Westminster Hall">Westminster Hall</a>. It remained there until at least 1684 (see <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell%27s_head" title="Oliver Cromwell's head">Oliver Cromwell's head</a>). <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> described Cromwell as a military dictator,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1956314-3">[2]</a> while others view him a hero of liberty. He remains a controversial figure due to his use of military force to acquire and retain political power, his role in the execution of Charles I and the brutality of his 1649 <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">campaign in Ireland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú20081–2-4">[3]</a> The debate over his historical reputation continues. First proposed in 1856, his <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell,_Westminster" title="Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Westminster">statue</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Houses_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Houses of Parliament">Houses of Parliament</a> was not erected until 1895, most of the funds being privately supplied by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Primrose,_5th_Earl_of_Rosebery" title="Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery">Lord Rosebery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurch2003228–284-5">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2></div> Cromwell was born in <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon" title="Huntingdon">Huntingdon</a> on 25 April 1599<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cromwell" title="Robert Cromwell">Robert Cromwell</a> and his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of William Steward.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> The family's estate derived from Oliver's great-great-grandfather Morgan ap William, a <a href="/wiki/Brewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewer">brewer</a> from <a href="/wiki/Glamorgan" title="Glamorgan">Glamorgan</a>, Wales, who settled at <a href="/wiki/Putney" title="Putney">Putney</a> and married Katherine Cromwell (born 1482), the sister of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cromwell" title="Thomas Cromwell">Thomas Cromwell</a>, who would become the famous chief minister to Henry VIII. The Cromwells acquired great wealth as occasional beneficiaries of Thomas's administration of the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution of the Monasteries">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Morill-8">[7]</a> Morgan ap William was a son of William ap Yevan of Wales. The family line continued through <a href="/wiki/Richard_Williams_(alias_Cromwell)" title="Richard Williams (alias Cromwell)">Richard Williams (alias Cromwell)</a>, (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1544), <a href="/wiki/Henry_Williams_(alias_Cromwell)" title="Henry Williams (alias Cromwell)">Henry Williams (alias Cromwell)</a>, (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1524 – 6 January 1604),<a href="#cite_note-9">[b]</a> then to Oliver's father Robert Williams, alias Cromwell (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1564–1654), probably in 1591. They had ten children, but Oliver, the fifth child, was the only boy to survive infancy.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> Cromwell's paternal grandfather, Sir Henry Williams, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in <a href="/wiki/Huntingdonshire" title="Huntingdonshire">Huntingdonshire</a>. Cromwell's father was of modest means but still a member of the <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry" title="Landed gentry">landed gentry</a>. As a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a> In 1654, Cromwell said, "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity."<a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> Oliver Cromwell was baptised on 29 April 1599 at <a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Huntingdon" title="All Saints' Church, Huntingdon">St John's Church</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BritishCivil-13">[11]</a> and attended <a href="/wiki/Hinchingbrooke_School" title="Hinchingbrooke School">Huntingdon Grammar School</a>. He went on to study at <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge" title="Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge">Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge</a>, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after his father's death.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> Early biographers claim that he then attended <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Inn" title="Lincoln's Inn">Lincoln's Inn</a>, but the Inn's archives retain no record of him.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antonia_Fraser" title="Antonia Fraser">Antonia Fraser</a> concludes that it is likely that he did train at one of the London <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a> during this time.<a href="#cite_note-Antonia_Fraser_1973-16">[14]</a> His grandfather, his father, and two of his uncles had attended Lincoln's Inn, and Cromwell sent his son Richard there in 1647.<a href="#cite_note-Antonia_Fraser_1973-16">[14]</a> Cromwell probably returned home to Huntingdon after his father's death. As his mother was widowed, and his seven sisters unmarried, he would have been needed at home to help his family.<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage_and_family">Marriage and family</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg/220px-Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg/330px-Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg/440px-Oliver_Cromwell_House_Ely.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell%27s_House" title="Oliver Cromwell's House">Cromwell's House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ely,_Cambridgeshire" title="Ely, Cambridgeshire">Ely</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg/330px-Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg/440px-Elizabeth_Bourchier_Cromwell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Cromwell's wife <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bourchier" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Bourchier">Elizabeth Bourchier</a></figcaption></figure> Cromwell married <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bourchier" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Bourchier">Elizabeth Bourchier</a> (1598–1665) on 22 August 1620 at <a href="/wiki/St_Giles-without-Cripplegate" title="St Giles-without-Cripplegate">St Giles-without-Cripplegate</a>, Fore Street, London.<a href="#cite_note-BritishCivil-13">[11]</a> Elizabeth's father, Sir James Bourchier, was a London leather-merchant who owned extensive lands in <a href="/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a> and had strong connections with Puritan gentry families there. The marriage brought Cromwell into contact with <a href="/wiki/Oliver_St_John" title="Oliver St John">Oliver St John</a> and leading members of London's merchant community, and behind them the influence of the Earls of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rich,_2nd_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick">Warwick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Rich,_1st_Earl_of_Holland" title="Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland">Holland</a>. A place in this influential network proved crucial to Cromwell's military and political career. The couple had nine children:<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> <ul><li>Robert (1621–1639), died while away at school</li> <li>Oliver (1622–1644), died of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a> while serving as a Parliamentarian officer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridget_Cromwell" title="Bridget Cromwell">Bridget</a> (1624–1662), married (1) <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a>, (2) <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fleetwood" title="Charles Fleetwood">Charles Fleetwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard</a> (1626–1712), his father's successor as Lord Protector,<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> married <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Maijor" title="Dorothy Maijor">Dorothy Maijor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cromwell" title="Henry Cromwell">Henry</a> (1628–1674), later <a href="/wiki/Lord_Deputy_of_Ireland" title="Lord Deputy of Ireland">Lord Deputy of Ireland</a> (in office: 1657–1659), married Elizabeth Russell (daughter of <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Russell,_2nd_Baronet,_of_Chippenham" title="Sir Francis Russell, 2nd Baronet, of Chippenham">Sir Francis Russell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Claypole" title="Elizabeth Claypole">Elizabeth</a> (1629–1658), married <a href="/wiki/John_Claypole" title="John Claypole">John Claypole</a></li> <li>James (b. & d. 1632), died in infancy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cromwell,_Countess_Fauconberg" title="Mary Cromwell, Countess Fauconberg">Mary</a> (1637–1713), married <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Belasyse,_1st_Earl_Fauconberg" title="Thomas Belasyse, 1st Earl Fauconberg">Thomas Belasyse, 1st Earl Fauconberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Russell,_n%C3%A9e_Cromwell" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Russell, née Cromwell">Frances</a> (1638–1720), married (1) Robert Rich (1634–1658), son of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rich,_3rd_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Robert Rich, 3rd Earl of Warwick">Robert Rich, 3rd Earl of Warwick</a>, (2) <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Russell,_3rd_Baronet" title="Sir John Russell, 3rd Baronet">Sir John Russell, 3rd Baronet</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crisis_and_recovery">Crisis and recovery</h3></div> Little evidence exists of Cromwell's religion in his early years. His 1626 letter to Henry Downhall, an <a href="/wiki/Arminian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arminian">Arminian</a> minister, suggests that he had yet to be influenced by radical Puritanism.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-20">[18]</a> But there is evidence that Cromwell underwent a personal crisis during the late 1620s and early 1630s. In 1628 he was elected to Parliament from the <a href="/wiki/Huntingdonshire" title="Huntingdonshire">Huntingdonshire</a> <a href="/wiki/County_town" title="County town">county town</a> of <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon" title="Huntingdon">Huntingdon</a>. Later that year, he sought treatment for a variety of physical and emotional ailments, including valde melancholicus (depression), from the Swiss-born London doctor <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_de_Mayerne" title="Théodore de Mayerne">Théodore de Mayerne</a>. In 1629, Cromwell became involved in a dispute among the gentry of Huntingdon involving a new charter for the town. As a result, he was called before the <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Council</a> in 1630.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> In 1631, likely as a result of the dispute, Cromwell sold most of his properties in Huntingdon and moved to a farmstead in nearby <a href="/wiki/St_Ives,_Cambridgeshire" title="St Ives, Cambridgeshire">St Ives</a>. This move, a significant step down in society for the Cromwells, also had significant emotional and spiritual impact on Cromwell; an extant 1638 letter from him to his cousin, the wife of Oliver St John, gives an account of his spiritual awakening at this time. In the letter, Cromwell, describing himself as having been the "chief of sinners", describes his calling as among "the congregation of the firstborn".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-20">[18]</a> The letter's language, particularly the inclusion of numerous biblical quotations, shows Cromwell's belief that he was saved from his previous sins by God's mercy, and indicates his religiously <a href="/wiki/Independent_(religion)" title="Independent (religion)">Independent</a> beliefs, chief among them that the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> had not gone far enough, that much of England was still living in sin, and that Catholic beliefs and practices must be fully removed from the church.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-20">[18]</a> It appears that in 1634 Cromwell attempted to emigrate to what became the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut Colony</a> in the Americas, but was prevented by the government from leaving.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> Along with his brother Henry, Cromwell had kept a <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholding</a> of chickens and sheep, selling eggs and wool to support himself, his lifestyle resembling that of a <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman</a> farmer. In 1636 Cromwell inherited control of various properties in <a href="/wiki/Ely,_Cambridgeshire" title="Ely, Cambridgeshire">Ely</a> from his uncle on his mother's side, and his uncle's job as <a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">tithe</a>-collector for <a href="/wiki/Ely_Cathedral" title="Ely Cathedral">Ely Cathedral</a>. As a result, his income is likely to have risen to around £300–400 per year;<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> by the end of the 1630s Cromwell had returned to the ranks of acknowledged gentry. He had become a committed Puritan and had established important family links to leading families in London and <a href="/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Member_of_Parliament:_1628–29_and_1640–42">Member of Parliament: 1628–29 and 1640–42</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (54–51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a> (1531)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a> (1649)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a> (1656)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a> (1698)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a> (1755)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a> (1787–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a> (1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a> (1963)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha">Gaṇasaṅgha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Cromwell became the Member of Parliament for <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Huntingdon (UK Parliament constituency)">Huntingdon</a> in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Montagu_(MP,_died_1644)" title="Sidney Montagu (MP, died 1644)">Montagu family</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hinchingbrooke_House" title="Hinchingbrooke House">Hinchingbrooke House</a>. He made little impression: parliamentary records show only one speech (against the <a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminian</a> Bishop <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neile" title="Richard Neile">Richard Neile</a>), which was poorly received.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> After dissolving this Parliament, <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> ruled without a Parliament for the next 11 years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion in the <a href="/wiki/Bishops%27_Wars" title="Bishops' Wars">Bishops' Wars</a>, lack of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)">Cambridge</a>, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Short_Parliament" title="Short Parliament">Short Parliament</a>. Cromwell moved his family from Ely to London in 1640.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> A second Parliament was called later the same year and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Long_Parliament" title="Long Parliament">Long Parliament</a>. Cromwell was again returned as member for Cambridge. As with the Parliament of 1628–29, it is likely that he owed his position to the patronage of others, which might explain why in the first week of the Parliament he was in charge of presenting a petition for the release of <a href="/wiki/John_Lilburne" title="John Lilburne">John Lilburne</a>, who had become a Puritan <a href="/wiki/Cause_c%C3%A9l%C3%A8bre" title="Cause célèbre">cause célèbre</a> after his arrest for importing religious tracts from the Netherlands. For the Long Parliament's first two years, Cromwell was linked to the godly group of aristocrats in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> and Members of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a> with whom he had established familial and religious links in the 1630s, such as the Earls of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_3rd_Earl_of_Essex" title="Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex">Essex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rich,_2nd_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick">Warwick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Russell,_4th_Earl_of_Bedford" title="Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford">Bedford</a>, Oliver St John and <a href="/wiki/William_Fiennes,_1st_Viscount_Saye_and_Sele" title="William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele">Viscount Saye and Sele</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> At this stage, the group had an agenda of reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken a role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, he put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill, and he later took a role in drafting the <a href="/wiki/Root_and_Branch_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Root and Branch Bill">Root and Branch Bill</a> for the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Episcopacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopacy">episcopacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English_Civil_War_begins">English Civil War begins</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_English_Civil_War" title="First English Civil War">First English Civil War</a></div> Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in late 1642, the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>. Before he joined Parliament's forces, Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. He recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a valuable shipment of silver plate from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the King. Cromwell and his troop then rode to, but arrived too late to take part in, the indecisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgehill" title="Battle of Edgehill">Battle of Edgehill</a> on 23 October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642–43, making up part of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Association" title="Eastern Association">Eastern Association</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Edward_Montagu,_2nd_Earl_of_Manchester" title="Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester">Earl of Manchester</a>. Cromwell gained experience in successful actions in <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> in 1643, notably at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gainsborough" title="Battle of Gainsborough">Battle of Gainsborough</a> on 28 July.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> He was subsequently appointed governor of the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Ely" title="Isle of Ely">Isle of Ely</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">colonel</a> in the Eastern Association.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Marston_Moor,_1644">Marston Moor, 1644</h5></div> By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marston_Moor" title="Battle of Marston Moor">Battle of Marston Moor</a> in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general" title="Lieutenant general">lieutenant general</a> of horse in Manchester's army. His cavalry's success in breaking the ranks of the Royalist cavalry and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck, stepping away briefly to receive treatment but returning to help secure the victory.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> After Cromwell's nephew was killed at Marston Moor, he wrote a famous letter to his <a href="/wiki/Valentine_Walton" title="Valentine Walton">brother-in-law</a>. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians but failed to end Royalist resistance.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> The indecisive outcome of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Newbury" title="Second Battle of Newbury">Second Battle of Newbury</a> in October meant that by the end of 1644 the war still showed no sign of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war. Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: "If you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse, honest men will follow them ... I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else".<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> At this time, Cromwell also fell into dispute with Major-General <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Crawford_(soldier)" title="Lawrence Crawford (soldier)">Lawrence Crawford</a>, a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Covenanter" class="mw-redirect" title="Covenanter">Covenanter</a> attached to Manchester's army, who objected to Cromwell's encouragement of unorthodox Independents and Anabaptists.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> He was also charged with <a href="/wiki/Familia_Caritatis" title="Familia Caritatis">familism</a> by Scottish Presbyterian <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rutherford" title="Samuel Rutherford">Samuel Rutherford</a> in response to his letter to the House of Commons in 1645.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Battle_of_Naseby,_1645">Battle of Naseby, 1645</h5></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG/220px-Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG/330px-Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG/440px-Charles_Landseer_Cromwell_Battle_of_Naseby.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3219" data-file-height="1833" /></a><figcaption>Cromwell in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naseby" title="Battle of Naseby">Battle of Naseby</a> in 1645 as depicted in a portrait by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Landseer" title="Charles Landseer">Charles Landseer</a></figcaption></figure> At the critical <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naseby" title="Battle of Naseby">Battle of Naseby</a> in June 1645, the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a> smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langport" title="Battle of Langport">Battle of Langport</a> on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable Catholic fortress <a href="/wiki/Basing_House" title="Basing House">Basing House</a>, later to be accused of killing 100 of its 300-man Royalist garrison after its surrender.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> He also took part in successful sieges at <a href="/wiki/Bridgwater" title="Bridgwater">Bridgwater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sherborne" title="Sherborne">Sherborne</a>, Bristol, <a href="/wiki/Devizes" title="Devizes">Devizes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>. Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the <a href="/wiki/First_English_Civil_War" title="First English Civil War">First English Civil War</a>. Cromwell and Fairfax took the Royalists' formal surrender at <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> in June.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Politics:_1647–49">Politics: 1647–49</h4></div> In February 1647, Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time he recovered, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the King. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_polity" title="Presbyterian polity">Presbyterian</a> settlement of the church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by Parliament's failure to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. In May 1647 Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Saffron_Walden" title="Saffron Walden">Saffron Walden</a> to negotiate with them, but failed to agree.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet <a href="/wiki/George_Joyce" title="George Joyce">George Joyce</a> seized the King from Parliament's imprisonment. With the King now present, Cromwell was eager to find out what conditions the King would acquiesce to if his authority was restored. The King appeared to be willing to compromise, so Cromwell employed his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement. Proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the "<a href="/wiki/Heads_of_Proposals" title="Heads of Proposals">Heads of Proposals</a>" pleased Cromwell in principle and allowed for further negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> It was designed to check the powers of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive</a>, to set up regularly elected parliaments, and to restore a non-compulsory <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_polity" title="Episcopal polity">episcopalian</a> settlement.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Many in the army, such as the <a href="/wiki/Levellers" title="Levellers">Levellers</a> led by <a href="/wiki/John_Lilburne" title="John Lilburne">John Lilburne</a>, thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and Levellers like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Rainsborough" title="Thomas Rainsborough">Colonel Rainsborough</a> on the other. The <a href="/wiki/Putney_Debates" title="Putney Debates">Putney Debates</a> broke up without reaching a resolution.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_Civil_War_&_King's_execution">Second Civil War & King's execution</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Court-charles-I-sm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Court-charles-I-sm.jpg/170px-Court-charles-I-sm.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Court-charles-I-sm.jpg/255px-Court-charles-I-sm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Court-charles-I-sm.jpg/340px-Court-charles-I-sm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption>The trial of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> on 4 January 1649.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice_for_the_trial_of_Charles_I" class="mw-redirect" title="High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I">High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Charles_I" title="Execution of Charles I">Execution of Charles I</a></div> The failure to conclude a political agreement with the King led eventually to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_English_Civil_War" title="Second English Civil War">Second English Civil War</a> in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by <a href="/wiki/Rowland_Laugharne" title="Rowland Laugharne">Rowland Laugharne</a>, winning back <a href="/wiki/Chepstow_Castle" title="Chepstow Castle">Chepstow Castle</a> on 25 May and six days later forcing the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Tenby" title="Tenby">Tenby</a>. The castle at <a href="/wiki/Carmarthen" title="Carmarthen">Carmarthen</a> was destroyed by burning; the much stronger castle at <a href="/wiki/Pembroke_Castle" title="Pembroke Castle">Pembroke</a> fell only after an eight-week siege. Cromwell dealt leniently with ex-Royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had formerly been members of the parliamentary army, <a href="/wiki/John_Poyer" title="John Poyer">John Poyer</a> eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-<a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalist</a> Scottish army (the <a href="/wiki/Engagers" title="Engagers">Engagers</a>) who had invaded England. At <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preston_(1648)" title="Battle of Preston (1648)">Preston</a>, in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,000, he won a decisive victory against an army twice as large.<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> During 1648, Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages. For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September 1648 urged him to read <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a> 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. On four occasions in letters in 1648 he referred to the story of <a href="/wiki/Gideon" title="Gideon">Gideon</a>'s defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midianites</a> at Ain Harod.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> These letters suggest that it was Cromwell's faith, rather than a commitment to radical politics, coupled with Parliament's decision to engage in negotiations with the King at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Newport" title="Treaty of Newport">Treaty of Newport</a>, that convinced him that God had spoken against both the King and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> The episode shows Cromwell's firm belief in <a href="/wiki/Providentialism" title="Providentialism">Providentialism</a>—that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). During the Civil Wars, Cromwell believed that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval and defeats as signs that God was pointing him in another direction.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> In December 1648, in an episode that became known as <a href="/wiki/Pride%27s_Purge" title="Pride's Purge">Pride's Purge</a>, a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pride" title="Thomas Pride">Thomas Pride</a> forcibly removed from the <a href="/wiki/Long_Parliament" title="Long Parliament">Long Parliament</a> all those who were not supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Grandee#New_Model_Army" title="Grandee">Grandees</a> in the New Model Army and the Independents.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> Thus weakened, the remaining body of MPs, known as the <a href="/wiki/Rump_Parliament" title="Rump Parliament">Rump Parliament</a>, agreed that Charles should be tried for treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance, when these events took place, but then returned to London. On the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the King's trial and execution, believing that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> Cromwell approved Thomas Brook's address to the House of Commons, which justified the trial and the King's execution on the basis of the Book of Numbers, chapter 35 and particularly verse 33 ("The land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it.").<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> Charles's death warrant was signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (the third to sign it).<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> Though it was not unprecedented, execution of the King, or <a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">regicide</a>, was controversial, if for no other reason than the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> Thus, even after a trial, it was difficult to get ordinary men to go along with it: "None of the officers charged with supervising the execution wanted to sign the order for the actual beheading, so they brought their dispute to Cromwell...Oliver seized a pen and scribbled out the order, and handed the pen to the second officer, Colonel Hacker who stooped to sign it. The execution could now proceed."<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> Although Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign,<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> Charles I was executed on 30 January 1649.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_the_Commonwealth:_1649">Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg/170px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg/255px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg/340px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Commonwealth_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="911" data-file-height="963" /></a><figcaption>Arms of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a></figcaption></figure> After the King's execution, a republic was declared, known as the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a>. The "Rump Parliament" exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller <a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a> also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the council. In the early months after Charles's execution, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original "Royal Independents" led by St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">civil war</a> in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. Only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish known as <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Ireland" title="Confederate Ireland">Confederate Catholics</a>. In March, the Rump chose Cromwell to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied him in the subsequent months. In the latter part of the 1640s, Cromwell came across political dissidence in the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Leveller" class="mw-redirect" title="Leveller">Leveller</a> or <a href="/wiki/Agitators" title="Agitators">Agitator</a> movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. These sentiments were expressed in the 1647 manifesto: <a href="/wiki/Agreement_of_the_People" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreement of the People">Agreement of the People</a>. Cromwell and the rest of the "Grandees" disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people; they believed that the vote should extend only to the landowners. In the <a href="/wiki/Putney_Debates" title="Putney Debates">Putney Debates</a> of 1647, the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. Rebellions and mutinies followed the debates, and in 1649, the <a href="/wiki/Bishopsgate_mutiny" title="Bishopsgate mutiny">Bishopsgate mutiny</a> resulted in Leveller <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lockyer" title="Robert Lockyer">Robert Lockyer</a>'s execution by firing squad. The next month, the <a href="/wiki/Banbury_mutiny" title="Banbury mutiny">Banbury mutiny</a> occurred with similar results. Cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at <a href="/wiki/Andover,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Andover, England">Andover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burford" title="Burford">Burford</a> in May, he departed for Ireland from <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> at the end of July.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irish_campaign:_1649–50">Irish campaign: 1649–50</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Irish Confederate Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg/220px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg/330px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg/440px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Robert_Walker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2981" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Oliver_Cromwell" title="Portrait of Oliver Cromwell">Portrait of Oliver Cromwell</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Walker_(painter)" title="Robert Walker (painter)">Robert Walker</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1649, on display at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery</a></figcaption></figure>Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649 to 1650. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Ireland" title="Confederate Ireland">Irish Confederate Catholics</a> and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the Royalist alliance, and Protestant Royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous".<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papal</a> and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">Irish Rebellion of 1641</a>. This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by <a href="/wiki/Gael" class="mw-redirect" title="Gael">Irish ("Gaels")</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_English_(Ireland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English (Ireland)">Old English in Ireland</a>, and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held outposts only in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Derry" title="Derry">Derry</a>. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After he landed at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rathmines" title="Battle of Rathmines">Battle of Rathmines</a>), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of <a href="/wiki/Drogheda" title="Drogheda">Drogheda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wexford" title="Wexford">Wexford</a> to secure logistical supply from England. At the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drogheda" title="Siege of Drogheda">Siege of Drogheda</a> in September 1649, his troops killed nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners and Roman Catholic priests.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-57">[55]</a> Cromwell wrote afterwards: <blockquote>I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a></blockquote> At the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Wexford" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Wexford">Siege of Wexford</a> in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> After taking Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to <a href="/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster">Ulster</a> to secure the north of the country and went on to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Waterford" title="Siege of Waterford">besiege Waterford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kilkenny" title="Kilkenny">Kilkenny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clonmel" title="Clonmel">Clonmel</a> in Ireland's south-east. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kilkenny" title="Siege of Kilkenny">Kilkenny put up a fierce defence</a> but was eventually forced to surrender on terms, as did many other towns like <a href="/wiki/New_Ross" title="New Ross">New Ross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carlow" title="Carlow">Carlow</a>, but Cromwell failed to take <a href="/wiki/Waterford" title="Waterford">Waterford</a>, and at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Clonmel" title="Siege of Clonmel">siege of Clonmel</a> in May 1650 he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-60">[58]</a> One of Cromwell's major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of <a href="/wiki/Roger_Boyle,_1st_Earl_of_Orrery" title="Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery">Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery</a>, he persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in <a href="/wiki/Cork_(city)" title="Cork (city)">Cork</a> to change sides and fight with the Parliament.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> At this point, word reached Cromwell that <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> (son of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>) had landed in Scotland from exile in France and been proclaimed King by the <a href="/wiki/Covenanter" class="mw-redirect" title="Covenanter">Covenanter</a> regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from <a href="/wiki/Youghal" title="Youghal">Youghal</a> on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ludlow" title="Edmund Ludlow">Edmund Ludlow</a> consisted mostly of long sieges of fortified cities and <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> in the countryside, with English troops suffering from attacks by Irish <a href="/wiki/Rapparee" title="Rapparee">toráidhe</a> (guerilla fighters). The last Catholic-held town, <a href="/wiki/Galway" title="Galway">Galway</a>, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish Catholic troops capitulated in April 1653 in <a href="/wiki/County_Cavan" title="County Cavan">County Cavan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-60">[58]</a> In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest of the island of Ireland, public practice of Roman Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> All Catholic-owned lands were confiscated under the <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland of 1652</a> and given to Scottish and English settlers, Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> Remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of <a href="/wiki/Connacht" title="Connacht">Connacht</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scottish_campaign:_1650–51">Scottish campaign: 1650–51</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scots_proclaim_Charles_II_as_king">Scots proclaim Charles II as king</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg/170px-Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg/255px-Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg/340px-Moray_House_in_the_Canongate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="1461" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Moray_House_School_of_Education#Old_Moray_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Moray House School of Education">Moray House</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mile" title="Royal Mile">Royal Mile</a>, Cromwell's residence in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> when he implored the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Assembly of the Kirk</a> to stop supporting <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a></figcaption></figure> Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> as King. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterians</a>, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived".<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> He made a famous appeal to the <a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="General Assembly of the Church of Scotland">General Assembly of the Church of Scotland</a>, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Dunbar">Battle of Dunbar</h4></div> His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under <a href="/wiki/David_Leslie_(Scottish_general)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Leslie (Scottish general)">David Leslie</a>. Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from <a href="/wiki/Dunbar" title="Dunbar">Dunbar</a>. However, on 3 September 1650, unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main Scottish army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dunbar_(1650)" title="Battle of Dunbar (1650)">Battle of Dunbar</a>, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner, and then capturing the Scottish capital of <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-69">[67]</a> The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-69">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Worcester">Battle of Worcester</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg/220px-Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg/330px-Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg/440px-Citadel_Archway_Cromwell_Leith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Citadel Archway built by Cromwell soldiers in 1656 in Leith, Edinburgh Scotland</figcaption></figure> The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made an attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at <a href="/wiki/Worcester,_England" title="Worcester, England">Worcester</a> on 3 September 1651, and his forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Worcester" title="Battle of Worcester">Battle of Worcester</a>. Charles II <a href="/wiki/Escape_of_Charles_II" title="Escape of Charles II">barely escaped capture</a> and fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he remained until 1660.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi-pronged coordinated attack on Worcester, his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning them. He switched his reserves from one side of the river Severn to the other and then back again. Cromwell's success at Worcester relied on a degree of manoeuvre that the English parliamentary armies had not been skilled enough to execute at the start of the war, such as at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Turnham_Green" title="Battle of Turnham Green">Battle of Turnham Green</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men under <a href="/wiki/George_Monck" class="mw-redirect" title="George Monck">George Monck</a> sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Scotland was ruled from England during the Commonwealth and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland. The northwest Highlands was the scene of another pro-Royalist uprising in 1653–55, which was put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish Church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_England_and_dissolution_of_the_Rump_Parliament:_1651–53">Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–53</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Long_Parliament" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Dissolution of the Long Parliament">Dissolution of the Long Parliament</a></div></div></div> </div> Cromwell was away on campaign from the middle of 1649 until 1651, and the various factions in Parliament began to fight amongst themselves with the King gone as their "common cause". Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, but it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or to dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. According to the parliamentarian lawyer <a href="/wiki/Bulstrode_Whitelocke" title="Bulstrode Whitelocke">Bulstrode Whitelocke</a>, Cromwell began to contemplate taking the Crown for himself around this time, though the evidence for this is retrospective and problematic.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> Ultimately, he demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government in April 1653 of 40 members drawn from the Rump and the army, and then abdicate; but the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> Cromwell was so angered by this that he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force on 20 April 1653, supported by about 40 musketeers. Several accounts exist of this incident; in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting".<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> At least two accounts agree that he snatched up the <a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_mace" title="Ceremonial mace">ceremonial mace</a>, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "<a href="/wiki/Marotte" title="Marotte">bauble</a>" be taken away.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> His troops were commanded by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Worsley" title="Charles Worsley">Charles Worsley</a>, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_Barebone's_Parliament:_1653">Establishment of Barebone's Parliament: 1653</h3></div> After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_(soldier)" title="Thomas Harrison (soldier)">Major-General Thomas Harrison</a> for a "<a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">sanhedrin</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's <a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">apocalyptic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Monarchists" title="Fifth Monarchists">Fifth Monarchist</a> beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech during the assembly on 4 July, Cromwell thanked God's providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoots19898–27-80">[78]</a> The Nominated Assembly, sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints, or more commonly and denigratingly called <a href="/wiki/Barebone%27s_Parliament" title="Barebone's Parliament">Barebone's Parliament</a> after one of its members, <a href="/wiki/Praise-God_Barebone" title="Praise-God Barebone">Praise-God Barebone</a>, was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Protectorate:_1653–58">The Protectorate: 1653–58</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:170px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_(1653%E2%80%931659).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/171px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="171" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/257px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/342px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Coat of arms of the Protectorate</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:215px;max-width:215px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:170px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_(1653%E2%80%931659).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/213px-Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="213" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/320px-Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/426px-Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="700" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Banner of Oliver Cromwell</div></div></div></div></div> After Barebone's Parliament was dissolved, <a href="/wiki/John_Lambert_(general)" title="John Lambert (general)">John Lambert</a> put forward a new constitution known as the <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Government_(1653)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrument of Government (1653)">Instrument of Government</a>, closely modelled on the <a href="/wiki/Heads_of_Proposals" title="Heads of Proposals">Heads of Proposals</a>. This made Cromwell undertake the "chief magistracy and the administration of government". Later he was sworn as Lord Protector on 16 December, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> Cromwell also changed his signature to 'Oliver P', with the P being an abbreviation for Protector, and soon others started to address Cromwell as "Your Highness".<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> As Protector, he had to secure a majority vote in the Council of State. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year (equivalent to £20,500,000 in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Although Cromwell stated that "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," he believed that social issues should be prioritised.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> The social priorities did not include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial system</a> were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Tax slightly decreased, and he prioritised peace and ending the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> England's <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">overseas possessions</a> in this period included <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> the <a href="/wiki/New_England_Confederation" title="New England Confederation">New England Confederation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Providence_Plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Providence Plantations">Providence Plantation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Colony">Virginia Colony</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Province of Maryland</a>, and islands in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb other Puritans who had seized control of Maryland Colony at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Severn" title="Battle of the Severn">Severn battle</a>, by his confirming the former Roman Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the <a href="/wiki/First_Protectorate_Parliament" title="First Protectorate Parliament">first Protectorate parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. Later, the Parliament initiated radical reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. The First Protectorate Parliament had a property franchise of £200 per annum in real or personal property value set as the minimum value which a male adult was to possess before he was eligible to vote for the representatives from the counties or shires in the House of Commons. The House of Commons representatives from the boroughs were elected by the burgesses or those borough residents who had the right to vote in municipal elections, and by the aldermen and councilors of the boroughs.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:118px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Cromwell_signature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Cromwell_signature.jpg/133px-Cromwell_signature.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Cromwell_signature.jpg/200px-Cromwell_signature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Cromwell_signature.jpg/266px-Cromwell_signature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="1193" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cromwell's signature before becoming <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> in 1653, and afterwards. 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector, similar in style to English monarchs who signed their names as, for example, 'Elizabeth R' standing for <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth Regina</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:253px;max-width:253px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:118px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg/251px-Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg" decoding="async" width="251" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg/377px-Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg/502px-Gold_coin_of_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="379" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Broad_(English_gold_coin)" title="Broad (English gold coin)">Broad</a> of Oliver Cromwell, dated 1656; on the obverse the Latin inscription OLIVAR D G RP ANG SCO ET HIB &c PRO, translated as "Oliver, by the Grace of God of the Republic of England, Scotland and Ireland etc. Protector".</div></div></div></div></div> Cromwell's second objective was reforms on the field of morality and religion.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> As a Protectorate, he established trials for the future parish ministers, and dismissed unqualified ministers and rectors. These triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_the_Major-Generals" title="Rule of the Major-Generals">Major Generals</a> that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a <a href="/wiki/Penruddock_uprising" title="Penruddock uprising">Royalist uprising in March 1655</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/John_Penruddock" title="John Penruddock">Sir John Penruddock</a>, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by army major generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>, but also viewed as Cromwell's serious effort in exerting his religious conviction. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the <a href="/wiki/Second_Protectorate_Parliament" title="Second Protectorate Parliament">second Protectorate parliament</a>—instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> In late 1654, Cromwell launched the <a href="/wiki/Western_Design" title="Western Design">Western Design</a> armada against the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a>, and in May 1655 <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Jamaica" title="Invasion of Jamaica">captured</a> <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the Jewish community's involvement in the economics of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of the right to private worship of those who fell outside Puritanism—that led to his <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="Resettlement of the Jews in England">encouraging Jews to return to England</a> in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> There was a longer-term motive for Cromwell's decision to allow the Jews to return to England, and that was the hope that they would convert to Christianity and therefore hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, ultimately based on <a href="/wiki/Matthew_23" title="Matthew 23">Matthew 23</a>:37–39 and <a href="/wiki/Romans_11" title="Romans 11">Romans 11</a>. At the Whitehall conference of December 1655, he quoted from St. Paul's <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Epistle to the Romans</a> 10:12–15 on the need to send Christian preachers to the Jews. The Presbyterian <a href="/wiki/William_Prynne" title="William Prynne">William Prynne</a>, in contrast to the Congregationalist Cromwell, was strongly opposed to the latter's pro-Jewish policy.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> On 23 March 1657, the Protectorate signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1657)" title="Treaty of Paris (1657)">Treaty of Paris</a> with <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> against Spain. Cromwell pledged to supply France with 6,000 troops and war ships. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, <a href="/wiki/Mardyck" title="Mardyck">Mardyck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a>—a base for <a href="/wiki/Privateers" class="mw-redirect" title="Privateers">privateers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiders" class="mw-redirect" title="Commerce raiders">commerce raiders</a> attacking English merchant shipping—were ceded to England.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of King: "I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build <a href="/wiki/Jericho" title="Jericho">Jericho</a> again".<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> in 1655—comparing himself to <a href="/wiki/Achan_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achan (Bible)">Achan</a>, who had brought the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> Instead, Cromwell was re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Hall" title="Westminster Hall">Westminster Hall</a>, and sitting on <a href="/wiki/King_Edward%27s_Chair" class="mw-redirect" title="King Edward's Chair">King Edward's Chair</a>, he imitated a royal <a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">coronation</a> as he wore many royal regalia, such as a purple robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the <a href="/wiki/Humble_Petition_and_Advice" title="Humble Petition and Advice">Humble Petition and Advice</a>, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers. In the Humble Petition it was called the <a href="/wiki/Cromwell%27s_Other_House" title="Cromwell's Other House">Other House</a> as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created three peerages after a Petition and advised Charles Howard to be appointed as Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Dunch,_Baron_Burnell_of_East_Wittenham" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Dunch, Baron Burnell of East Wittenham">Edmund Dunch</a> being appointed as Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April next year.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_and_posthumous_execution">Death and posthumous execution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell%27s_head" title="Oliver Cromwell's head">Oliver Cromwell's head</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG/170px-WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG/255px-WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG/340px-WarwickCastle_CromwellDeathmaskcrop.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Oliver Cromwell's death mask at <a href="/wiki/Warwick_Castle" title="Warwick Castle">Warwick Castle</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Execution_of_Cromwell,_Bradshaw_and_Ireton,_1661.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Execution_of_Cromwell%2C_Bradshaw_and_Ireton%2C_1661.jpg/220px-Execution_of_Cromwell%2C_Bradshaw_and_Ireton%2C_1661.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Execution_of_Cromwell%2C_Bradshaw_and_Ireton%2C_1661.jpg/330px-Execution_of_Cromwell%2C_Bradshaw_and_Ireton%2C_1661.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Execution_of_Cromwell%2C_Bradshaw_and_Ireton%2C_1661.jpg/440px-Execution_of_Cromwell%2C_Bradshaw_and_Ireton%2C_1661.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3817" data-file-height="3081" /></a><figcaption>The posthumous execution of Cromwell, Bradshaw, and Ireton, depicted in a contemporary print</figcaption></figure> Cromwell is thought to have suffered from <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease" title="Kidney stone disease">kidney stone disease</a>. In 1658, he was struck by a sudden bout of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malarial fever</a>, and it is thought that he may have rejected the only known treatment, <a href="/wiki/Quinine#History" title="Quinine">quinine</a>, because it had been discovered by Catholic <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit missionaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-New_Yorker-104">[102]</a> This was followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. The Venetian ambassador wrote regular dispatches to the <a href="/wiki/Doge_of_Venice" title="Doge of Venice">Doge of Venice</a> in which he included details of Cromwell's final illness, and he was suspicious of the rapidity of his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMains201575-105">[103]</a> The decline may have been hastened by the death of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Claypole" title="Elizabeth Claypole">Elizabeth Claypole</a> in August. He died at age 59 at Whitehall on 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at <a href="/wiki/Dunbar" title="Dunbar">Dunbar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Worcester,_England" title="Worcester, England">Worcester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> The night of his death, a great storm swept England and all over Europe.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> The most likely cause of death was <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> (blood poisoning) following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, at what is now the <a href="/wiki/RAF_Chapel" title="RAF Chapel">RAF Chapel</a>, with an elaborate funeral at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> based on that of James I,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutt1828516–530-108">[106]</a> his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there.<a href="#cite_note-CCC2010-109">[107]</a> Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard</a>. As Richard had no power base in Parliament or the Army, he was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the reinstated Commonwealth, so <a href="/wiki/George_Monck" class="mw-redirect" title="George Monck">George Monck</a> was able to march on London at the head of New Model Army regiments and restore the <a href="/wiki/Long_Parliament" title="Long Parliament">Long Parliament</a>. Under Monck's watchful eye, the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> could be invited back from exile in 1660 to be king under a <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">restored monarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_(Focus).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_%28Focus%29.jpg/220px-Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_%28Focus%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_%28Focus%29.jpg/330px-Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_%28Focus%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_%28Focus%29.jpg/440px-Burial_place_of_Oliver_Cromwell_from_1658_to_1661_%28Focus%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption>Burial place of Oliver Cromwell in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> from 1658 to 1661</figcaption></figure> Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey on 30 January 1661, the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I, and was subjected to a <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_execution" title="Posthumous execution">posthumous execution</a>, as were the remains of <a href="/wiki/John_Bradshaw_(judge)" title="John Bradshaw (judge)">John Bradshaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a> (the body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the abbey). His body was hanged in chains at <a href="/wiki/Tyburn,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyburn, London">Tyburn, London</a>, and then thrown into a pit. His head was cut off and displayed on the roof of <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Hall" title="Westminster Hall">Westminster Hall</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> until at least 1684. Afterwards, it was owned by various people, including a documented sale in 1814 to Josiah Henry Wilkinson,<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> and it was publicly exhibited several times before being buried beneath the floor of the antechapel at <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge" title="Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge">Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge</a>, in 1960.<a href="#cite_note-CCC2010-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> The exact position was not publicly disclosed, but a plaque marks the approximate location.<a href="#cite_note-Larson2014-114">[112]</a> Many people began to question whether the body mutilated at Tyburn and the head seen on Westminster Hall were Cromwell's.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> These doubts arose because it was assumed that Cromwell's body was reburied in several places between his death in September 1658 and the exhumation of January 1661, in order to protect it from vengeful royalists. The stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in London, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, or Yorkshire.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> The Cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for Charles II's illegitimate descendants.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> In Westminster Abbey, the site of Cromwell's burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the <a href="/wiki/RAF_Chapel" title="RAF Chapel">RAF Chapel</a> reading: "The burial place of Oliver Cromwell 1658–1661".<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Character_assessment">Character assessment</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff/lossy-page1-170px-Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff/lossy-page1-255px-Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff/lossy-page1-340px-Cromwell_as_a_usurper.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="699" data-file-height="1278" /></a><figcaption>A contemporaneous satirical view of Cromwell as a usurper of monarchical power</figcaption></figure> During his lifetime, some tracts painted Cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by power. For example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered are parts of an attack on Cromwell by the <a href="/wiki/Levellers" title="Levellers">Levellers</a> after 1647, and both present him as a <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavellian</a> figure.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> John Spittlehouse presented a more positive assessment in A Warning Piece Discharged, comparing him to <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> rescuing the English by taking them safely through the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> of the civil wars.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> Poet <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> called Cromwell "our chief of men" in his Sonnet XVI.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> Several biographies were published soon after Cromwell's death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which describes how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and provides a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience who is brought down by pride and ambition.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Hyde,_1st_Earl_of_Clarendon" title="Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon">Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon</a> in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declares that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man".<a href="#cite_note-g9-123">[121]</a> He argues that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration of the monarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-g9-123">[121]</a> During the early 18th century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the <a href="/wiki/British_Whig_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="British Whig Party">Whigs</a> as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. <a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">John Toland</a> rewrote <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ludlow" title="Edmund Ludlow">Edmund Ludlow</a>'s Memoirs in order to remove the Puritan elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, and it presents the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I hope to render the English name as great and formidable as ever the Roman was.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Cromwell</cite></div></blockquote> During the early 19th century, Cromwell began to be portrayed in a positive light by <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> artists and poets. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> continued this reassessment in the 1840s, publishing <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell%27s_Letters_and_Speeches:_With_Elucidations" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches: With Elucidations">Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches: With Elucidations</a>, an annotated collection of his letters and speeches in which he described English Puritanism as "the last of all our Heroisms" while taking a negative view of his own era.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> By the late 19th century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness. Oxford civil war historian <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rawson_Gardiner" title="Samuel Rawson Gardiner">Samuel Rawson Gardiner</a> concluded that "the man—it is ever so with the noblest—was greater than his work".<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Gardiner stressed Cromwell's dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, rather than his religious conviction.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> Cromwell's foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his "constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea".<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> described Cromwell as a brilliant statesman who "dared to oppose the tyranny of the kings".<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> During the first half of the 20th century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Italy</a>. Harvard historian <a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Cortez_Abbott" title="Wilbur Cortez Abbott">Wilbur Cortez Abbott</a>, for example, devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches, published between 1937 and 1947. Abbott argues that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as <a href="/wiki/John_Morrill_(historian)" title="John Morrill (historian)">John Morrill</a> have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Late 20th-century historians re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his authoritarian regime. <a href="/wiki/Austin_Woolrych" title="Austin Woolrych">Austin Woolrych</a> explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the nation as a whole. He argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed less from its military origin or the participation of army officers in civil government than from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden, and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell's writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irish_campaign_controversy">Irish campaign controversy</h3></div> The extent of Cromwell's brutality<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted responsibility for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those "in arms".<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> Other historians cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London, including that of 27 September 1649, in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase "and many inhabitants".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú200883_&_90-137">[135]</a> In September 1649, he justified his sacking of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in <a href="/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster">Ulster</a> in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands with so much innocent blood".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-57">[55]</a> But the rebels had not held Drogheda in 1641; many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants to <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England.<a href="#cite_note-Lenihan2000-138">[136]</a> Some point to his actions on entering Ireland. Cromwell demanded that no supplies be seized from civilian inhabitants and that everything be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn ... all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy ... as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril."<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>,<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations. One possible comparison is Cromwell's <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_Basing_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Storming of Basing House">Siege of Basing House</a> in 1645—the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> The scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives."<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> Cromwell's orders—"in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town"—followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to <a href="/wiki/No_quarter" title="No quarter">quarter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, some historians[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] argue that he respected the terms of surrender and protected the townspeople's lives and property.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> At Wexford, he again began negotiations for surrender. The captain of Wexford Castle surrendered during the negotiations and, in the confusion, some of Cromwell's troops began indiscriminate killing and looting.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú200883–93-150">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited and he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and <a href="/wiki/John_Morrill_(historian)" title="John Morrill (historian)">John Morrill</a> suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-genocide-152">[150]</a> Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ireton" title="Henry Ireton">Henry Ireton</a>, Cromwell's son-in-law and key adviser, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation. Total excess deaths for the entire period of the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> in Ireland was estimated by <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Petty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William Petty">Sir William Petty</a>, the 17th-century economist, to be 600,000 out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000 in 1641.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a>: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the Bible text 'God is love' pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (writing in 1957) described Cromwell's impact on Anglo-Irish relations: <blockquote>upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a></blockquote> A key surviving statement of Cromwell's views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying, "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-158">[156]</a> But he also wrote: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-158">[156]</a> Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do".<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> In 1965 the Irish minister for lands stated that his policies were necessary to "undo the work of Cromwell"; circa 1997, <a href="/wiki/Taoiseach" title="Taoiseach">Taoiseach</a> <a href="/wiki/Bertie_Ahern" title="Bertie Ahern">Bertie Ahern</a> demanded that a portrait of Cromwell be removed from a room in the Foreign Office before he began a meeting with <a href="/wiki/Robin_Cook" title="Robin Cook">Robin Cook</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_assessment">Military assessment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a></div> Cromwell has been credited for the formation of the New Model Army. As a member of Parliament, he contributed significantly to the reforms contained in the <a href="/wiki/Self-Denying_Ordinance" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-Denying Ordinance">Self-Denying Ordinance</a>, passed by Parliament in early 1645. The ordinance was enacted partly in response to the failure to capitalise on victory at Marston Moor. It decreed that the army be "remodeled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations. It also forced members of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">Lords</a>, such as Manchester, to choose between civil office and military command. All of them except Cromwell chose to renounce their military positions. In contrast, Cromwell's commission was given continued extensions and he was allowed to remain in Parliament.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> In April 1645 the New Model Army finally took to the field, with <a href="/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Fairfax" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Thomas Fairfax">Sir Thomas Fairfax</a> in command and Cromwell as Lieutenant-General of cavalry and second-in-command.<a href="#cite_note-bcw-24">[22]</a> Some authorities maintain that the army's organisation and the thorough training of its men were accomplished by Fairfax, not Cromwell.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> In contrast to Fairfax, Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics. However, he is generally accepted to have been a capable military leader, particularly as a battlefield commander.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> In recruiting, he sought loyal and well-behaved men regardless of their religion or social status. He required good treatment and reliable pay for his soldiers, but also enforced strict discipline.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> As a battlefield commander, Cromwell followed the common practice of ranging his <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> in three ranks and pressing forward, relying on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and his <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a>. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and most likely contributed to the discipline of his cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> Cromwell introduced close-order cavalry formations, with troopers riding knee to knee; this was an innovation in England at the time and a major factor in his success. He kept his troops close together after skirmishes where they had gained superiority, rather than allowing them to chase opponents off the battlefield. This facilitated further engagements in short order, which allowed greater intensity and quick reaction to battle developments. This style of command was decisive at both Marston Moor and Naseby.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Marshall_(historian)" title="Alan Marshall (historian)">Alan Marshall</a> was critical for Cromwell's approach to warfare i.e. the "<a href="/wiki/War_of_annihilation" title="War of annihilation">War of annihilation</a>" style which usually brought swift victory but also contained high risk.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> Marshall notes Cromwell's shortcomings in Ireland, highlighting his defeat at Clonmel and condemning his act at Drogheda as "an appalling atrocity, even by seventeenth-century standards".<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> Marshall and other historians saw Cromwell as less proficient in the field of manoeuvre, attrition warfare and at <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> Marshall also argues that Cromwell was not truly revolutionary in his war strategies.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> Instead, he observes Cromwell as a courageous and energetic commander, with an eye for discipline and logistics.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> However, Marshall also suggests that Cromwell's military proficiency had improved significantly by 1644–45—and that he operated efficiently during the operations of those years.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> Marshall also points out that Cromwell's political career was shapen by his military career advance.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Gaunt_2006_222–223-167">[165]</a> Cromwell's conquest left no significant legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was largely peaceful, apart from the Highlands. Moreover, there were no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monuments_and_posthumous_honours">Monuments and posthumous honours</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_statue,_Westminster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Oliver_Cromwell_statue%2C_Westminster.jpg/170px-Oliver_Cromwell_statue%2C_Westminster.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Oliver_Cromwell_statue%2C_Westminster.jpg/255px-Oliver_Cromwell_statue%2C_Westminster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Oliver_Cromwell_statue%2C_Westminster.jpg/340px-Oliver_Cromwell_statue%2C_Westminster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>1899 <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell,_Westminster" title="Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Westminster">statue of Oliver Cromwell, Westminster</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hamo_Thornycroft" title="Hamo Thornycroft">Hamo Thornycroft</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> in London</figcaption></figure> During the opening of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> in 1776, the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_State_Navy" title="Connecticut State Navy">Connecticut State Navy</a> commissioned a <a href="/wiki/Corvette#Sailing_vessels" title="Corvette">corvette</a> named the <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell_(ship)" title="Oliver Cromwell (ship)">Oliver Cromwell</a>, as one of the first American naval vessels, before being captured in battle in 1779 being renamed HMS Restoration, before being commissioned as HMS Loyalist.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-NMM-WH-370602-171">[169]</a> 19th-century engineer Sir <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tangye" title="Richard Tangye">Richard Tangye</a> was a noted Cromwell enthusiast and collector of Cromwell manuscripts and memorabilia.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> His collection included many rare manuscripts and printed books, medals, paintings, objets d'art, and a bizarre assemblage of "relics". This includes Cromwell's Bible, button, coffin plate, death mask, and funeral escutcheon. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_London" title="Museum of London">Museum of London</a>, where it can still be seen.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Noble" title="Matthew Noble">Matthew Noble</a> was erected in Manchester outside the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral" title="Manchester Cathedral">Manchester Cathedral</a>, a gift to the city by Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> It was the first large-scale statue to be erected in the open in England, and was a realistic likeness based on the painting by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lely" title="Peter Lely">Peter Lely</a>; it showed Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. It was unpopular with local Conservatives and the large Irish immigrant population. <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> was invited to open the new <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall" title="Manchester Town Hall">Manchester Town Hall</a>, and she allegedly consented on the condition that the statue be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the town hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s, the statue was relocated outside <a href="/wiki/Wythenshawe_Hall" title="Wythenshawe Hall">Wythenshawe Hall</a>, which had been occupied by Cromwell's troops.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_(detail)_(V%26A).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Oliver_Cromwell_%28detail%29_%28V%26A%29.jpg/220px-Oliver_Cromwell_%28detail%29_%28V%26A%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Oliver_Cromwell_%28detail%29_%28V%26A%29.jpg/330px-Oliver_Cromwell_%28detail%29_%28V%26A%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Oliver_Cromwell_%28detail%29_%28V%26A%29.jpg/440px-Oliver_Cromwell_%28detail%29_%28V%26A%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Oliver Cromwell (1762), by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wilton" title="Joseph Wilton">Joseph Wilton</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/V%26A" class="mw-redirect" title="V&A">V&A</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a></figcaption></figure> During the 1890s, Parliamentary plans to erect a <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell,_Westminster" title="Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Westminster">statue of Cromwell outside Parliament</a> turned controversial. Pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Ireland)" title="Nationalist Party (Ireland)">Irish Nationalist Party</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project; the statue was eventually erected, but it had to be funded privately by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rosebery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rosebery">Lord Rosebery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> Cromwell controversy continued into the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> was First Lord of the Admiralty before <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and he twice suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell. The suggestion was vetoed by King <a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a> because of his personal feelings and because he felt that it was unwise to give such a name to an expensive warship at a time of <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1914" title="Government of Ireland Act 1914">Irish political unrest</a>, especially given the anger caused by the statue outside Parliament. Churchill was eventually told by First Sea Lord <a href="/wiki/Prince_Louis_of_Battenberg" title="Prince Louis of Battenberg">Admiral Battenberg</a> that the King's decision must be treated as final.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cromwell_tank" title="Cromwell tank">Cromwell tank</a> was a British medium-weight tank first used in 1944,<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a> and a steam locomotive built by <a href="/wiki/British_Rail" title="British Rail">British Railways</a> in 1951 was named <a href="/wiki/BR_Standard_Class_7_70013_Oliver_Cromwell" title="BR Standard Class 7 70013 Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> Other public statues of Cromwell are the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell,_St_Ives" title="Statue of Oliver Cromwell, St Ives">Statue of Oliver Cromwell, St Ives</a> in Cambridgeshire<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell,_Warrington" title="Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Warrington">Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Warrington</a> in Cheshire.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> An oval plaque at <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sussex_College,_Cambridge" title="Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge">Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge</a>, refers to the end of the travels of <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell%27s_head" title="Oliver Cromwell's head">his head</a> and reads:<a href="#cite_note-Larson2014-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-comerford2009-185">[183]</a> <div style="margin:0.3em auto; text-align:center;" class="poem"> Near to this place was buried on 25 March 1960 the head of <big style="margin:0.3em auto; text-align:center;">OLIVER CROMWELL</big> Lord Protector of the Common- wealth of England, Scotland & Ireland, Fellow Commoner of this College 1616–7 </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cromwell_(film)" title="Cromwell (film)">Cromwell</a>, a 1970 British historical drama film written and directed by Ken Hughes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromwell%27s_Panegyrick" title="Cromwell's Panegyrick">Cromwell's Panegyrick</a>, a contemporary satirical ballad</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell_(ship)" title="Oliver Cromwell (ship)">Oliver Cromwell</a>, a corvette launched in 1776 by the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_State_Navy" title="Connecticut State Navy">Connecticut State Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">Republicanism in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Walker_(painter)" title="Robert Walker (painter)">Robert Walker</a>, painted several portraits of Cromwell</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Souldiers_Pocket_Bible" title="The Souldiers Pocket Bible">The Souldiers Pocket Bible</a>, a booklet Cromwell issued to his army in 1643</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The period from Cromwell's appointment in 1653 until his son's resignation in 1659 is known as <a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Henry VIII believed that the Welsh should adopt surnames in the English style rather than taking their fathers' names as Morgan ap William and his male ancestors had done. Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he adopt the surname of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. For several generations, the Williamses added the surname of Cromwell to their own, styling themselves "Williams alias Cromwell" in legal documents (<a href="#CITEREFNoble1784">Noble 1784</a>, pp. 11–13) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDickens1854" class="citation book cs1">Dickens, Charles (1854). A Child's History of England volume 3. Bradbury and Evans. p. 239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Child%27s+History+of+England+volume+3&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Bradbury+and+Evans&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Dickens&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1956314-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChurchill1956314_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChurchill1956">Churchill 1956</a>, p. 314. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú20081–2-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú20081–2_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÓ_Siochrú2008">Ó Siochrú 2008</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurch2003228–284-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurch2003228–284_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurch2003">Burch 2003</a>, pp. 228–284. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlant" class="citation web cs1">Plant, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130731093538/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm">"Oliver Cromwell 1599–1658"</a>. British-civil-wars.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm">the original</a> on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+1599%E2%80%931658&rft.pub=British-civil-wars.co.uk&rft.aulast=Plant&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-civil-wars.co.uk%2Fbiog%2Foliver-cromwell.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Lauder-Frost, Gregory, F.S.A. Scot., "East Anglian Stewarts" in The Scottish Genealogist, Dec. 2004, vol. LI, no. 4., pp. 158–159. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0300-337X">0300-337X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morill-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Morill_8-0">^</a> Morill, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/6765">Cromwell, Oliver</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210723022145/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-6765">Archived</a> 23 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online article, 17 September 2015. (Requires library access or subscription) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1887" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, Thomas, ed. (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lroNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA17">Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches</a>. Vol. 1. p. 17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319213122/https://books.google.com/books?id=lroNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA17">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell%27s+letters+and+speeches&rft.pages=17&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlroNAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Gaunt, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Speech to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654, (<a href="#CITEREFRoots1989">Roots 1989</a>, p. 42). </li> <li id="cite_note-BritishCivil-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritishCivil_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritishCivil_13-1">b</a> British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Proctectorate 1638–1660 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFACADCRML616O" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=CRML616O&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50">"Cromwell, Oliver (CRML616O)"</a>. A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cromwell%2C+Oliver+%28CRML616O%29&rft.btitle=A+Cambridge+Alumni+Database&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvenn.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsearch-2018.pl%3Fsur%3D%26suro%3Dw%26fir%3D%26firo%3Dc%26cit%3D%26cito%3Dc%26c%3Dall%26z%3Dall%26tex%3DCRML616O%26sye%3D%26eye%3D%26col%3Dall%26maxcount%3D50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirth1888" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Firth, Charles Harding (1888). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Cromwell,_Oliver_(1599%E2%80%931658)">"Cromwell, Oliver" </a>. 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British Civil Wars Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809124158/http://bcw-project.org/biography/oliver-cromwell">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=British+Civil+Wars+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbcw-project.org%2Fbiography%2Foliver-cromwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Morrill, pp. 25–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by <a href="/wiki/Antonia_Fraser" title="Antonia Fraser">Antonia Fraser</a>, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1973 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Adamson, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Plant" class="citation web cs1">David Plant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211003401/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1643-lincolnshire.htm#gainsborough">"1643: Civil War in Lincolnshire"</a>. British-civil-wars.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1643-lincolnshire.htm#gainsborough">the original</a> on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1643%3A+Civil+War+in+Lincolnshire&rft.pub=British-civil-wars.co.uk&rft.au=David+Plant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-civil-wars.co.uk%2Fmilitary%2F1643-lincolnshire.htm%23gainsborough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elystandard.co.uk/ely-life/fenland-riots-as-country-slides-into-civil-war-1-258647">"Fenland riots"</a>. www.elystandard.co.uk. 7 December 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190113003832/https://www.elystandard.co.uk/ely-life/fenland-riots-as-country-slides-into-civil-war-1-258647">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.elystandard.co.uk&rft.atitle=Fenland+riots&rft.date=2006-12-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elystandard.co.uk%2Fely-life%2Ffenland-riots-as-country-slides-into-civil-war-1-258647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by <a href="/wiki/Antonia_Fraser" title="Antonia Fraser">Antonia Fraser</a>, London 1973, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0297765566" title="Special:BookSources/0297765566">0297765566</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_and_Nicolson" class="mw-redirect" title="Weidenfeld and Nicolson">Weidenfeld and Nicolson</a>, pp. 120–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bcw-project.org/military/english-civil-war/northern-england/battle-of-marston-moor">"The Battle of Marston Moor"</a>. British Civil Wars. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150430050811/http://bcw-project.org/military/english-civil-war/northern-england/battle-of-marston-moor">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Battle+of+Marston+Moor&rft.pub=British+Civil+Wars&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbcw-project.org%2Fmilitary%2Fenglish-civil-war%2Fnorthern-england%2Fbattle-of-marston-moor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Letter to Sir William Spring, September 1643, quoted in Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations, vol I, p. 154; also quoted in Young and Holmes (2000). The English Civil War, (Wordsworth), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84022-222-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84022-222-0">1-84022-222-0</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090516110059/http://trinitychurchsutton.org.uk/Sermons/Sermon_999.htm">"Sermons of Rev Martin Camoux: Oliver Cromwell"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trinitychurchsutton.org.uk/Sermons/Sermon_999.htm">the original</a> on 16 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sermons+of+Rev+Martin+Camoux%3A+Oliver+Cromwell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftrinitychurchsutton.org.uk%2FSermons%2FSermon_999.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/survspiva00ruth">A Survey of the Spirituall Antichrist Opening the Secrets of Familisme and Antinomianisme in the Antichristian Doctrine of John Saltmarsh and Will. del, the Present Preachers of the Army Now in England, and of Robert Town</a>. 1648.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+the+Spirituall+Antichrist+Opening+the+Secrets+of+Familisme+and+Antinomianisme+in+the+Antichristian+Doctrine+of+John+Saltmarsh+and+Will.+del%2C+the+Present+Preachers+of+the+Army+Now+in+England%2C+and+of+Robert+Town&rft.date=1648&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsurvspiva00ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660 (Oxford University Press), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280278-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280278-X">0-19-280278-X</a>, p. 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saffronwaldenreporter.co.uk/news/a-lasting-place-in-history-1-377880">"A lasting place in history"</a>. Saffron Walden Reporter. 10 May 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806142234/http://www.saffronwaldenreporter.co.uk/news/a-lasting-place-in-history-1-377880">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+lasting+place+in+history&rft.pub=Saffron+Walden+Reporter&rft.date=2007-05-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saffronwaldenreporter.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fa-lasting-place-in-history-1-377880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshley1957" class="citation book cs1">Ashley, Maurice (1957). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell. London: Collier- Macmillan Ltd. pp. 187–190.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greatness+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E190&rft.pub=Collier-+Macmillan+Ltd.&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Ashley&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Although there is debate over whether Cromwell and Ireton were the authors of the Heads of Proposals or acting on behalf of Saye and Sele: Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal, 30, 3; Kishlansky, Mark (1990). "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Woolrych,_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="Woolrych, Austin">Woolrych, Austin</a> (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822752-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822752-3">0-19-822752-3</a>, ch. 2–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> See The Levellers: The Putney Debates, Texts selected and annotated by Philip Baker, Introduction by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Robertson" title="Geoffrey Robertson">Geoffrey Robertson</a> QC. London and New York: Verso, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081025014050/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/STUlaugharneJ.htm">"Spartacus: Rowland Laugharne at Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/STUlaugharneJ.htm">the original</a> on 25 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spartacus%3A+Rowland+Laugharne+at+Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk%2FSTUlaugharneJ.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Gardiner (1901), pp. 144–147; Gaunt (1997) 94–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Morrill and Baker (2008), p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Adamson, pp. 76–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Jendrysik, p. 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Macaulay, p. 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Coward 1991, p. 65 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentaryauthority/civilwar/collections/deathwarrant/">"Death Warrant of King Charles I"</a>. UK Parliament. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806183122/http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentaryauthority/civilwar/collections/deathwarrant/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Death+Warrant+of+King+Charles+I&rft.pub=UK+Parliament&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fabout%2Fliving-heritage%2Fevolutionofparliament%2Fparliamentaryauthority%2Fcivilwar%2Fcollections%2Fdeathwarrant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart" class="citation web cs1">Hart, Ben. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151107021024/http://faithandfreedombook.com/faith_and_freedom_chapter_11_oliver_cromwell's_contribution_to_liberty_ben_hart.htm">"Oliver Cromwell Destroys the "Divine Right of Kings""</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faithandfreedombook.com/faith_and_freedom_chapter_11_oliver_cromwell's_contribution_to_liberty_ben_hart.htm">the original</a> on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+Destroys+the+%22Divine+Right+of+Kings%22&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaithandfreedombook.com%2Ffaith_and_freedom_chapter_11_oliver_cromwell%27s_contribution_to_liberty_ben_hart.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGentles2011" class="citation book cs1">Gentles, Ian (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000glad/page/82">Oliver Cromwell</a>. Macmillan Distribution Ltd. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000glad/page/82">82</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-71356-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-71356-3"><bdi>978-0-333-71356-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Macmillan+Distribution+Ltd&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-333-71356-3&rft.aulast=Gentles&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwentiethcentury0000glad%2Fpage%2F82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bcw-project.org/biography/regicides-index">"The Regicides"</a>. The Brish Civil wars Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180222201306/http://bcw-project.org/biography/regicides-index">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Regicides&rft.pub=The+Brish+Civil+wars+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbcw-project.org%2Fbiography%2Fregicides-index&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Plant2005" class="citation web cs1">David Plant (14 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513163351/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/levellers.htm">"The Levellers"</a>. British-civil-wars.co.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/levellers.htm">the original</a> on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Levellers&rft.pub=British-civil-wars.co.uk&rft.date=2005-12-14&rft.au=David+Plant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-civil-wars.co.uk%2Fglossary%2Flevellers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Quoted in Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War (<a href="/wiki/Cork_University_Press" title="Cork University Press">Cork University Press</a>), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85918-244-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85918-244-5">1-85918-244-5</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Fraser, pp. 74–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Fraser, pp. 326–328. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_57-1">b</a> Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCromwell1846" class="citation book cs1">Cromwell, Oliver (1846). <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SvQoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128">"Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations"</a>. William H. Colyer. p. 128. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319213116/https://books.google.com/books?id=SvQoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Oliver+Cromwell%27s+letters+and+speeches%2C+with+elucidations%22&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=William+H.+Colyer&rft.date=1846&rft.aulast=Cromwell&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSvQoAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector (Phoenix Press), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7538-1331-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7538-1331-9">0-7538-1331-9</a> pp. 344–346; and Austin Woolrych, Britain In Revolution (Oxford, 2002), p. 470 </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated4-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_60-1">b</a> Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Fraser, pp. 321–322; Lenihan 2000, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Fraser, p. 355. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p. 314. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur094.htm">"Act for the Settlement of Ireland, 12 August 1652, Henry Scobell, ii. 197. See Commonwealth and Protectorate, iv. 82–85"</a>. the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Society" title="Constitution Society">Constitution Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509164051/http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur094.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 14 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Act+for+the+Settlement+of+Ireland%2C+12+August+1652%2C+Henry+Scobell%2C+ii.+197.+See+Commonwealth+and+Protectorate%2C+iv.+82%E2%80%9385.&rft.pub=the+Constitution+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Feng%2Fconpur094.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Lenihan 2007, pp. 135–136 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Lenihan 2000, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Gardiner (1901), p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Stevenson, David (1990). Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_69-1">b</a> Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Cromwell: Our Chief of Men, by Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-76556-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-76556-6">0-297-76556-6</a>, pp. 385–389. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed., article "Great Rebellion" Sections "4. 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Boydell & Brewer. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843835738" title="Special:BookSources/9781843835738"><bdi>9781843835738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+the+Past%3A+Writing+Irish+History%2C+1600%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781843835738&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Forrest%2C+Stephen+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Parker, Geoffrey (2003). 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The English Historical Review. 137 (586): 655–691. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fceac126">10.1093/ehr/ceac126</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220816120816/https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/137/586/655/6619345">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2022. 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Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Anglo-Dutch+War&rft.pub=British+Civil+Wars+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbcw-project.org%2Fchurch-and-state%2Fthe-commonwealth%2Ffirst-anglo-dutch-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geni.com/projects/Lieutenant-Governors-of-Newfoundland-and-Labrador/25998">Lieutenant Governors of Newfoundland and Labrador</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190922054950/https://www.geni.com/projects/Lieutenant-Governors-of-Newfoundland-and-Labrador/25998">Archived</a> 22 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at geni.com. 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The English Historical Review. 128 (534): 1095–1128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcet182">10.1093/ehr/cet182</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220815094418/https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article-abstract/128/534/1095/436167">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2022. 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Retrieved 21 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Winds+of+change+on+the+death+of+Cromwell&rft.date=2018-09-03&rft.issn=0140-0460&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fwinds-of-change-on-the-death-of-cromwell-l7nxvv7qb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERutt1828516–530-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutt1828516–530_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRutt1828">Rutt 1828</a>, pp. 516–530. </li> <li id="cite_note-CCC2010-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CCC2010_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCC2010_109-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100311214801/http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/leisure/museums/cromwell/online">"Cromwell's head"</a>. 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Retrieved 27 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Missing+body+parts+of+famous+people&rft.date=2007-08-21&rft.au=Terri+Schlichenmeyer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2007%2FLIVING%2Fwayoflife%2F08%2F21%2Fmf.missing.famous%2Findex.html%3Fimw%3DY%26iref%3Dmpstoryemail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Gaunt, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Larson2014-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Larson2014_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Larson2014_114-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Larson, Frances (August 2014). "Severance Package". Readings. <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a>. Vol. 329, no. 1971. Harper's Magazine Foundation. pp. 22–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harper%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=Severance+Package&rft.volume=329&rft.issue=1971&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2014-08&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Frances&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPepys" class="citation book cs1">Pepys, Samuel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1664/10/">The Diary of Samuel Pepys: Diary entries from October 1664</a>. Thursday 13 October 1664. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170821101325/http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1664/10/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2017. <q>When I told him of what I found writ in a French book of one Monsieur Sorbiere, that gives an account of his observations herein England; among other things he says, that it is reported that Cromwell did, in his life-time, transpose many of the bodies of the Kings of England from one grave to another, and that by that means it is not known certainly whether the head that is now set up upon a post be that of Cromwell, or of one of the Kings</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diary+of+Samuel+Pepys%3A+Diary+entries+from+October+1664&rft.pages=Thursday+13+October+1664&rft.aulast=Pepys&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pepysdiary.com%2Fdiary%2F1664%2F10%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaunt1996" class="citation book cs1">Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.place=Massachusetts&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers+Inc&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Gaunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westminster-abbey.org/press/news/news/2009/august/westminster-abbey-reveals-cromwells-original-grave">"Westminster Abbey reveals Cromwell's original grave"</a>. Westminster Abbey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406193445/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/press/news/news/2009/august/westminster-abbey-reveals-cromwells-original-grave">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Westminster+Abbey+reveals+Cromwell%27s+original+grave&rft.pub=Westminster+Abbey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Fpress%2Fnews%2Fnews%2F2009%2Faugust%2Fwestminster-abbey-reveals-cromwells-original-grave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFpixeltocode.uk" class="citation web cs1">pixeltocode.uk, PixelToCode. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/oliver-cromwell-and-family">"Oliver Cromwell and Family"</a>. Westminster Abbey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200503010313/https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/oliver-cromwell-and-family">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Westminster+Abbey&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+Family&rft.aulast=pixeltocode.uk&rft.aufirst=PixelToCode&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Fabbey-commemorations%2Fcommemorations%2Foliver-cromwell-and-family&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, pp. 263–264. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Morrill, pp. 271–272. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/html/1807/4350/poem1456.html">"RPO – John Milton : Sonnet XVI: To the Lord General Cromwell"</a>. Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905214428/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/html/1807/4350/poem1456.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RPO+%E2%80%93+John+Milton+%3A+Sonnet+XVI%3A+To+the+Lord+General+Cromwell&rft.pub=Tspace.library.utoronto.ca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftspace.library.utoronto.ca%2Fhtml%2F1807%2F4350%2Fpoem1456.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Morrill, pp. 279–281. </li> <li id="cite_note-g9-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-g9_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g9_123-1">b</a> Gaunt, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity (Penguin), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-100694-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-100694-3">0-14-100694-3</a>, pp. 53–59 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> "The Life and Eccentricities of the late Dr. Monsey, F.R.S, physician to the Royal Hospital at Chelsea", printed by J.D. Dewick, Aldergate street, 1804, p. 108 </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1843" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, Thomas (December 1843). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carlyle__Cromwell.pdf">Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061102174139/http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carlyle__Cromwell.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2006. Retrieved 5 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell%27s+Letters+and+Speeches&rft.date=1843-12&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gasl.org%2Frefbib%2FCarlyle__Cromwell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Gardiner (1901), p. 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Worden, pp. 256–260. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Gardiner (1901), p. 318. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoolidge1929" class="citation book cs1">Coolidge, Calvin (1929). The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge. 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"The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207–231, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0018-2648">0018-2648</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Morrill (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765">Oxforddnb.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190913030245/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-6765;jsessionid=22FEFC452ED8814A742B9070C8583EC8">Archived</a> 13 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., History, Society and the Churches; Davis, J.C. (1990). "Cromwell's religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman). </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Christopher Hill, 1972, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Penguin Books: London, p. 108: "The brutality of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland is not one of the pleasanter aspects of our hero's career ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Barry Coward, 1991, Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education: Rugby, p. 74: "Revenge was not Cromwell's only motive for the brutality he condoned at Wexford and Drogheda, but it was the dominant one ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Philip McKeiver, 2007, A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú200883_&_90-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú200883_&_90_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÓ_Siochrú2008">Ó Siochrú 2008</a>, pp. 83 & 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lenihan2000-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Lenihan2000_138-0">^</a> Lenihan 2000, p. 1022; "After Cromwell returned to England in 1650, the conflict degenerated into a grindingly slow counter-insurgency campaign punctuated by some quite protracted sieges...the famine of 1651 onwards was a man-made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated 'no man's lands' and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs". </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1897" class="citation web cs1">Carlyle, Thomas (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishhistorylinks.net/Historical_Documents/Cromwell.html">"Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches II: Letters from Ireland, 1649 and 1650"</a>. Chapman and Hall Ltd, London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170814042917/http://www.irishhistorylinks.net/Historical_Documents/Cromwell.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell%27s+Letters+and+Speeches+II%3A+Letters+from+Ireland%2C+1649+and+1650&rft.pub=Chapman+and+Hall+Ltd%2C+London&rft.date=1897&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishhistorylinks.net%2FHistorical_Documents%2FCromwell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Austin_Herbert_Woolrych" class="mw-redirect" title="Austin Herbert Woolrych">Woolrych, Austin</a> (1990). Cromwell as soldier, in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a>, p. 112: "viewed in the context of the German wars that had just ended after thirty years of fighting, the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford shrink to typical casualties of seventeenth-century warfare". </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#30YrW">The Thirty Years' War (1618–48) 7 500 000</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311130500/http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#30YrW">Archived</a> 11 March 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "R. J. Rummel: 11.5M total deaths in the war (half democides)" </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Gardiner (1886), Vol. II, p. 345 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> J. C. Davis, Oliver Cromwell, pp. 108–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Abbott, Writings and Speeches, vol II, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Woolrych,_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="Woolrych, Austin">Woolrych, Austin</a> (1990). Cromwell as soldier, p. 111; Gaunt, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Lenihan 2000, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Gaunt, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Stevenson, Cromwell, Scotland and Ireland, in Morrill, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010221184835/http://www.historyireland.com/resources/reviews/review1.html">"Eugene Coyle. Review of Cromwell – An Honourable Enemy. History Ireland"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyireland.com/resources/reviews/review1.html">the original</a> on 21 February 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eugene+Coyle.+Review+of+Cromwell+%E2%80%93+An+Honourable+Enemy.+History+Ireland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyireland.com%2Fresources%2Freviews%2Freview1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú200883–93-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÓ_Siochrú200883–93_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÓ_Siochrú2008">Ó Siochrú 2008</a>, pp. 83–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Schama, Simon, "A History of Britain", 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-genocide-152"><a href="#cite_ref-genocide_152-0">^</a> Citations for genocide, near genocide and ethnic cleansing: <ul><li>Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. p. 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer"</li> <li>Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population … ."</li> <li>David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/frank/axelrod.htm">Alan Axelrod</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010231000/http://www.electricscotland.com/familytree/frank/axelrod.htm">Archived</a> 10 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2002). Profiles in Leadership, Prentice-Hall. 2002. p. 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the King and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide"</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Morrill_(historian)" title="John Morrill (historian)">Morrill, John</a> (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150624014503/http://utpjournalsreview.com/index.php/CJOH/article/view/11399/10273">"Rewriting Cromwell – A Case of Deafening Silences"</a>. Canadian Journal of History. 38 (3). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>: 553–578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fcjh.38.3.553">10.3138/cjh.38.3.553</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://utpjournalsreview.com/index.php/CJOH/article/view/11399/10273">the original</a> on 24 June 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015. <q>Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell. Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that 'it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Rewriting+Cromwell+%E2%80%93+A+Case+of+Deafening+Silences&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E553-%3C%2Fspan%3E578&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fcjh.38.3.553&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Futpjournalsreview.com%2Findex.php%2FCJOH%2Farticle%2Fview%2F11399%2F10273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLutzLutz2004" class="citation book cs1">Lutz, James M.; Lutz, Brenda J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalterrorism00lutz_125">Global Terrorism</a>. London: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalterrorism00lutz_125/page/n207">193</a>. <q>The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Terrorism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lutz&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Lutz%2C+Brenda+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglobalterrorism00lutz_125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html">Mark Levene</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135041/http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html">Archived</a> 16 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-057-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-057-4">978-1-84511-057-4</a> pp. 55–57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".</li> <li>Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, I.B. Tauris: London:</li></ul> <blockquote>[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaolain1983" class="citation book cs1">Faolain, Turlough (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-XWAAAAMAAJ&q=william+petty+600000+Irish">Blood On The Harp</a>. Whitston Publishing Company. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780878752751" title="Special:BookSources/9780878752751"><bdi>9780878752751</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319213116/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-XWAAAAMAAJ&q=william+petty+600000+Irish">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+On+The+Harp&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Whitston+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780878752751&rft.aulast=Faolain&rft.aufirst=Turlough&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-XWAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dwilliam%2Bpetty%2B600000%2BIrish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'_Connell1828" class="citation book cs1">O' Connell, Daniel (1828). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H19_RUCZzNcC&q=william+petty+600000+Irish&pg=PA317">A collection of speeches spoken by ... on subjects connected with the catholic question</a>. p. 317. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319213117/https://books.google.com/books?id=H19_RUCZzNcC&q=william+petty+600000+Irish&pg=PA317">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+collection+of+speeches+spoken+by+...+on+subjects+connected+with+the+catholic+question&rft.pages=317&rft.date=1828&rft.aulast=O%27+Connell&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH19_RUCZzNcC%26q%3Dwilliam%2Bpetty%2B600000%2BIrish%26pg%3DPA317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick2013" class="citation book cs1">Patrick, Brantlinger (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ai5XAgAAQBAJ&q=william+petty+600000+Irish&pg=PT89">Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801468674" title="Special:BookSources/9780801468674"><bdi>9780801468674</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319213117/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ai5XAgAAQBAJ&q=william+petty+600000+Irish&pg=PT89">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Vanishings%3A+Discourse+on+the+Extinction+of+Primitive+Races%2C+1800%E2%80%931930&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780801468674&rft.aulast=Patrick&rft.aufirst=Brantlinger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAi5XAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwilliam%2Bpetty%2B600000%2BIrish%26pg%3DPT89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Winston S. Churchill, 1957, A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Age of Revolution, Dodd, Mead and Company: New York (p. 9): "We have seen the many ties which at one time or another have joined the inhabitants of the Western islands, and even in Ireland itself offered a tolerable way of life to Protestants and Catholics alike. Upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. "Hell or Connaught" were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred "The Curse of Cromwell on you". The consequences of Cromwell's rule in Ireland have distressed and at times distracted English politics down even to the present day. To heal them baffled the skill and loyalties of successive generations. They became for a time a potent obstacle to the harmony of the English-speaking people throughout the world. Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Abbott, W.C. (1929). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, pp. 196–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated6-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated6_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated6_158-1">b</a> Abbott, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Abbott, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2012" class="citation web cs1">Cunningham, John (4 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/03/04/book-review-conquest-and-land-in-ireland/#.UM41RTORiSo">"Conquest and Land in Ireland"</a>. Royal Historical Society, Boydell Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130417083153/http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/03/04/book-review-conquest-and-land-in-ireland/#.UM41RTORiSo">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conquest+and+Land+in+Ireland&rft.pub=Royal+Historical+Society%2C+Boydell+Press&rft.date=2012-03-04&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theirishstory.com%2F2012%2F03%2F04%2Fbook-review-conquest-and-land-in-ireland%2F%23.UM41RTORiSo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/New-Model-Army">"New Model Army"</a>. Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=New+Model+Army&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FNew-Model-Army&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshley,_Maurice_and_Morrill,_John_S." class="citation web cs1">Ashley, Maurice and Morrill, John S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Oliver-Cromwell/Military-and-political-leader">"Oliver Cromwell: Military and Political Leadert"</a>. Britannica. Retrieved 7 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell%3A+Military+and+Political+Leadert&rft.au=Ashley%2C+Maurice+and+Morrill%2C+John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FOliver-Cromwell%2FMilitary-and-political-leader&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/oliver-cromwell-lord-protector#:~:text=Lieutenant%2DGeneral%20Oliver%20Cromwell%20was,campaigns%20in%20Ireland%20and%20Scotland.">"Oliver Cromwell: Lord Protector"</a>. 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Retrieved 13 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+on+the+move+again%21&rft.date=2004-05&rft.au=National+Railway+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrm.org.uk%2Fpressoffice%2Fpressreleases%2F2004%2Foliver.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistoric_England1161588" class="citation web cs2"><a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://HistoricEngland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1161588?section=official-list-entry">"Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Market Hill (1161588)"</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England" title="National Heritage List for England">National Heritage List for England</a>, retrieved 5 February 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Heritage+List+for+England&rft.atitle=Statue+of+Oliver+Cromwell%2C+Market+Hill+%281161588%29&rft.au=Historic+England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2FHistoricEngland.org.uk%2Flisting%2Fthe-list%2Flist-entry%2F1161588%3Fsection%3Dofficial-list-entry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistoric_England1139417" class="citation web cs2"><a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://HistoricEngland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1139417?section=official-list-entry">"Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Bridge Street (1139417)"</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England" title="National Heritage List for England">National Heritage List for England</a>, retrieved 18 February 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Heritage+List+for+England&rft.atitle=Statue+of+Oliver+Cromwell%2C+Bridge+Street+%281139417%29&rft.au=Historic+England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2FHistoricEngland.org.uk%2Flisting%2Fthe-list%2Flist-entry%2F1139417%3Fsection%3Dofficial-list-entry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-comerford2009-185"><a href="#cite_ref-comerford2009_185-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComerford2009" class="citation web cs1">Comerford, Patrick (6 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patrickcomerford.com/2009/07/is-cromwells-head-buried-in-sidney.html">"Is Cromwell's head buried in Sidney Sussex Chapel?"</a>. Patrick Comerford: my thoughts on Anglicanism, theology, spirituality, history, architecture, travel, poetry and beach walks. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140726114251/http://www.patrickcomerford.com/2009/07/is-cromwells-head-buried-in-sidney.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patrick+Comerford%3A+my+thoughts+on+Anglicanism%2C+theology%2C+spirituality%2C+history%2C+architecture%2C+travel%2C+poetry+and+beach+walks&rft.atitle=Is+Cromwell%27s+head+buried+in+Sidney+Sussex+Chapel%3F&rft.date=2009-07-06&rft.aulast=Comerford&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patrickcomerford.com%2F2009%2F07%2Fis-cromwells-head-buried-in-sidney.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson1990" class="citation cs2">Adamson, John (1990), "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4"><bdi>0-582-01675-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+Long+Parliament&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+English+Revolution&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-582-01675-4&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson1987" class="citation cs2">Adamson, John (1987), "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", Historical Journal, 30 (3): 567–602, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00020896">10.1017/S0018246X00020896</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154769885">154769885</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+English+Nobility+and+the+Projected+Settlement+of+1647&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E567-%3C%2Fspan%3E602&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00020896&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154769885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshleyMorrill1999" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ashley_(historian)" title="Maurice Ashley (historian)">Ashley, Maurice</a> & <a href="/wiki/John_Morrill_(historian)" title="John Morrill (historian)">Morrill, John</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Oliver-Cromwell">"Oliver Cromwell"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> (online). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150511074852/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143822/Oliver-Cromwell">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Ashley&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft.au=Morrill%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FOliver-Cromwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurch2003" class="citation thesis cs1">Burch, Stuart (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/178/1/196688_2003_Burch_PhD.pdf">On Stage at the Theatre of State: The Monuments and Memorials in Parliament Square, London</a> (PDF) (PHD). Nottingham Trent University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220818190345/http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/178/1/196688_2003_Burch_PhD.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=On+Stage+at+the+Theatre+of+State%3A+The+Monuments+and+Memorials+in+Parliament+Square%2C+London&rft.inst=Nottingham+Trent+University&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Burch&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Firep.ntu.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F178%2F1%2F196688_2003_Burch_PhD.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC_staff2014" class="citation cs2">BBC staff (3 October 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65">"The Execution of Charles I"</a>, This Sceptred Isle – The Execution of Charles I., BBC Radio 4, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080628144505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65">archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2008, retrieved 4 November 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Execution+of+Charles+I&rft.btitle=This+Sceptred+Isle+%E2%80%93+The+Execution+of+Charles+I.&rft.pub=BBC+Radio+4&rft.date=2014-10-03&rft.au=BBC+staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fradio4%2Fhistory%2Fsceptred_isle%2Fpage%2F65.shtml%3Fquestion%3D65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1845" class="citation cs2">Carlyle, Thomas, ed. (1845), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations (1904 ed.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell%27s+letters+and+speeches%2C+with+elucidations&rft.edition=1904&rft.date=1845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carlyle__Cromwell.pdf">"All five volumes (1872)"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061102174139/http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carlyle__Cromwell.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2006. Retrieved 5 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=All+five+volumes+%281872%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gasl.org%2Frefbib%2FCarlyle__Cromwell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> (40.2 MB);</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1956" class="citation cs2">Churchill, Winston (1956), A History of English Speaking Peoples, Dodd, Mead & Company, p. 314</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+English+Speaking+Peoples&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+%26+Company&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoward1991" class="citation cs2">Coward, Barry (1991), Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582553859" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582553859"><bdi>978-0582553859</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0582553859&rft.aulast=Coward&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoward2003" class="citation cs2">Coward, Barry (2003), The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-77251-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-77251-6"><bdi>0-582-77251-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stuart+Age%3A+England%2C+1603%E2%80%931714&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-582-77251-6&rft.aulast=Coward&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurston1998" class="citation book cs1">Durston, Christopher (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/CXIII/450/18.full.pdf+html">"The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals (CXIII (450))"</a>. English Historical Review. Vol. CXIII. pp. 18–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FCXIII.450.18">10.1093/ehr/CXIII.450.18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Fall+of+Cromwell%27s+Major-Generals+%28CXIII+%28450%29%29&rft.btitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FCXIII.450.18&rft.issn=0013-8266&rft.aulast=Durston&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fehr.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2FCXIII%2F450%2F18.full.pdf%2Bhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988">(subscription required)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner1886" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rawson_Gardiner" title="Samuel Rawson Gardiner">Gardiner, Samuel Rawson</a> (1886), History of the Great Civil War, 1642–1649, Longmans, Green, and Company</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Great+Civil+War%2C+1642%E2%80%931649&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Rawson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner1901" class="citation cs2">Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901), Oliver Cromwell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4179-4961-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4179-4961-9"><bdi>1-4179-4961-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.date=1901&rft.isbn=1-4179-4961-9&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Rawson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaunt1996" class="citation cs2">Gaunt, Peter (1996), Oliver Cromwell, Blackwell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18356-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18356-6"><bdi>0-631-18356-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-631-18356-6&rft.aulast=Gaunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirst1990" class="citation cs2">Hirst, Derek (1990), "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4"><bdi>0-582-01675-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lord+Protector%2C+1653%E2%80%938&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+English+Revolution&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-582-01675-4&rft.aulast=Hirst&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJendrysik2002" class="citation cs2">Jendrysik, Mark (2002), Explaining the English Revolution: Hobbes and His Contemporaries, Lexington Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739121818" title="Special:BookSources/978-0739121818"><bdi>978-0739121818</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explaining+the+English+Revolution%3A+Hobbes+and+His+Contemporaries&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0739121818&rft.aulast=Jendrysik&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenyonOhlmeyer2000" class="citation cs2">Kenyon, John; Ohlmeyer, Jane, eds. (2000), The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280278-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280278-X"><bdi>0-19-280278-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+Wars%3A+A+Military+History+of+England%2C+Scotland%2C+and+Ireland+1638%E2%80%931660&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-280278-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKishlansky1990" class="citation cs2">Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?", Historical Journal, 33 (4): 917–937, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00013819">10.1017/S0018246X00013819</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248823719">248823719</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Saye+What%3F&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E917-%3C%2Fspan%3E937&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00013819&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248823719%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kishlansky&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenihan2000" class="citation cs2">Lenihan, Padraig (2000), Confederate Catholics at War, <a href="/wiki/Cork_University_Press" title="Cork University Press">Cork University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85918-244-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85918-244-5"><bdi>1-85918-244-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confederate+Catholics+at+War&rft.pub=Cork+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-85918-244-5&rft.aulast=Lenihan&rft.aufirst=Padraig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenihan2007" class="citation cs2">Lenihan, Padraig (2007), Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603–1727 (Longman History of Ireland), Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582772175" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582772175"><bdi>978-0582772175</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consolidating+Conquest%3A+Ireland+1603%E2%80%931727+%28Longman+History+of+Ireland%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0582772175&rft.aulast=Lenihan&rft.aufirst=Padraig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Gaunt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Peter Gaunt (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/191937">"Oliver Cromwell – Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War"</a>. The Journal of Military History. 70 (1). London: Brassey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180602052656/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/191937">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell+%E2%80%93+Soldier%3A+The+Military+Life+of+a+Revolutionary+at+War&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Peter+Gaunt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F191937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacaulay1891" class="citation cs2">Macaulay, James (1891), Cromwell Anecdotes, London: Hodder</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cromwell+Anecdotes&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hodder&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Macaulay&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMains2015" class="citation cs2">McMains, H.F. (2015), The Death of Oliver Cromwell, University Press of Kentucky, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YqofBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">75</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-5910-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-5910-2"><bdi>978-0-8131-5910-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Death+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-5910-2&rft.aulast=McMains&rft.aufirst=H.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasson1877" class="citation cs2">Masson, David (1877), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thelifeofjohnmil14380gut">The Life of John Milton: 1654–1660</a>, vol. 5 (7 volumes ed.), p. 354</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+John+Milton%3A+1654%E2%80%931660&rft.pages=354&rft.edition=7+volumes&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Masson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthelifeofjohnmil14380gut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill1990" class="citation cs2">Morrill, John (1990), "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4"><bdi>0-582-01675-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cromwell+and+his+contemporaries&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+English+Revolution&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-582-01675-4&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill1990" class="citation cs2">Morrill, John (1990), "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4"><bdi>0-582-01675-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Making+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+English+Revolution&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-582-01675-4&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrillBaker2008" class="citation cs2">Morrill, John; Baker, Phillip (2008), "Oliver Cromwell, the Regicide and the Sons of Zeruiah", in Smith, David Lee (ed.), Cromwell and the Interregnum: The Essential Readings, John Wiley & Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405143141" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405143141"><bdi>978-1405143141</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell%2C+the+Regicide+and+the+Sons+of+Zeruiah&rft.btitle=Cromwell+and+the+Interregnum%3A+The+Essential+Readings&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1405143141&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Baker%2C+Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble1784" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Noble_(biographer)" title="Mark Noble (biographer)">Noble, Mark</a> (1784), Memoirs of the Protectorate-house of Cromwell: Deduced from an Early Period, and Continued Down to the Present Time,..., vol. 2, Printed by Pearson and Rollason</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Protectorate-house+of+Cromwell%3A+Deduced+from+an+Early+Period%2C+and+Continued+Down+to+the+Present+Time%2C...&rft.pub=Printed+by+Pearson+and+Rollason&rft.date=1784&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Siochrú2008" class="citation book cs1">Ó Siochrú, Micheál (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsexecutionero0000osio">God's Executioner: Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland</a>. Faber and Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-24121-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-571-24121-7"><bdi>978-0-571-24121-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Executioner%3A+Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+Conquest+of+Ireland&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-571-24121-7&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Siochr%C3%BA&rft.aufirst=Miche%C3%A1l&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodsexecutionero0000osio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoots1989" class="citation cs2">Roots, Ivan (1989), Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Everyman Classics, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-460-01254-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-460-01254-1"><bdi>0-460-01254-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Everyman+Classics&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-460-01254-1&rft.aulast=Roots&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutt1828" class="citation cs2">Rutt, John Towill, ed. (1828), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=36889">"Cromwell's death and funeral order"</a>, Diary of Thomas Burton esq, April 1657 – February 1658, vol. 2, Institute of Historical Research, pp. 516–530, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110924145052/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=36889">archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2011, retrieved 8 November 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diary+of+Thomas+Burton+esq%2C+April+1657+%E2%80%93+February+1658&rft.atitle=Cromwell%27s+death+and+funeral+order&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E516-%3C%2Fspan%3E530&rft.date=1828&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-history.ac.uk%2Freport.aspx%3Fcompid%3D36889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharp2003" class="citation cs2">Sharp, David (2003), Oliver Cromwell, Heinemann, p. 60, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32756-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32756-9"><bdi>978-0-435-32756-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-435-32756-9&rft.aulast=Sharp&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolrych1982" class="citation cs2">Woolrych, Austin (1982), Commonwealth to Protectorate, Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822659-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822659-4"><bdi>0-19-822659-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commonwealth+to+Protectorate&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-19-822659-4&rft.aulast=Woolrych&rft.aufirst=Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolrych1990" class="citation cs2">Woolrych, Austin (1990), "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution, Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4"><bdi>0-582-01675-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cromwell+as+a+soldier&rft.btitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+English+Revolution&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-582-01675-4&rft.aulast=Woolrych&rft.aufirst=Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolrych1987" class="citation cs2">Woolrych, Austin (1987), Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates, Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822752-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822752-3"><bdi>0-19-822752-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soldiers+and+Statesmen%3A+the+General+Council+of+the+Army+and+its+Debates&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-19-822752-3&rft.aulast=Woolrych&rft.aufirst=Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2012" class="citation book cs1">Worden, Blair (2012). God's Instruments: Political Conduct in the England of Oliver Cromwell. OUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199570492" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199570492"><bdi>978-0199570492</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Instruments%3A+Political+Conduct+in+the+England+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199570492&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Blair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden1985" class="citation cs2">Worden, Blair (1985), "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D.; Best, G. (eds.), History, Society and the Churches, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-02189-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-02189-8"><bdi>0-521-02189-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oliver+Cromwell+and+the+sin+of+Achan&rft.btitle=History%2C+Society+and+the+Churches&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-521-02189-8&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Blair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden1977" class="citation cs2">Worden, Blair (1977), The Rump Parliament, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29213-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29213-1"><bdi>0-521-29213-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rump+Parliament&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-521-29213-1&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Blair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2000" class="citation journal cs1">Worden, Blair (2000). "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell". Proceedings of the British Academy. 105: 131–170. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0068-1202">0068-1202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&rft.atitle=Thomas+Carlyle+and+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.volume=105&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E131-%3C%2Fspan%3E170&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0068-1202&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Blair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungHolmes2000" class="citation cs2">Young, Peter; Holmes, Richard (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishcivilwarm00youn">The English Civil War</a>, Wordsworth, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84022-222-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84022-222-0"><bdi>1-84022-222-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+English+Civil+War&rft.pub=Wordsworth&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-84022-222-0&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Holmes%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishcivilwarm00youn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical">Biographical</h3></div> <ul><li>Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley,_Maurice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashley, Maurice">Ashley, Maurice</a> (1958). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olivercromwellpu00ashl">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley,_Maurice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashley, Maurice">Ashley, Maurice</a> (1969). Cromwell excerpts from primary and secondary sources <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cromwell00ashl">online</a></li> <li>Bennett, Martyn. Oliver Cromwell (2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-31922-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-31922-6">0-415-31922-6</a></li> <li>Boyer, Richard E., ed. Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith? (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olivercromwellpu00boye">online</a></li> <li>Clifford, Alan (1999). Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate Charenton Reformed Publishing, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9526716-2-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9526716-2-X">0-9526716-2-X</a>. Religious study.</li> <li>Covington, Sarah (2022). The Devil from over the Sea Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-84831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-198-84831-8">978-0-198-84831-8</a>.</li> <li>Davis, J. C. (2001). Oliver Cromwell Hodder Arnold, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-73118-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-73118-4">0-340-73118-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Firth_(historian)" title="Charles Firth (historian)">Firth, C.H.</a> (1900). Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8Y_AAAAYAAJ">online edition</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4021-4474-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4021-4474-1">1-4021-4474-1</a>; classic older biography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonia_Fraser" title="Antonia Fraser">Fraser, Antonia</a> (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector Phoenix Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7538-1331-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7538-1331-9">0-7538-1331-9</a>. Popular narrative. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cromwelllordprot00fras">online</a></li> <li>Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver Cromwell, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4179-4961-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4179-4961-9">1-4179-4961-9</a>. Classic older biography. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olivercromwell00gard">online</a></li> <li>Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18356-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18356-6">0-631-18356-6</a>. Short biography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hill_(historian)" title="Christopher Hill (historian)">Hill, Christopher</a> (1970). God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell And The English Revolution Dial Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-00043-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-00043-8">0-297-00043-8</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsenglishmanol00hill">online</a></li> <li>Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a></li> <li>Hutton, Ronald (2021). The Making of Oliver Cromwell. Yale University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25745-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25745-8">978-0-300-25745-8</a>.</li> <li>Kerlau, Yann (1989) "Cromwell", Perrin/France</li> <li>Mason, James and Angela Leonard (1998). Oliver Cromwell Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-29734-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-29734-6">0-582-29734-6</a></li> <li>McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9554663-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9554663-0-4">978-0-9554663-0-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Morrill, John (May 2008) [2004]. "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F6765">10.1093/ref:odnb/6765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cromwell%2C+Oliver+%281599%E2%80%931658%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F6765&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li> <li>Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a>.</li> <li>Paul, Robert (1958). The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life Of Oliver Cromwell</li> <li>Smith, David (ed.) (2003). Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum Blackwell, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22725-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22725-3">0-631-22725-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veronica_Wedgwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Veronica Wedgwood">Wedgwood, C.V.</a> (1939). Oliver Cromwell Duckworth, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-0656-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-0656-5">0-7156-0656-5</a></li> <li>Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-02189-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-02189-8">0-521-02189-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_studies">Military studies</h3></div> <ul><li>Durston, Christopher (2000). "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in History 2000 85(278): pp. 247–267, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0018-2648">0018-2648</a>. Full text online at Ebsco.</li> <li>Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0013-8266">0013-8266</a></li> <li>Firth, C.H. (1921). Cromwell's Army Greenhill Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85367-120-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85367-120-7">1-85367-120-7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924030726537">online</a></li> <li>Gillingham, J. (1976). Portrait of a Soldier: Cromwell Weidenfeld & Nicolson, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-77148-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-77148-5">0-297-77148-5</a></li> <li>Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660 Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280278-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280278-X">0-19-280278-X</a></li> <li>Kitson, Frank (2004). Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell Weidenfeld Military, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-84688-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-84688-4">0-297-84688-4</a></li> <li>Marshall, Alan (2004). Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War Brassey's, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85753-343-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85753-343-7">1-85753-343-7</a></li> <li>McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9554663-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9554663-0-4">978-0-9554663-0-4</a></li> <li>Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207–231, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-229X.1990.tb01515.x">10.1111/j.1468-229X.1990.tb01515.x</a>. Full text online at Wiley Online Library.</li> <li>Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a></li> <li>Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War, Wordsworth, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84022-222-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84022-222-0">1-84022-222-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys_of_era">Surveys of era</h3></div> <ul><li>Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate Manchester University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4317-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-4317-4">0-7190-4317-4</a></li> <li>Coward, Barry and Peter Gaunt. (2017). The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714, 5th edition, Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/113894954X" title="Special:BookSources/113894954X">113894954X</a>. Survey of political history of the era.</li> <li>Davies, Godfrey (1959). The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660 Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821704-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821704-8">0-19-821704-8</a>. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era.</li> <li>Korr, Charles P. (1975). Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649–1658 University of California Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-02281-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-02281-5">0-520-02281-5</a></li> <li>Macinnes, Allan (2005). The British Revolution, 1629–1660 Palgrave Macmillan, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-59750-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-59750-8">0-333-59750-8</a></li> <li>Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-01675-4">0-582-01675-4</a></li> <li>Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). Oliver Cromwell and his Parliaments, in his Religion, the Reformation and Social Change Macmillan.</li> <li>Venning, Timothy (1995). Cromwellian Foreign Policy Palgrave Macmillan, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-63388-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-63388-1">0-333-63388-1</a></li> <li>Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822659-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822659-4">0-19-822659-4</a></li> <li>Woolrych, Austin (2002). Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927268-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927268-6">978-0-19-927268-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="cromwell1" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cromwell, Oliver</a> (1937). Abbot, W. Cortez (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingsspeeches0001crom/page/n9/mode/2up">The writings and speeches of Oliver Cromwell</a>. Vol. I. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+writings+and+speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Cromwell&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingsspeeches0001crom%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="cromwell2" class="citation book cs1">—— (1937). —— (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingsspeeches0002crom/page/n5/mode/2up">The writings and speeches of Oliver Cromwell</a>. Vol. II. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+writings+and+speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Cromwell&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingsspeeches0002crom%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="cromwell3" class="citation book cs1">—— (1937). —— (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingsspeeches0003crom/page/n9/mode/2up">The writings and speeches of Oliver Cromwell</a>. Vol. III. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+writings+and+speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Cromwell&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingsspeeches0003crom%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="cromwell4" class="citation book cs1">—— (1937). —— (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingsspeeches0004crom/page/n7/mode/2up">The writings and speeches of Oliver Cromwellp</a>. Vol. IV. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+writings+and+speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwellp&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Cromwell&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingsspeeches0004crom%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> – The standard academic reference for Cromwell's own words.</li> <li>Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carlyle__Cromwell.pdf">"Gasl.org"</a> (PDF). 6 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gasl.org&rft.date=2023-10-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gasl.org%2Frefbib%2FCarlyle__Cromwell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> (40.2 MB);</li> <li>Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell Joshua Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-894400-03-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-894400-03-8">1-894400-03-8</a>. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.</li> <li>Morrill, John, et al. (eds.). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell: A New Critical Edition, 5 vols. (projected). A new edition of Cromwell's writings, currently in progress. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140414223411/http://www.cromwell.hist.cam.ac.uk/">"A New Critical Edition of the Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cromwell.hist.cam.ac.uk/">the original</a> on 14 April 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+New+Critical+Edition+of+the+Writings+and+Speeches+of+Oliver+Cromwell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cromwell.hist.cam.ac.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988">)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li>Davis, J. C. Oliver Cromwell (2001). 243 pp; a biographical study that covers sources and historiography</li> <li>Gaunt, Peter. "The Reputation of Oliver Cromwell in the 19th century", Parliamentary History, Oct 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 3, pp 425–428</li> <li>Hardacre, Paul H. "Writings on Oliver Cromwell since 1929", in Elizabeth Chapin Furber, ed. Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939 (<a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 1966), pp 141–159</li> <li>Lunger Knoppers, Laura. Constructing Cromwell: Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645–1661 (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar.</li> <li>Mills, Jane, ed. Cromwell's Legacy (Manchester University Press, 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36366">online review by Timothy Cooke</a></li> <li>Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences". Canadian Journal of History 2003 38(3): 553–578. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0008-4107">0008-4107</a> Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/EBSCO_Information_Services" title="EBSCO Information Services">Ebsco</a></li> <li>Morrill, John (1990). "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0018-246X">0018-246X</a>. Full text online at JSTOR. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.</li> <li>Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings of the British Academy (2000) 105: pp. 131–170. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0068-1202">0068-1202</a>.</li> <li>Worden, Blair. Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity (2001), 387 pp.; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-100694-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-100694-3">0-14-100694-3</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Oliver Cromwell at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" class="extiw" title="c:Oliver Cromwell">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Oliver_Cromwell" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Oliver Cromwell">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" class="extiw" title="q:Oliver Cromwell">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Oliver_Cromwell" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Oliver Cromwell">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ThePerfectPoliticianOrAFullViewOfTheLifeAndActionsmilitaryAnd">The Perfect Politician: Or, a Full View of the Life and Actions (Military and Civil) of O. Cromwell, 1660</a> – A digitised copy by John Geraghty</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olivercromwell.com/">Well established informational website about Oliver Cromwell</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140414223411/http://www.cromwell.hist.cam.ac.uk/">The Oliver Cromwell Project at the University of Cambridge</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malc.eu/history/Cromwell-Oliver-England.biog.html">Oliver Cromwell World History Database</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200821040103/http://www.malc.eu/history/Cromwell-Oliver-England.biog.html">Archived</a> 21 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icl-fi.org/english/wv/918/cromwell.html">Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution – In Honor of Christopher Hill 1912–2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210305034101/http://www.icl-fi.org/english/wv/918/cromwell.html">Archived</a> 5 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olivercromwell.org/">The Cromwell Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050311071218/http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/leisure/museums/cromwell/">The Cromwell Museum in Huntingdon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.badley.info/history/Cromwell-Oliver-England.biog.html">Chronology of Oliver Cromwell World History Database</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181015021934/http://www.badley.info/history/Cromwell-Oliver-England.biog.html">Archived</a> 15 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm">Biography at the British Civil Wars & Commonwealth website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191114125235/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm">Archived</a> 14 November 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olivercromwell.net/london-gazette-1648.html">London Gazette report on the trial and execution of Charles I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170603015216/http://www.olivercromwell.net/london-gazette-1648.html">Archived</a> 3 June 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olivercromwell.net/london-gazette-1658.html">London Gazette report on the death of Oliver Cromwell</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108100636/http://www.olivercromwell.net/london-gazette-1658.html">Archived</a> 8 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?q=Oliver+Cromwell&search_form=advanced">Works by Oliver Cromwell</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F38892">"Archival material relating to Oliver Cromwell"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">UK National Archives</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archival+material+relating+to+Oliver+Cromwell&rft.pub=UK+National+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fdetails%2Fc%2FF38892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOliver+Cromwell" class="Z3988"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44279#P3029" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Cromwell%2C%20Oliver%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Oliver%20Cromwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cromwell%2C%20Oliver%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Oliver%20Cromwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cromwell%2C%20O%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Oliver%20Cromwell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Cromwell%2C%20Oliver%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Oliver%20Cromwell%22%29%20OR%20%28%221599-1658%22%20AND%20Cromwell%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Oliver Cromwell</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li>Vallely, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-big-question-was-cromwell-a-revolutionary-hero-or-a-genocidal-war-criminal-917996.html">The Big Question: Was Cromwell a revolutionary hero or a genocidal war criminal?</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>, 4 September 2008.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071128180651/http://grad.usask.ca/gateway/art_Hampton_spr_03.pdf">The Cromwellian Catastrophe in Ireland: an Historiographical Analysis (an overview of writings/writers on the subject by Jameel Hampton pub. Gateway An Academic Journal on the Web: Spring 2003 PDF)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.loc.gov/law/2011/12/an-interview-with-yasmeen-khan-senior-rare-book-conservator-at-the-library-of-congress/">An Interview with a conservator from the Library of Congress who conserved a document that bears the signature of Oliver Cromwell</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0065593/">Cromwell (1970)</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/beinecke.fb67">Oliver Cromwell – autograph letters and historical documents 1646–1658, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #cccccc"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Mainwaring" title="Arthur Mainwaring">Arthur Mainwaring</a> John Goldsborough</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Member of Parliament for <a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Huntingdon (UK Parliament constituency)">Huntingdon</a> 1628–1629 With: <a href="/wiki/James_Montagu_(MP)" title="James Montagu (MP)">James Montagu</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Personal_Rule" title="Personal Rule">Parliament suspended until 1640</a></div><div style="font-size:90%">Title next held by</div><a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Bernard,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Robert Bernard, 1st Baronet">Robert Bernard</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Personal_Rule" title="Personal Rule">Parliament suspended since 1629</a></div><div style="font-size:90%">Title last held by</div>Thomas Purchase </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Member of Parliament for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)">Cambridge</a> 1640–1653 With: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Meautys" title="Thomas Meautys">Thomas Meautys</a> 1640 <a href="/wiki/John_Lowry_(Parliamentarian)" title="John Lowry (Parliamentarian)">John Lowry</a> 1640–1653 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%">Not represented in <a href="/wiki/Barebones_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Barebones Parliament">Barebones Parliament</a></div><div style="font-size:90%">Title next held by</div>Richard Timbs </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #CF9C65;">Military offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fairfax" title="Thomas Fairfax">Thomas Fairfax</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief_of_the_Forces" title="Commander-in-Chief of the Forces">Captain General and Commander-in-Chief of the Forces</a> 1650–1653 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%">Cromwell elected <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a></div><div style="font-size:90%">Title next held by</div><a href="/wiki/George_Monck,_1st_Duke_of_Albemarle" title="George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle">George Monck</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector_of_England,_Scotland_and_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland">Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland</a> 16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Herbert,_4th_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chancellors_of_the_University_of_Oxford" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chancellors of the University of Oxford">Chancellor of the University of Oxford</a> 1650–1653 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English,_Scottish_and_British_monarchs" title="Template:English, Scottish and British monarchs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English,_Scottish_and_British_monarchs" title="Template talk:English, Scottish and British monarchs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English,_Scottish_and_British_monarchs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English, Scottish and British monarchs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="English,_Scottish_and_British_monarchs189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">Scottish</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">British</a> monarchs</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Monarchs of England until 1603</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Monarchs of Scotland until 1603</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding: 0 0.5em; text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Elder" title="Edward the Elder">Edward the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86lfweard_of_Wessex" title="Ælfweard of Wessex">Ælfweard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan" title="Æthelstan">Æthelstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_I" title="Edmund I">Edmund I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eadred" title="Eadred">Eadred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eadwig" title="Eadwig">Eadwig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar,_King_of_England" title="Edgar, King of England">Edgar the Peaceful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Martyr" title="Edward the Martyr">Edward the Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ironside" title="Edmund Ironside">Edmund Ironside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Harefoot" title="Harold Harefoot">Harold Harefoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harthacnut" title="Harthacnut">Harthacnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_%C3%86theling" title="Edgar Ætheling">Edgar Ætheling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_II_of_England" title="William II of England">William II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen,_King_of_England" title="Stephen, King of England">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empress_Matilda" title="Empress Matilda">Matilda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Young_King" title="Henry the Young King">Henry the Young King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_VIII_of_France" title="Louis VIII of France">Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" title="Henry IV of England">Henry IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_VI" title="Edward VI">Edward VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Jane_Grey" title="Lady Jane Grey">Jane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding: 0 0.5em; text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_MacAlpin" title="Kenneth MacAlpin">Kenneth I MacAlpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domnall_mac_Ailp%C3%ADn" title="Domnall mac Ailpín">Donald I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causant%C3%ADn_mac_Cin%C3%A1eda" title="Causantín mac Cináeda">Constantine I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ed_mac_Cin%C3%A1eda" title="Áed mac Cináeda">Áed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giric" title="Giric">Giric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eochaid_ab_Rhun" title="Eochaid ab Rhun">Eochaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_II_of_Scotland" title="Donald II of Scotland">Donald II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_of_Scotland" title="Constantine II of Scotland">Constantine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_I_of_Scotland" title="Malcolm I of Scotland">Malcolm I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indulf" title="Indulf">Indulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dub,_King_of_Scotland" title="Dub, King of Scotland">Dub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuil%C3%A9n" title="Cuilén">Cuilén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb,_King_of_Scotland" title="Amlaíb, King of Scotland">Amlaíb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_II_of_Scotland" title="Kenneth II of Scotland">Kenneth II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_of_Scotland" title="Constantine III of Scotland">Constantine III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_III_of_Scotland" title="Kenneth III of Scotland">Kenneth III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_II_of_Scotland" title="Malcolm II of Scotland">Malcolm II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_I_of_Scotland" title="Duncan I of Scotland">Duncan I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macbeth,_King_of_Scotland" title="Macbeth, King of Scotland">Macbeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulach" title="Lulach">Lulach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_III_of_Scotland" title="Malcolm III of Scotland">Malcolm III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_III_of_Scotland" title="Donald III of Scotland">Donald III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_II_of_Scotland" title="Duncan II of Scotland">Duncan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar,_King_of_Scotland" title="Edgar, King of Scotland">Edgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland" title="Alexander I of Scotland">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_I_of_Scotland" title="David I of Scotland">David I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_IV_of_Scotland" title="Malcolm IV of Scotland">Malcolm IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_the_Lion" title="William the Lion">William I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Scotland" title="Alexander II of Scotland">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotland" title="Alexander III of Scotland">Alexander III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret,_Maid_of_Norway" title="Margaret, Maid of Norway">Margaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Balliol" title="John Balliol">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_the_Bruce" title="Robert the Bruce">Robert I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_II_of_Scotland" title="David II of Scotland">David II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Balliol" title="Edward Balliol">Edward Balliol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_II_of_Scotland" title="Robert II of Scotland">Robert II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_III_of_Scotland" title="Robert III of Scotland">Robert III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_I_of_Scotland" title="James I of Scotland">James I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland" title="James II of Scotland">James II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_III_of_Scotland" title="James III of Scotland">James III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotland" title="James IV of Scotland">James IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_V" title="James V">James V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James VI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_Monarchs_of_England_and_Scotland_after_the_Union_of_the_Crowns_from_160384"> <ul><li>Monarchs of England and Scotland after the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a> from 1603</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I & VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oliver Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II & VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III & II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_II" title="Mary II">Mary II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_British_monarchs_after_the_Acts_of_Union_170757"> <ul><li>British monarchs after the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_IV" title="George IV">George IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_IV" title="William IV">William IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_VIII" title="Edward VIII">Edward VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Debated or disputed rulers are in italics.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44279#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4473" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44279#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4473" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44279#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121005431">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/34498004">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/55660/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJxhgjP4gTqbkrFhpwVQv3">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118522841">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80067079">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121696507">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121696507">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620539">Japan</a></li><li>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UR1V001685">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35032264">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000700339&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&find_code=SYS&adjacent=Y&local_base=RSL11&request=000020381&CON_LNG=ENG">Russia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX898107">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069858632">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90204322">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000210249&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000140228&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000074517">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=143455">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199606015">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/86lnnk1s5t70j6w">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810624620505606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/71172">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007260054005171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058508764706706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500287104">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/3f05a6ce-cb6f-41a4-b322-1267ef068707">MusicBrainz</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118522841">FID</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/24522063">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/804940">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.002209.v1">Ireland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118522841.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118522841">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027428974">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6nc5zdc">SNAC</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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[\"CITEREFNational_Railway_Museum2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoble1784\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;_Connell1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPepys\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Gaunt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlant\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoots1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRutt1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharp2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimons2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTerri_Schlichenmeyer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsForrest2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilton1762\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolrych1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolrych1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolrych1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorden1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorden1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorden2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorden2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungHolmes2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFpixeltocode.uk\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÓ_Siochrú2008\"] = 1,\n [\"MP\"] = 1,\n [\"Member_of_Parliament\"] = 1,\n [\"cromwell1\"] = 1,\n [\"cromwell2\"] = 1,\n [\"cromwell3\"] = 1,\n [\"cromwell4\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Acad\"] = 1,\n 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1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Republicanism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aca\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 2,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 3,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-mil\"] = 1,\n [\"S-non\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-par\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 5,\n [\"S-vac\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 8,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 2,\n [\"Spaced ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list end\"] = 1,\n [\"UK National Archives ID\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 2,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 13,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n \"ACAD%u%u%u?%u?%d+%u%u?\",\n \"CITEREF%a[%a%-_']*188[5-9]\",\n \"CITEREF%a[%a%-_']*189%d\",\n \"CITEREF%a[%a%-_']*190[0-1]\",\n \"CITEREF%a[%a%-_']*1903\",\n \"CITEREF%a[%a%-_']*1912\",\n \"Historic_England%d+\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","21.2"],["?","280","17.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","8.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","3.8"],["tostring","40","2.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","2.5"],["[others]","360","22.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5b65fffc7d-z7rm5","timestamp":"20250216202748","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Oliver 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