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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>The <b>Hungarian Round Table Talks</b> (<a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>: <i lang="hu">Kerekasztal-tárgyalások</i>) were a series of formalized, orderly and highly legalistic<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett143_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett143-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discussions held in <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> in the summer and autumn of 1989, inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish model</a>, that ended in the creation of a multi-party constitutional democracy and saw the Communist Party (formally the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Socialist_Workers%27_Party" title="Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party">Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party</a> or MSzMP) lose its <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">40-year grip on power</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The talks originated in March 1989 as a meeting among opposition groups. At that point, longtime leader <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a> had been removed from power for almost a year, and the Communists' Central Committee that month admitted the necessity of a multiparty system, with various groups like <a href="/wiki/Fidesz_%E2%80%93_Hungarian_Civic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Union">Fidesz</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a> (SzDSz) having emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass demonstrations on March 15, the National Day, persuaded the regime to begin negotiations with the emergent non-Communist political forces. A week later, these new movements, at the initiative of the Independent Lawyers’ Forum, formed the Opposition Round Table (<i>Ellenzéki Kerekasztal</i>, EKA), designed to prevent the Communists from trying to maintain power by dividing the opposition, and to establish some degree of unity in the face of the regime's own reform agenda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The table was composed of a small number of elite organizations, whose grassroots links were poorly developed and whose very existence stemmed in part from the collaboration of key Communist reformers.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartlett143_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartlett143-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, it involved the SzDSz, Fidesz, the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a> (MDF), the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Smallholders,_Agrarian_Workers_and_Civic_Party" title="Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party">Independent Smallholders’ Party</a> (FKgP), the <a href="/wiki/National_Peasant_Party_(Hungary)" title="National Peasant Party (Hungary)">Hungarian People's Party</a> (MNP), the Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Society, and the Democratic Trade Union of Scientific Workers. At a later stage the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Confederation_of_Free_Trade_Unions" title="Democratic Confederation of Free Trade Unions">Democratic Confederation of Free Trade Unions</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_(Hungary)" title="Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)">Christian Democratic People's Party</a> (KNDP) were invited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The MSzMP, although beleaguered by demands for change from within (in the form of increasingly active Reform Circles), and facing a disintegrating economy, did not meet with the opposition until 22 April. Unlike in Poland, where the lines between the united opposition and the government were clear, Hungary's round table (formally established in June as the National Round Table (<i>Nemzeti Kerekasztal</i>, NKA), with talks beginning on the 13th) was trilateral, also involving unions and quasi-civil society organisations under the party's authority but beginning to distance themselves from it. Instead of a single opposition movement with substantial threat potential (<a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a>), several relatively frail opposition groups which at most could play on the regime's fear of mass demonstrations on the occasion of various commemorations participated. This weakness radicalised their demands, leading to greater government concessions; the opposition, which had an open-ended agenda and could effectively veto proposals, knew from Poland that it either had to negotiate free elections or would begin to lose its legitimacy as representatives of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Progression">Progression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Progression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The topics of discussions were almost completely unknown to the public. The Communists did their best to prevent wider knowledge of the negotiations, supposedly to prevent them being used as political propaganda. The Opposition Round Table agreed to this suggestion at a meeting on 10 June; this aroused suspicions they were implicated in a behind-the-scenes deal. Some smaller parties outside the table claimed an underhanded bargain between the old and new political elite was taking place without public consultation. The Opposition Round Table did its best to dissipate such suspicions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, all involved were devoted to a peaceful and democratic transition (to which the regime implicitly agreed through its acceptance of negotiations),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003129_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003129-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were nervous about uncontrolled popular mobilisation—especially as talks began before the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> fell and Solidarity scored a decisive electoral victory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the 10 June agreement severely limited its room for manoeuvring. The lack of publicity did not cause conflicts between the negotiating elite of the parties and their membership, but it did cause a number of misunderstandings in society at large. It was only when the Round Table agreement was signed on 18 September that the public became fully aware of the different viewpoints represented at the round table; the plenary session dealing with its breakup was broadcast on television.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the talks advanced (and especially after <a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Imre Nagy</a> was reburied on 16 June), EKA made more detailed and all-encompassing demands: guaranteed free elections and free media access during these, exclusion of political crimes from the criminal code, a prohibition on the use of violence, and de-politicization of the armed forces. The Communists wanted to share the burden of managing the economy, but the opposition refused to take on the task until it entered government and focused on political before economic reform. All involved acknowledged that the "third side" (unions and party organisations) was less important in both the process and outcome; members of the state agencies distanced themselves from the ebbing authority of the party, but were content <i>not</i> to support it, guaranteeing them a lesser role in negotiations. Nevertheless, they ostensibly represented the non-elites not present at the table; issues included their constituents’ concerns, such as wages, self-management, and the maintenance and extension of a <a href="/wiki/Social_safety_net" title="Social safety net">social safety net</a> that faced an uncertain future. By and large, these topics were only symbolically and not substantively discussed, with the other two sides focusing on a political solution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalk2003149_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2003149-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was at the talks that a number of Hungary's future political leaders emerged, including <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_S%C3%B3lyom" title="László Sólyom">László Sólyom</a>, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Antall" title="József Antall">József Antall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Szabad" title="György Szabad">György Szabad</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A9ter_T%C3%B6lgyessy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Péter Tölgyessy (page does not exist)">Péter Tölgyessy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Viktor Orbán</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Negotiations broke down frequently, with the two most contentious issues being the electoral system and the presidency<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (other points of contention were whether the country would be defined as "socialist" in the constitution, and disclosure of Communist Party assets.)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Communists pressed for a presidential system with majority voting. They presumed that the popular <a href="/wiki/Imre_Pozsgay" title="Imre Pozsgay">Imre Pozsgay</a>, a leader of the Communists' radical reformer faction, would win. The smaller opposition parties wanted a parliamentary system, proportional representation, and a weak presidency. However, they too believed that Pozsgay would be elected president. A party congress was scheduled for October, and reformists had to show something there to legitimise themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108–9_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108–9-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During negotiations, the MSzMP offered concessions aimed at having Pozsgay elected. In August, they offered to dissolve the <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Militia" title="Workers' Militia">Workers' Militia</a> if his candidacy were accepted, and in September, they offered to have the president elected by referendum. (This was presented as a concession, because while popular election would have granted him more legitimacy, the sitting parliament would easily have elected Pozsgay.)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conclusion">Conclusion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conclusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An agreement was reached involving six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Hungary" title="Constitution of Hungary">Constitution</a>, establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Hungary" title="Constitutional Court of Hungary">Constitutional Court</a>, the functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the penal code and the law on penal procedures (the last two changes represented an additional separation of the Party from the state apparatus).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electoral system was a compromise: about half of the deputies would be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A weak presidency was also agreed upon, but no consensus was attained on who should elect the president (parliament or the people) and when this election should occur (before or after parliamentary elections). Initially, the opposition was united in wanting the president elected by parliament after new elections to ensure parliamentary supremacy and minimise the MSzMP's power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994185_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994185-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, faced with Communist concessions, the relatively weak opposition split, as at least three moderate groups (including KNDP and MDF) signed the Round Table agreement and implicitly accepted Pozsgay as president while the radicals (notably Fidesz and the SzDSz) refused to do so. After a burst of negotiations, fully free <a href="/wiki/1990_Hungarian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Hungarian parliamentary election">elections</a> were scheduled for March 1990, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Contract_Sejm" title="Contract Sejm">semi-free elections</a> held in Poland in June 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002109_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002109-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the end, the implicit deal on the presidency (the only place where the Communists appeared to have gotten the upper hand)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reached in the Round Table Talks was reversed: when the MSzMP dissolved itself in early October and became the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Socialist_Party" title="Hungarian Socialist Party">Hungarian Socialist Party</a> (MSZP), a majority of members as well as MPs failed to join the new party, and Pozsgay was not elected its leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the ensuing power vacuum, the radicals used the very liberal initiative law formulated by the Round Table to successfully campaign for <a href="/wiki/1989_Hungarian_referendum" title="1989 Hungarian referendum">a referendum</a> on four additional issues. The referendum, held on 26 November, asked questions on the dissolution of the party militia, the return of party assets, the elimination of the party from the workplace and whether presidential or parliamentary elections should be held first. They easily obtained the 100,000 signatures needed to place the questions on the ballot. The reform Communists quickly abolished the party militia, promised a full accounting of its assets before the referendum, and removed its cells from the workplace. On the crucial question of the election sequence, the radicals barely satisfied both criteria (55% turnout, with 50% needed, and 50.07% supporting parliamentary elections first). The party-state had been completely dismantled, something the Opposition Round Table had not been strong enough to accomplish on its own. The Communists themselves used the initiative to force a vote on direct election of the president on <a href="/wiki/1990_Hungarian_presidential_election_referendum" title="1990 Hungarian presidential election referendum">29 July 1990</a>, but this failed due to a turnout of just 14%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994186_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994186-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of a Communist candidate chosen in direct elections before the election of a new parliament, the presidency went to SzDSz politician <a href="/wiki/%C3%81rp%C3%A1d_G%C3%B6ncz" title="Árpád Göncz">Árpád Göncz</a>, elected by the new parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bartlett143-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett143_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett143_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartlett, p.143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2002">Grzymała-Busse 2002</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeenanLamontagne199913_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeenanLamontagne1999">Heenan & Lamontagne 1999</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalk2003147_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFalk2003">Falk 2003</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxFurlong199552_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoxFurlong1995">Cox & Furlong 1995</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003129-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003129_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Nevers2003">De Nevers 2003</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2003149-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalk2003149_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFalk2003">Falk 2003</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBayer2003" class="citation cs2">Bayer, József (2003), "The Process of Political System Change in Hungary", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721104934/http://www.europainstitut.hu/pdf/bayer22.pdf"><i>Schriftenreihe</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Budapest, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">HU</a>: Europa Institutes, p. 180, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europainstitut.hu/pdf/bayer22.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_document_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable document format">PDF</a>)</span> on 2011-07-21</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Process+of+Political+System+Change+in+Hungary&rft.btitle=Schriftenreihe&rft.place=Budapest%2C+HU&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Europa+Institutes&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Bayer&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3zsef&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.europainstitut.hu%2Fpdf%2Fbayer22.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199866_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElsterOffePreuss1998">Elster, Offe & Preuss 1998</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Nevers2003130_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Nevers2003">De Nevers 2003</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108–9-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002108–9_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2002">Grzymała-Busse 2002</a>, pp. 108–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElsterOffePreuss199867_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElsterOffePreuss1998">Elster, Offe & Preuss 1998</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994185-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994185_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButlerRanney1994">Butler & Ranney 1994</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002109-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2002109_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2002">Grzymała-Busse 2002</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994186-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButlerRanney1994186_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButlerRanney1994">Butler & Ranney 1994</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett1997" class="citation cs2">Bartlett, David L (1997), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000bart"><i>The Political Economy of Dual Transformations</i></a></span>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-10794-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-10794-1"><bdi>0-472-10794-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Dual+Transformations&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-472-10794-1&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=David+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticaleconomy0000bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButlerRanney1994" class="citation cs2">Butler, David; Ranney, Austin (1994), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/referendumsaroun0000unse"><i>Referendums Around the World: The Growing Use of Direct Democracy</i></a></span>, <a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8447-3853-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8447-3853-0"><bdi>0-8447-3853-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Referendums+Around+the+World%3A+The+Growing+Use+of+Direct+Democracy&rft.pub=American+Enterprise+Institute&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8447-3853-0&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ranney%2C+Austin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freferendumsaroun0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxFurlong1995" class="citation cs2">Cox, Terry; Furlong, Andy (1995), <i>Hungary: The Politics of Transition</i>, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-4167-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-4167-7"><bdi>0-7146-4167-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hungary%3A+The+Politics+of+Transition&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-7146-4167-7&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft.au=Furlong%2C+Andy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Nevers2003" class="citation cs2">De Nevers, Renée (2003), <i>Comrades No More: The Seeds of Change in Eastern Europe</i>, <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-54129-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-54129-7"><bdi>0-262-54129-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comrades+No+More%3A+The+Seeds+of+Change+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-262-54129-7&rft.aulast=De+Nevers&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsterOffePreuss1998" class="citation cs2">Elster, Jon; Offe, Claus; Preuss, Ulrich K (1998), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/institutionaldes0000elst"><i>Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies</i></a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47931-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-47931-2"><bdi>0-521-47931-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutional+Design+in+Post-communist+Societies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-47931-2&rft.aulast=Elster&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft.au=Offe%2C+Claus&rft.au=Preuss%2C+Ulrich+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstitutionaldes0000elst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk2003" class="citation cs2">Falk, Barbara J (2003), <i>The Dilemmas of Dissidence in East-Central Europe</i>, <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9241-39-3" title="Special:BookSources/963-9241-39-3"><bdi>963-9241-39-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dilemmas+of+Dissidence+in+East-Central+Europe&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=963-9241-39-3&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Barbara+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2002" class="citation cs2">Grzymała-Busse, Anna Maria (2002), <i>Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00146-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00146-3"><bdi>0-521-00146-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Redeeming+the+Communist+Past%3A+The+Regeneration+of+Communist+Parties+in+East+Central+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-00146-3&rft.aulast=Grzyma%C5%82a-Busse&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeenanLamontagne1999" class="citation cs2">Heenan, Patrick; Lamontagne, Monique (1999), <i>The Central and Eastern Europe Handbook</i>, <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-089-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-089-0"><bdi>1-57958-089-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+Handbook&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-57958-089-0&rft.aulast=Heenan&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Lamontagne%2C+Monique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Round+Table+Talks" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_Boz%C3%B3ki" title="András Bozóki">Bozóki, András</a>. <i>The Roundtable Talks of 1989: The Genesis of Hungarian Democracy</i> (2002), Central European University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9241-21-0" title="Special:BookSources/963-9241-21-0">963-9241-21-0</a></li> <li>Elster, Jon. <i>The Roundtable Talks and the Breakdown of Communism</i> (1996), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-20628-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-20628-9">0-226-20628-9</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Internal<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc media and propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">International<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_socialist_states" title="List of socialist states">List of socialist states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and the Soviet Union">Terrorism and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Vatican Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khozraschyot" class="mw-redirect" title="Khozraschyot">Khozraschyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/500_Days_Program" title="500 Days Program">500 Days Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New political thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform and Opening Up">Reform and Opening Up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Government<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng_Samrin" title="Heng Samrin">Heng Samrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitizdat" title="Magnitizdat">Magnitizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_underground_press" title="Polish underground press">Polish underground press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Political demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Gang" title="Liu Gang">Liu Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%27erkaixi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu'erkaixi">Wu'erkaixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Ling" title="Chai Ling">Chai Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dan_(dissident)" title="Wang Dan (dissident)">Wang Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Congde" title="Feng Congde">Feng Congde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Tank Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sali_Berisha" title="Sali Berisha">Sali Berisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis" title="Vytautas Landsbergis">Vytautas Landsbergis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhelyu_Zhelev" title="Zhelyu Zhelev">Zhelyu Zhelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles Zenawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaias_Afwerki" title="Isaias Afwerki">Isaias Afwerki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Students%27_Autonomous_Federation" title="Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation">Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forum" title="New Forum">New Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania" title="Democratic Party of Albania">Democratic Party of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Peace_and_Human_Rights" title="Initiative for Peace and Human Rights">Initiative for Peace and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Sąjūdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">People's Movement of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Latvia" title="Popular Front of Latvia">Popular Front of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Estonia" title="Popular Front of Estonia">Popular Front of Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Against_Violence" title="Public Against Violence">Public Against Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastokhez" title="Rastokhez">Rastokhez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-regional_Deputies_Group" title="Inter-regional Deputies Group">Inter-regional Deputies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events<br />by location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Central and<br />Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Armenian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Armenian independence referendum">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_independence_referendum" title="1991 Azerbaijani independence referendum">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Revolution" title="Chechen Revolution">Chechnya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Georgian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Georgian independence referendum">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan#Towards_independence:_1985-1991" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Moldova" title="Independence of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Revolution" title="Tajikistani Revolution">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Turkmen_independence_referendum" title="1991 Turkmen independence referendum">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Uzbek_independence_election" title="1991 Uzbek independence election">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Dissolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Paris_Peace_Agreements" title="1991 Paris Peace Agreements">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Derg_regime" title="Fall of the Derg regime">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War#Transition_to_peace" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">South Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Individual<br />events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_the_Caucasus" title="Wars in the Caucasus">Wars in the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hungarian Round Table Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite" title="Revolution on Granite">Revolution on Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January Events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_protests_in_Belgrade" title="1991 protests in Belgrade">1991 protests in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">1991 Belarusian strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact#End_of_the_Cold_War" title="Warsaw Pact">Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Later events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">Economic liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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