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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_common_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>English common law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_common_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Basic principles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Basic_principles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Basic principles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Basic_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Creation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Formalities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trustees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trustees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Trustees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trustees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beneficiaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beneficiaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Beneficiaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beneficiaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purposes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purposes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Purposes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purposes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphabetic_list_of_trust_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabetic_list_of_trust_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Alphabetic list of trust types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabetic_list_of_trust_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Country_specific_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Country_specific_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Country specific variations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Country_specific_variations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Country specific variations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Country_specific_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyprus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyprus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Cyprus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyprus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Settlor_Powers_provided_by_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Settlor_Powers_provided_by_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Settlor Powers provided by law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Settlor_Powers_provided_by_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duration_of_Cyprus_International_Trust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duration_of_Cyprus_International_Trust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Duration of Cyprus International Trust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duration_of_Cyprus_International_Trust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charitable_Trust_and_Purpose_Trust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charitable_Trust_and_Purpose_Trust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Charitable Trust and Purpose Trust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charitable_Trust_and_Purpose_Trust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confidentiality_of_Cyprus_International_Trust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confidentiality_of_Cyprus_International_Trust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>Confidentiality of Cyprus International Trust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confidentiality_of_Cyprus_International_Trust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stamp_Duty_Commissioner_for_validating_the_creation_of_the_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stamp_Duty_Commissioner_for_validating_the_creation_of_the_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4.1</span> <span>Stamp Duty Commissioner for validating the creation of the Cyprus International Trust<sup><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stamp_Duty_Commissioner_for_validating_the_creation_of_the_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulatory_Disclosure_of_ASPs_managing_a_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulatory_Disclosure_of_ASPs_managing_a_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4.2</span> <span>Regulatory Disclosure of ASPs managing a Cyprus International Trust<sup><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulatory_Disclosure_of_ASPs_managing_a_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyprus_Beneficial_Owner_Register_and_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyprus_Beneficial_Owner_Register_and_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4.3</span> <span>Cyprus Beneficial Owner Register and Cyprus International Trust<sup><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyprus_Beneficial_Owner_Register_and_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-FATCA[41]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#FATCA[41]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4.4</span> <span>FATCA<sup><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-FATCA[41]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CRS[41]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CRS[41]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4.5</span> <span>CRS<sup><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CRS[41]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxation_of_Cyprus_International_Trust[40]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxation_of_Cyprus_International_Trust[40]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.5</span> <span>Taxation of Cyprus International Trust<sup><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxation_of_Cyprus_International_Trust[40]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England_and_Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_and_Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>England and Wales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_and_Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purpose_trusts_and_the_requirement_for_a_beneficiary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose_trusts_and_the_requirement_for_a_beneficiary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Purpose trusts and the requirement for a beneficiary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose_trusts_and_the_requirement_for_a_beneficiary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unincorporated_Associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unincorporated_Associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Unincorporated Associations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unincorporated_Associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asset_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asset_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Asset protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asset_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tax_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tax_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Tax considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tax_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estate_planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estate_planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Estate planning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estate_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estate_tax_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estate_tax_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Estate tax effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estate_tax_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jurisdiction_specific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisdiction_specific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Jurisdiction specific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurisdiction_specific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Trust (law)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%84_(%D8%A5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="قانون التوكيل (إدارة الممتلكات) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون التوكيل (إدارة الممتلكات)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideicomisu" title="Fideicomisu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fideicomisu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Давернае кіраванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Давернае кіраванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Давернае кіраваньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Давернае кіраваньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fide%C3%AFcom%C3%ADs" title="Fideïcomís – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fideïcomís" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust" title="Trust – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Trust" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_(Recht)" title="Trust (Recht) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Trust (Recht)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideicomiso" title="Fideicomiso – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fideicomiso" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideikomiso" title="Fideikomiso – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fideikomiso" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_(%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82)" title="تراست (حقوق) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تراست (حقوق)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_(droit_anglais)" title="Trust (droit anglais) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trust (droit anglais)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideicomiso" title="Fideicomiso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fideicomiso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%ED%83%81_(%EB%B2%95%EB%A5%A0)" title="신탁 (법률) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신탁 (법률)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust" title="Trust – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trust" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="דיני נאמנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיני נאמנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ನ್ಯಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನ್ಯಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ტრასტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტრასტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Сенімгерлік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сенімгерлік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-undang_amanah" title="Undang-undang amanah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Undang-undang amanah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_(rechtsvorm)" title="Trust (rechtsvorm) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Trust (rechtsvorm)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E8%A8%97" title="信託 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="信託" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fid%C3%BAcia" title="Fidúcia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fidúcia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiducia" title="Fiducia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fiducia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82" title="Траст – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Траст" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusti_(ligji)" title="Trusti (ligji) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Trusti (ligji)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="භාර නීතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භාර නීතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_law" title="Trust law – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Trust law" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povereni%C5%A1tvo" title="Povereništvo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Povereništvo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusti_(oikeustiede)" title="Trusti (oikeustiede) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Trusti (oikeustiede)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_law&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">Trust law</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-lead_too_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> may be too long</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">length guidelines</a> and help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit">move details into the article's body</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Three-party fiduciary relationship</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the monopolistic business, see <a href="/wiki/Trust_(business)" title="Trust (business)">Trust (business)</a>. For other uses of the word "trust", see <a href="/wiki/Trust_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Trust (disambiguation)">Trust (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">trusts</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">estates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shakespeare-Testament.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Shakespeare-Testament.jpg/180px-Shakespeare-Testament.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Shakespeare-Testament.jpg/270px-Shakespeare-Testament.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Shakespeare-Testament.jpg/360px-Shakespeare-Testament.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3677" data-file-height="4800" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> series</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_wills" title="Legal history of wills">Legal history of wills</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_wills_and_mutual_wills" title="Joint wills and mutual wills">Joint wills and mutual wills</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Will_contract" title="Will contract">Will contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicil_(will)" title="Codicil (will)">Codicil</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_will" title="Holographic will">Holographic will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_will" title="Oral will">Oral will</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Sections</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attestation_clause" title="Attestation clause">Attestation clause</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Residuary_estate" title="Residuary estate">Residuary clause</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_by_reference" title="Incorporation by reference">Incorporation by reference</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Will_contest" title="Will contest">Contest</a></i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testamentary_capacity" title="Testamentary capacity">Testamentary capacity</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undue_influence" title="Undue influence">Undue influence</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insane_delusion" title="Insane delusion">Insane delusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/No-contest_clause" title="No-contest clause">No-contest clause</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Property disposition</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lapse_and_anti-lapse" title="Lapse and anti-lapse">Lapse and anti-lapse</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ademption" title="Ademption">Ademption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abatement_of_debts_and_legacies" title="Abatement of debts and legacies">Abatement</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ademption_by_satisfaction" title="Ademption by satisfaction">Satisfaction of legacies</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_independent_significance" title="Acts of independent significance">Acts of independent significance</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elective_share" title="Elective share">Elective share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretermitted_heir" title="Pretermitted heir">Pretermitted heir</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trusts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Express_trust" title="Express trust">Express</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resulting_trust" title="Resulting trust">Resulting</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_trust" title="Constructive trust">Constructive</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Common types</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bare_trust" title="Bare trust">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discretionary_trust" title="Discretionary trust">Discretionary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_and_maintenance_trust" title="Accumulation and maintenance trust">Accumulation and maintenance</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interest_in_possession_trust" title="Interest in possession trust">Interest in possession</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">Charitable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purpose_trust" title="Purpose trust">Purpose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incentive_trust" title="Incentive trust">Incentive</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Other types</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protective_trust" title="Protective trust">Protective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spendthrift_trust" title="Spendthrift trust">Spendthrift</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance_trust" title="Life insurance trust">Life insurance</a></li> <li>Remainder</li></ul> <ul><li>Life interest</li></ul> <ul><li>Reversionary interest</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testamentary_trust" title="Testamentary trust">Testamentary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_trust" title="Honorary trust">Honorary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asset-protection_trust" title="Asset-protection trust">Asset-protection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_needs_trust" title="Special needs trust">Special needs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_needs_trust" title="Supplemental needs trust">Supplemental needs</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <p><i>Governing doctrines</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pour-over_will" title="Pour-over will">Pour-over will</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cy-pr%C3%A8s_doctrine" title="Cy-près doctrine">Cy-près doctrine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Trust_Convention" title="Hague Trust Convention">Hague Convention (conflict law)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law_in_civil_law_jurisdictions" title="Trust law in civil law jurisdictions">Application in civil law</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dishonest_assistance" title="Dishonest assistance">Dishonest assistance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">Estate administration</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestacy" title="Intestacy">Intestacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testator" title="Testator">Testator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_of_appointment" title="Power of appointment">Power of appointment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_death" title="Simultaneous death">Simultaneous death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slayer_rule" title="Slayer rule">Slayer rule</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laughing_heir" title="Laughing heir">Laughing heir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advancement_(inheritance)" title="Advancement (inheritance)">Advancement</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disclaimer_of_interest" title="Disclaimer of interest">Disclaimer of interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">Inheritance tax</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_healthcare_directive" title="Advance healthcare directive">Advance directive (Living will)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_trust" title="Blind trust">Blind trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_heirship" title="Forced heirship">Forced heirship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totten_trust" title="Totten trust">Totten trust</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wills,_trusts,_estates" title="Template:Wills, trusts, estates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wills,_trusts,_estates" title="Template talk:Wills, trusts, estates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wills,_trusts,_estates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wills, trusts, estates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>trust</b> is a legal relationship in which the owner of <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, or any transferable right, gives it to another to manage and use solely for the benefit of a designated person. In the English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, the party who entrusts the property is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Settlor" title="Settlor">settlor</a>", the party to whom it is entrusted is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Trustee" title="Trustee">trustee</a>", the party for whose benefit the property is entrusted is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Beneficiary" title="Beneficiary">beneficiary</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the entrusted property is known as the "corpus" or "trust property".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <i><a href="/wiki/Testamentary_trust" title="Testamentary trust">testamentary trust</a></i> is an irrevocable trust established and funded pursuant to the terms of a deceased person's will. An <b>inter vivos trust</b> is a trust created during the settlor's life. </p><p>The trustee is the legal <a href="/wiki/Owner" class="mw-redirect" title="Owner">owner</a> of the assets held in trust on behalf of the trust and its beneficiaries. The beneficiaries are equitable owners of the trust property. Trustees have a fiduciary duty to manage the trust for the benefit of the equitable owners. Trustees must provide regular accountings of trust income and expenditures. A court of competent jurisdiction can remove a trustee who breaches their duty. Some breaches can be charged and tried as criminal offenses. A trustee can be a <a href="/wiki/Natural_person" title="Natural person">natural person</a>, business entity or <a href="/wiki/Public_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Public body">public body</a>. A trust in the US may be subject to federal and state taxation. The trust is governed by the terms under which it was created. In most jurisdictions, this requires a contractual trust agreement or <a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">deed</a>. It is possible for a single individual to assume the role of more than one of these parties, and for multiple individuals to share a single role. For example, in a living trust it is common for the grantor to be both a trustee and a lifetime beneficiary while naming other contingent beneficiaries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trusts have existed since <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> times and become one of the most important innovations in <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39_U._Colo._L._Rev._177_(1966–1967)_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39_U._Colo._L._Rev._177_(1966–1967)-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific aspects of trust law vary in different jurisdictions. Some U.S. states are adapting the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Trust_Code" title="Uniform Trust Code">Uniform Trust Code</a> to codify and harmonize their trust laws, but state-specific variations still remain. </p><p>An owner placing property into trust turns over part of their <a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">bundle of rights</a> to the trustee, separating the property's legal ownership and control from its equitable ownership and benefits. This may be done for <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">tax reasons</a> or to control the property and its benefits if the settlor is absent, <a href="/wiki/Capacity_(law)" title="Capacity (law)">incapacitated</a>, or deceased. <a href="/wiki/Testamentary_trust" title="Testamentary trust">Testamentary trusts</a> may be created in <a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">wills</a>, defining how money and property will be handled for children or other beneficiaries. While the trustee is given legal title to the trust property, in accepting title the trustee owes a number of <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duties">fiduciary duties</a> to the beneficiaries. The primary duties owed are those of <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_loyalty" title="Duty of loyalty">loyalty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_Prudence" title="Duty of Prudence">prudence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">impartiality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trustees may be held to a high standard of care in their dealings to enforce their behavior. To ensure beneficiaries receive their due, trustees are subject to ancillary duties in support of the primary duties, including <a href="/wiki/Openness" title="Openness">openness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">transparency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recordkeeping" class="mw-redirect" title="Recordkeeping">recordkeeping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_disclosure" title="Convention of disclosure">disclosure</a>. A trustee has a duty to know, understand, and abide by the terms of the trust and relevant law. The trustee may be compensated and have expenses reimbursed, but otherwise turn over all <a href="/wiki/Profit_(accounting)" title="Profit (accounting)">profits</a> from the trust and neither endebt nor riskily speculate on the assets without the written, clear permission of all adult beneficiaries. </p><p>There are strong restrictions regarding a trustee with a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a>. Courts can reverse a trustee's actions, order profits returned, and impose other sanctions if they find a trustee has failed in their duties. Such a failure is a civil breach of trust and can leave a neglectful or dishonest trustee with severe liabilities. It is advisable for settlors and trustees to seek legal advice before entering into, or creating, a trust agreement and trustees must take care in acting or omitting to act to avoid unlawful mistakes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="History of trusts">History of trusts</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_common_law">English common law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: English common law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Trust_(law)" title="Special:EditPage/Trust (law)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> had a well-developed concept of the trust (<i><a href="/wiki/Fideicommissum" title="Fideicommissum">fideicommissum</a></i>) in terms of "testamentary trusts" created by <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">wills</a> but never developed the concept of the <i>inter vivos</i> (living) trusts which apply while the creator lives. This was created by later common law jurisdictions. Personal trust law <a href="/wiki/History_of_equity_and_trusts#Middle_Ages" title="History of equity and trusts">developed in England</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, during the 12th and 13th centuries. In medieval English trust law, the settlor was known as the <i>feoffor</i> to uses, while the trustee was known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Feoffee" title="Feoffee">feoffee</a></i> to uses, and the beneficiary was known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Cestui_que" title="Cestui que">cestui que</a></i> use, or <i>cestui que</i> trust . </p><p>At the time, land ownership in England was based on the <a href="/wiki/Feudal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal system">feudal system</a>. When a landowner left England to fight in the Crusades, he conveyed ownership of his lands in his absence to manage the estate and pay and receive feudal dues, on the understanding that the ownership would be conveyed back on his return. However, Crusaders often encountered refusal to hand over the property upon their return. English common law did not recognize his claim. As far as the King's courts were concerned, the land belonged to the trustee, who was under no obligation to return it. The Crusader had no legal claim. The disgruntled Crusader would then petition the king, who would refer the matter to his <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>. The Lord Chancellor could decide a case according to his conscience. At this time, the principle of <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equity</a> was born in English law. However, the original notion of equity goes all the way back to Aristotle and is found in book V, chapter 10 of his Ethics. Indeed, the universities of the 13th century often wrote commentaries on Aristotle's works, and it was these universities that gave rise to the lawyers of the time. </p><p>The Lord Chancellor would consider it "unconscionable" that the legal owner could go back on his word and deny the claims of the Crusader (the "true" owner). Therefore, he would find in favour of the returning Crusader. Over time, it became known that the Lord Chancellor's court (the Court of Chancery) would continually recognize the claim of a returning Crusader. The legal owner would hold the land for the benefit of the original owner and would be compelled to convey it back to him when requested. The Crusader was the "beneficiary" and the acquaintance the "trustee". The term "use of land" was coined, and in time developed into what we now know as a <i>trust</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The trust is widely considered to be the most innovative contribution of the <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English legal system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (September 2015)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Today, trusts play a significant role in most <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> systems, and their success has led some <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> jurisdictions to incorporate trusts into their <a href="/wiki/Civil_code" title="Civil code">civil codes</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a>, for example, the trust was enacted into law on 1 January 2012; however, the Curaçao Civil Code only allows express trusts constituted by <a href="/wiki/Act_(document)" title="Act (document)">notarial instrument</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France has recently added a similar, Roman-law-based device to its own law with the <i>fiducie</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> amended in 2009;<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i>fiducie</i>, unlike a trust, is a contractual relationship. Trusts are widely used internationally, especially in countries within the <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> sphere of influence, and whilst most civil law jurisdictions do not generally contain the concept of a trust within their legal systems, they do recognise the concept under the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_on_the_Law_Applicable_to_Trusts_and_on_their_Recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Trusts and on their Recognition">Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Trusts and on their Recognition</a> (partly only the extent that they are parties thereto). The Hague Convention also regulates <a href="/wiki/Trusts_(conflict)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts (conflict)">conflict of trusts</a>. </p><p>Although trusts are often associated with intrafamily wealth transfers, they have become very important in American capital markets, particularly through pension funds (in certain countries essentially always trusts) and mutual funds (often trusts).<sup id="cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansmann1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_principles">Basic principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Basic principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Property of any sort may be held in a trust. The uses of trusts are many and varied, for both personal and commercial reasons, and trusts may provide benefits in <a href="/wiki/Estate_planning" title="Estate planning">estate planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asset_protection" title="Asset protection">asset protection</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a>. Living trusts may be created during a person's life (through the drafting of a <a href="/wiki/Trust_instrument" title="Trust instrument">trust instrument</a>) or after death in a <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">will</a>. </p><p>In a relevant sense, a trust can be viewed as a generic form of a corporation where the settlors (investors) are also the beneficiaries. This is particularly evident in the Delaware business trust, which could theoretically, with the language in the "<a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Incorporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of Incorporation">governing instrument</a>", be organized as a <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">cooperative</a> corporation or a limited liability corporation,<sup id="cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansmann1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 475–6">: 475–6 </span></sup> although traditionally the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_business_trust" title="Massachusetts business trust">Massachusetts business trust</a> has been commonly used in the US. One of the most significant aspects of trusts is the ability to partition and shield assets from the trustee, multiple beneficiaries, and their respective creditors (particularly the trustee's creditors), making it "<a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_remote" title="Bankruptcy remote">bankruptcy remote</a>", and leading to its use in pensions, mutual funds, and asset <a href="/wiki/Securitization" title="Securitization">securitization</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansmann1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well protection of individual <a href="/wiki/Spendthrift" title="Spendthrift">spendthrifts</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Spendthrift_trust" title="Spendthrift trust">spendthrift trust</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chart_of_a_trust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Chart_of_a_trust.jpg/220px-Chart_of_a_trust.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Chart_of_a_trust.jpg/330px-Chart_of_a_trust.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Chart_of_a_trust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption>Chart of a trust</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Appointer: This is the person who can appoint a new trustee or remove an existing one. This person is usually mentioned in the trust deed.</li> <li>Appointment: In trust law, "appointment" often has its everyday meaning. It is common to talk of "the appointment of a trustee", for example. However, "appointment" also has a technical trust law meaning, either: <ul><li>the act of "appointing" (i.e. giving) an asset from the trust to a beneficiary (usually where there is some choice in the matter—such as in a discretionary trust); or</li> <li>the name of the document which gives effect to the appointment.</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dd>The trustee's right to do this, where it exists, is called a <a href="/wiki/Power_of_appointment" title="Power of appointment">power of appointment</a>. Sometimes, a power of appointment is given to someone other than the trustee, such as the settlor, the protector, or a beneficiary.</dd></dl> <ul><li>'As Trustee For' (<b>ATF</b>): This is the legal term used to imply that an entity is acting as a trustee.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beneficiary_(trust)" title="Beneficiary (trust)">Beneficiary</a>: A beneficiary is anyone who receives benefits from any assets the trust owns.</li> <li>'In Its Own Capacity' (IIOC): This term refers to the fact that the trustee is acting on its own behalf.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protector_(trust)" title="Protector (trust)">Protector</a>: A protector may be appointed in an express, <i>inter vivos</i> trust, as a person who has some control over the trustee—usually including a power to dismiss the trustee and appoint another. The legal status of a protector is the subject of some debate. No-one doubts that a <i>trustee</i> has <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> responsibilities. If a <i>protector</i> also has fiduciary responsibilities, then the courts—if asked by beneficiaries—could order him or her to act in the way the court decrees. However, a protector is unnecessary to the nature of a trust—many trusts can and do operate without one. Also, protectors are comparatively new, while the nature of trusts has been established over hundreds of years. It is therefore thought by some that protectors have fiduciary duties, and by others that they do not. The <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> has not yet established this point.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlor" title="Settlor">Settlor</a>(s): This is the person (or persons) who creates the trust. Grantor(s) is a common synonym.</li> <li>Terms of the Trust means the settlor's wishes expressed in the Trust Instrument.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_instrument" title="Trust instrument">Trust deed</a>: A trust deed is a legal document that defines the trust such as the trustee, beneficiaries, settlor and appointer, and the terms and conditions of the agreement.</li> <li>Trust distributions: A trust distribution is any income or asset that is given out to the beneficiaries of the trust.</li> <li>Trustee: A person (either an individual, a corporation or more than one of either) who administers a trust. A trustee is considered a fiduciary and owes the highest duty under the law to protect trust assets from unreasonable loss for the trust's beneficiaries.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation">Creation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Creation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trusts may be created by the expressed intentions of the settlor also known as the founder (<a href="/wiki/Express_trust" title="Express trust">express trusts</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or they may be created by operation of law known as implied trusts. An <a href="/wiki/Implied_trust" title="Implied trust">implied trust</a> is one created by a <a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">court of equity</a> because of acts or situations of the parties. Implied trusts are divided into two categories: resulting and constructive. A <a href="/wiki/Resulting_trust" title="Resulting trust">resulting trust</a> is implied by the law to work out the presumed intentions of the parties, but it does not take into consideration their expressed intent. A <a href="/wiki/Constructive_trust" title="Constructive trust">constructive trust</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a trust implied by law to work out justice between the parties, regardless of their intentions. </p><p>Common ways in which a trust is created include: </p> <ol><li>a written <a href="/wiki/Trust_instrument" title="Trust instrument">trust instrument</a> created by the settlor and signed by both the settlor and the trustees (often referred to as an <i>inter vivos</i> or living trust);</li> <li>an oral declaration or promise;<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">will</a> of a decedent, usually called a <a href="/wiki/Testamentary_trust" title="Testamentary trust">testamentary trust</a>; or</li> <li>a court order (for example in family proceedings).</li></ol> <p>In some jurisdictions, certain types of assets may not be the subject of a trust without a written document.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formalities">Formalities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Formalities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three_certainties" title="Three certainties">Three certainties</a></div> <p>The formalities required of a trust depend on the type of trust in question. </p><p>Generally, a private express trust requires three elements to be certain, which together are known as the "three certainties". These elements were determined in <i><a href="/wiki/Knight_v_Knight" title="Knight v Knight">Knight v Knight</a></i> to be intention, subject matter and objects.<sup id="cite_ref-GlisterLee2015ch4_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlisterLee2015ch4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The certainty of intention allows the court to ascertain a settlor's true reason for creating the trust. The certainties of subject matter and objects allow the court to administer trust when the trustees fail to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-Doulton_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doulton-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court determines whether there is sufficient certainty by construing the words used in the trust instrument. These words are construed objectively in their "reasonable meaning",<sup id="cite_ref-Re_Gulbenkian_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Re_Gulbenkian-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> within the context of the entire instrument.<sup id="cite_ref-GlisterLee2015ch4_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlisterLee2015ch4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite intention being integral to express trusts, the court will try not to let trusts fail for the lack of certainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Re_Hays_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Re_Hays-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Intention. A mere expression of hope that a trust be created does not constitute the intent to create a trust. Conversely, the use of terms of art such as the word "trust" does not of itself establish whether an instrument is an express trust.<sup id="cite_ref-GlisterLee2015ch4_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlisterLee2015ch4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disputes in this area mainly concern differentiating gifts from trusts.</li> <li>Subject Matter. The property subject to the trust must be clearly identified (<i>Palmer v Simmonds</i>). One may not, for example state, settle "the majority of my estate", as the precise extent cannot be ascertained. Trust property may be any form of specific property, be it <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a> or <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">personal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">tangible</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">intangible</a>. It is often, for example, real estate, shares or cash.</li> <li>Objects. The beneficiaries of the trust must be clearly identified,<sup id="cite_ref-Doulton_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doulton-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or at least be ascertainable (<i>Re Hain's Settlement</i>). In the case of discretionary trusts, where the trustees have power to decide who the beneficiaries will be, the settlor must have described a clear class of beneficiaries (<i><a href="/wiki/McPhail_v_Doulton" title="McPhail v Doulton">McPhail v Doulton</a></i>). Beneficiaries may include people not born at the date of the trust (for example, "my future grandchildren"). Alternatively, the object of a trust could be a charitable purpose rather than specific beneficiaries.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trustees">Trustees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trustees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A trust may have multiple trustees, and these trustees are the legal owners of the trust's property, but have a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> duty to beneficiaries and various duties, such as a duty of care and a duty to inform.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If trustees do not adhere to these duties, they may be removed through a legal action. The trustee may be either a <a href="/wiki/Natural_person" title="Natural person">person</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Juristic_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Juristic person">legal entity</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">company</a>, but typically the trust itself is not a legal entity and any litigation involving the trust must include the trustee as a party.<sup id="cite_ref-Moffat_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moffat-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A trustee has many rights and responsibilities which vary based on the jurisdiction and trust instrument. If a trust lacks a trustee, a court may appoint one. </p><p>The trustees administer the affairs attendant to the trust. The trust's affairs may include prudently investing the assets of the trust, accounting for and reporting periodically to the beneficiaries, filing required tax returns and other duties. In some cases dependent upon the trust instrument, the trustees must make discretionary decisions as to whether beneficiaries should receive trust assets for their benefit. A trustee may be held personally liable for problems, although fiduciary liability insurance similar to <a href="/wiki/Directors_and_officers_liability_insurance" title="Directors and officers liability insurance">directors and officers liability insurance</a> can be purchased. For example, a trustee could be liable if assets are not properly invested. In addition, a trustee may be liable to its beneficiaries even where the trust has made a profit but consent has not been given.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the United States, similar to directors and officers, an <a href="/wiki/Waiver" title="Waiver">exculpatory clause</a> may minimize liability; although this was previously held to be against public policy, this position has changed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Trust_Code" title="Uniform Trust Code">Uniform Trust Code</a> provides for reasonable compensation and reimbursement for trustees subject to review by courts,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although trustees may be unpaid. Commercial banks acting as trustees typically charge about 1% of assets under management.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beneficiaries">Beneficiaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Beneficiaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The beneficiaries are beneficial (or 'equitable') owners of the trust property. Either immediately or eventually, the beneficiaries will receive income from the trust property, or they will receive the property itself. The extent of a beneficiary's interest depends on the wording of the trust document. One beneficiary may be entitled to income (for example, interest from a bank account), whereas another may be entitled to the entirety of the trust property when they attain a specified age. The settlor has much discretion when creating the trust, subject to some limitations imposed by law. </p><p>The use of trusts as a means to inherit substantial wealth may be associated with some negative connotations; some beneficiaries who are able to live comfortably from trust proceeds without having to work a job may be jokingly referred to as "trust fund babies" (regardless of age) or "trustafarians".<sup id="cite_ref-martinez18_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martinez18-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purposes">Purposes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Purposes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common purposes for trusts include: </p> <ul><li>Employee ownership: Shares in a company may be held by the trustee of an <a href="/wiki/Employee_trust" title="Employee trust">employee trust</a>, often indefinitely, as part of an <a href="/wiki/Employee_stock_ownership" title="Employee stock ownership">employee share or share option plan</a> of that company.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Privacy: Trusts may be created purely for privacy. The terms of a will are public in certain jurisdictions, while the terms of a trust are not.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spendthrift_trust" title="Spendthrift trust">Spendthrift clauses</a>: Trusts may be used to protect beneficiaries (for example, one's children) against their own inability to handle money. Courts may generally recognize spendthrift clauses against trust beneficiaries and their creditors, but not against creditors of a settlor.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Wills and estate planning: Trusts frequently appear in <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">wills</a> (indeed, technically, the administration of every deceased's estate is a form of trust). Conventional wills typically leave assets to the deceased's spouse (if any), and then to the children equally. If the children are under 18, or under some other age mentioned in the will (21 and 25 are common), a trust must come into existence until the 'contingency age' is reached. The executor of the will is (usually) the trustee and the children are the beneficiaries. The trustee will have authority to assist the beneficiaries during their minority.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Charities: In some common law jurisdictions all charities must take the form of trusts. In others, <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a> may be charities also. In most jurisdictions, charities are tightly regulated for the public benefit (in England, for example, by the <a href="/wiki/Charity_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity Commission">Charity Commission</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_trust" title="Unit trust">Unit trusts</a>: The trust has proved to be such a flexible concept that it has proved capable of working as an investment vehicle.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">Pension</a> plans: typically set up as a trust, with the employer as settlor, and the employees and their dependents as beneficiaries.</li> <li>Remuneration trusts: for the benefit of directors and employees or companies or their families or dependents. This form of trust was developed by Paul Baxendale-Walker and has since gained widespread use.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Corporate structures: Complex business arrangements, most often in the finance and insurance sectors, sometimes use trusts among various other entities (e.g., corporations) in their structure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asset_protection" title="Asset protection">Asset protection</a>: Trusts may allow beneficiaries to protect assets from creditors as the trust may be <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_remote" title="Bankruptcy remote">bankruptcy remote</a>. For example, a discretionary trust, of which the settlor may be the protector and a beneficiary, but not the trustee and not the sole beneficiary. In such an arrangement, the settlor may be in a position to benefit from the trust assets without owning them, and therefore, in theory, protected from creditors. In addition, the trust may attempt to preserve anonymity with a completely unconnected name (e.g., "The Teddy Bear Trust"). These strategies are ethically and legally controversial.</li> <li>Tax planning: The tax consequences of doing anything using a trust are usually different from the tax consequences of achieving the same effect by another route (if, indeed, it would be possible to do so). In many cases, the tax consequences of using the trust are better than the alternative, and trusts are therefore frequently used for legal <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance/evasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax avoidance/evasion">tax avoidance</a>. For an example see the "nil-band discretionary trust", explained at <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_Tax_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)">Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_estate" title="Concurrent estate">Co-ownership</a>: Ownership of property by more than one person is facilitated by a trust. In particular, ownership of a matrimonial home is commonly effected by a trust with both partners as beneficiaries and one or both owning the legal title as trustee.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a>: In Canada<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Minnesota monies owed by employers to contractors or by contractors to subcontractors on construction projects must by law be held in trust. In the event of contractor insolvency, this makes it much more likely that subcontractors will be paid for work completed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_retainer" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal retainer">Legal retainer</a> – Lawyers in certain countries often require that a legal retainer be paid upfront and held in trust until such time as the legal work is performed and billed to the client, this serves as a minimum guarantee of remuneration should the client become insolvent.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, strict legal ethical codes apply to the use of legal retainer trusts.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trusts go by many different names, depending on the characteristics or the purpose of the trust. Because trusts often have multiple characteristics or purposes, a single trust might accurately be described in several ways. For example, a living trust is often an express trust, which is also a revocable trust, and might include an incentive trust, and so forth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabetic_list_of_trust_types">Alphabetic list of trust types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alphabetic list of trust types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asset-protection_trust" title="Asset-protection trust">Asset-protection trust</a>: The concept of an asset-protection trust encompasses any form of trust that provides for funds to be held on a <a href="/wiki/Discretionary_trust" title="Discretionary trust">discretionary basis</a>. Such trusts are set up in an attempt to avoid or mitigate the effects of <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">taxation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a> on the beneficiary. Such trusts may be proscribed or limited in their effect by governments and the courts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">Charitable trust</a>: This is an irrevocable trust established for charitable purposes and, in some jurisdictions, a more specific term than "charitable organization". A charitable trust enjoys a varying degree of tax, economic, and creditor protection benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_trust" title="Constructive trust">Constructive trust</a>: Unlike an express trust, a constructive trust is not created by an agreement between a settlor and the trustee. A constructive trust is imposed by the law as an "equitable remedy". This generally occurs due to some wrongdoing, where the wrongdoer has acquired legal title to some property and cannot in good conscience be allowed to benefit from it. A constructive trust is, essentially, a <a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">legal fiction</a>. For example, a court of equity recognizing a plaintiff's request for the equitable remedy of a constructive trust may decide that a constructive trust has been created and simply order the person holding the assets to deliver them to the person who rightfully should have them. The constructive trustee is not necessarily the person who is guilty of the wrongdoing, and in practice it is often a bank or similar organization. The distinction may be finer than the preceding exposition in that there are also said to be two forms of constructive trust, the institutional constructive trust and the remedial constructive trust. The latter is an "equitable remedy" imposed by law being truly remedial; the former arising due to some defect in the transfer of property.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discretionary_trust" title="Discretionary trust">Discretionary trust</a>: In a discretionary trust, certainty of object is satisfied if it can be said that there is a criterion which a person must satisfy to be a beneficiary (i.e., whether there is a 'class' of beneficiaries, which a person can be said to belong to). In that way, persons who satisfy that criterion (who are members of that class) can enforce the trust. <i><a href="/wiki/Re_Baden%E2%80%99s_Deed_Trusts_(no_2)" class="mw-redirect" title="Re Baden’s Deed Trusts (no 2)">Re Baden’s Deed Trusts</a></i>; <i><a href="/wiki/McPhail_v_Doulton" title="McPhail v Doulton">McPhail v Doulton</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_trust" title="Directed trust">Directed trust</a>: In these types, a <i>directed trustee</i> is directed by a number of other trust participants in implementing the trust's execution; these participants may include a distribution committee, trust protector, or investment advisor. The directed trustee's role is administrative which involves following investment instructions, holding legal title to the trust assets, providing fiduciary and tax accounting, coordinating trust participants and offering dispute resolution among the participants</li> <li>Dynasty trust (also known as a 'generation-skipping trust'): A type of trust in which assets are passed down to the grantor's grandchildren, not the grantor's children. The children of the grantor never take title to the assets. This allows the grantor to avoid the estate taxes that would apply if the assets were transferred to their children first. Generation-skipping trusts can still be used to provide financial benefits to a grantor's children, however, because any income generated by the trust's assets can be made accessible to the grantor's children while still leaving the assets in trust for the grandchildren.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_trust" title="Employee trust">Employee trust</a>: A trust for the benefit of employees. A United States example is a trust established to operate an <a href="/wiki/Employee_Stock_Ownership_Plan" title="Employee Stock Ownership Plan">Employee Stock Ownership Plan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Express_trust" title="Express trust">Express trust</a>: An express trust arises where a settlor deliberately and consciously decides to create a trust, over their assets, either now, or upon their later death. In these cases, this will be achieved by signing a trust instrument, which will either be a <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">will</a> or a trust deed. Almost all trusts dealt with in the trust industry are of this type. They contrast with resulting and constructive trusts. The intention of the parties to create the trust must be shown clearly by their language or conduct. For an express trust to exist, there must be certainty to the objects of the trust and the trust property. In the USA <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_frauds" title="Statute of frauds">Statute of Frauds</a> provisions require express trusts to be evidenced in writing if the trust property is above a certain value, or is real estate.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Fixed_trust"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Fixed trust</b>: The entitlement of the beneficiaries is fixed by the settlor. The trustee has little or no discretion. Common examples are: <ul><li>a trust for a minor ("to x if she attains 21");</li> <li>a 'life interest' ("to pay the <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a> to x for her lifetime"); and</li> <li>a 'remainder' ("to pay the <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> to y after the death of x")</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantor_retained_annuity_trust" title="Grantor retained annuity trust">Grantor retained annuity trust</a> ('GRAT'): an irrevocable trust whereby a grantor transfers asset(s), as a gift, into a trust and receives an annual payment from the trust for a period of time specified in the trust instrument. At the end of the term, the financial property is transferred (tax-free) to the named beneficiaries. This trust is commonly used in the U.S. to facilitate large financial gifts that are not subject to a '<a href="/wiki/Gift_tax" title="Gift tax">gift tax</a>'.</li> <li>Hybrid trust: Combines elements of both fixed and discretionary trusts. In a hybrid trust, the trustee must pay a certain amount of the trust property to each beneficiary fixed by the settlor. But the trustee has discretion as to how any remaining trust property, once these fixed amounts have been paid out, is to be paid to the beneficiaries.</li> <li>Implied trust: as distinct from an express trust, is created where some of the legal requirements for an express trust are not met, but an intention on behalf of the parties to create a trust can be presumed to exist. A resulting trust may be deemed to be present where a trust instrument is not properly drafted and a portion of the equitable title has not been provided for. In such a case, the law may raise a resulting trust for the benefit of the grantor (the creator of the trust). In other words, the grantor may be deemed to be a beneficiary of the portion of the equitable title that was not properly provided for in the trust document.</li> <li><b>Improvement trust</b>: can be set up by urban or local government to hold funds for the development or improvement of an area. The trust is often run by a committee, and can act similarly to a <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">development agency</a>, depending on the provisions of its charter.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incentive_trust" title="Incentive trust">Incentive trust</a>: A trust that uses distributions from income or principal as an incentive to encourage or discourage certain behaviors on the part of the beneficiary. The term "incentive trust" is sometimes used to distinguish trusts that provide fixed conditions for access to <b>trust funds</b> from discretionary trusts that leave such decisions up to the trustee.</li> <li><i>Inter vivos</i> trust (or 'living trust'): A settlor who is living at the time the trust is established creates an <i>inter vivos</i> trust.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Irrevocable_trust"></span><span class="anchor" id="Revocable_trust"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Irrevocable trust</b>: In contrast to a <b>revocable trust</b>, an irrevocable trust is one in which the terms of the trust cannot be amended or revised until the terms or purposes of the trust have been completed. Although in rare cases, a court may change the terms of the trust due to unexpected changes in circumstances that make the trust uneconomical or unwieldy to administer, under normal circumstances an irrevocable trust may not be changed by the trustee or the beneficiaries of the trust.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_trust" title="Land trust">Land trust</a>: A private, nonprofit organization that, as all or part of its mission, actively works to conserve land by undertaking or assisting in land or conservation easement acquisition, or by its stewardship of such land or easements; or an agreement whereby one party (the trustee) agrees to hold ownership of a piece of real property for the benefit of another party (the beneficiary).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_trust" title="Offshore trust">Offshore trust</a>: Strictly speaking, an offshore trust is a trust which is <a href="/wiki/Residency_(domicile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Residency (domicile)">resident</a> in any jurisdiction other than that in which the settlor is resident. However, the term is more commonly used to describe a trust in one of the jurisdictions known as <a href="/wiki/Offshore_Financial_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore Financial Centre">offshore financial centers</a> or, colloquially, as <a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">tax havens</a>. Offshore trusts are usually conceptually similar to onshore trusts in common law countries, but usually with legislative modifications to make them more commercially attractive by abolishing or modifying certain common law restrictions. By extension, "onshore trust" has come to mean any trust resident in a high-tax jurisdiction.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_injury_trust" title="Personal injury trust">Personal injury trust</a>: A personal injury trust is any form of trust where funds are held by trustees for the benefit of a person who has suffered an injury and funded exclusively by funds derived from payments made in consequence of that injury.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Private_trust"></span> </p> <ul><li>Private and <a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">public trusts</a>: A <b>private trust</b> has one or more particular individuals as its beneficiary. By contrast, a <i>public trust</i> (also called a <i>charitable trust</i>) has some charitable end as its beneficiary. To qualify as a charitable trust, the trust must have as its object certain purposes such as alleviating poverty, providing education, carrying out some religious purpose, etc. The permissible objects are generally set out in legislation, but objects not explicitly set out may also be an object of a charitable trust, by analogy. Charitable trusts are entitled to special treatment under the law of trusts and also the law of taxation.</li> <li>Protective trust: Here the terminology is different between the UK and the USA: <ul><li>In the UK, a protective trust is a life interest that terminates upon the happening of a specified event; such as the bankruptcy of the beneficiary, or any attempt by an individual to dispose of their interest. They have become comparatively rare.</li> <li>In the US, a 'protective trust' is a type of trust that was devised for use in estate planning. (In another jurisdiction this might be thought of as one type of <a href="/wiki/Asset_protection" title="Asset protection">asset protection</a> trust.) Often a person, <i>A</i>, wishes to leave property to another person <i>B</i>. <i>A</i>, however, fears that the property might be claimed by creditors before <i>A</i> dies, and that therefore <i>B</i> would receive none of it. <i>A</i> could establish a trust with <i>B</i> as the beneficiary, but then <i>A</i> would not be entitled to use of the property before they died. Protective trusts were developed as a solution to this situation. <i>A</i> would establish a trust with both <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> as beneficiaries, with the trustee instructed to allow <i>A</i> use of the property until they died, and thereafter to allow its use to <i>B</i>. The property is then safe from being claimed by <i>A</i>'s creditors, at least so long as the debt was entered into after the trust's establishment. This use of trusts is similar to <a href="/wiki/Life_estate" title="Life estate">life estates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remainder_(law)" title="Remainder (law)">remainders</a>, and is frequently used as an alternative to them.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purpose_trust" title="Purpose trust">Purpose trust</a>: Or, more accurately, non-charitable purpose trust (all charitable trusts are purpose trusts). Generally, the law does not permit non-charitable purpose trusts outside of certain anomalous exceptions which arose under the eighteenth-century common law (and, arguable, <a href="/wiki/Quistclose_trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Quistclose trust"><i>Quistclose</i> trusts</a>). Certain jurisdictions (principally, <a href="/wiki/Offshore_jurisdictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore jurisdictions">offshore jurisdictions</a>) have enacted legislation validating non-charitable purpose trusts generally.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/QTIP_Trust" title="QTIP Trust">QTIP Trust</a>: Short for "qualified terminal interest property". A trust recognized under the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">tax laws of the United States</a> which qualifies for the marital gift exclusion from the <a href="/wiki/Estate_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Estate tax in the United States">estate tax</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resulting_trust" title="Resulting trust">Resulting trust</a>: A resulting trust is a form of implied trust which occurs where (1) a trust fails, wholly or in part, as a result of which the settlor becomes entitled to the assets; or (2) a voluntary payment is made by A to B in circumstances which do not suggest gifting. B becomes the resulting trustee of A's payment.</li> <li>Revocable trust: A trust of this kind may be amended, altered or revoked by its settlor at any time, provided the settlor is not mentally incapacitated. Revocable trusts are becoming increasingly common in the US as a substitute for a <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">will</a> to minimize administrative costs associated with probate and to provide centralized administration of a person's final affairs after death.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_trust" title="Secret trust">Secret trust</a>: A <i>post mortem</i> trust constituted externally from a will but imposing obligations as a trustee on one, or more, legatees of a will.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-secret_trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-secret trust">Semi-secret trust</a>: A trust in which a will demonstrates the intention to create a trust, names a trustee, but does not identify the intended beneficiary.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Simple trust: <ul><li>In the US jurisdiction this has two distinct meanings: <ul><li>In a simple trust the trustee has no active duty beyond conveying the property to the beneficiary at some future time determined by the trust. This is also called a 'bare trust'. All other trusts are <i>special trusts</i> where the trustee has active duties beyond this.</li> <li>A simple trust in Federal income tax law is one in which, under the terms of the trust document, all net income must be distributed on an annual basis.</li></ul></li> <li>In the UK a bare or simple trust is one where the beneficiary has an immediate and absolute right to both the capital and income held in the trust. Bare trusts are commonly used to transfer assets to minors. Trustees hold the assets on trust until the beneficiary is 18 in England and Wales, or 16 in Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Special trust: In the US, a special trust, also called complex trust, contrasts with a simple trust (see above). It does not require the income be paid out within the subject tax year. The funds from a complex trust can also be used to donate to a charity or for charitable purposes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPA_Trust" title="SPA Trust">Special Power of Appointment trust</a> (SPA Trust): A trust implementing a <a href="/wiki/Power_of_appointment#Special_power_of_appointment" title="Power of appointment">special power of appointment</a> to provide <a href="/wiki/Asset_protection" title="Asset protection">asset protection</a> features.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spendthrift_trust" title="Spendthrift trust">Spendthrift trust</a>: It is a trust put into place for the benefit of a person who is unable to control their spending. It gives the trustee the power to decide how the trust funds may be spent for the benefit of the beneficiary.</li> <li>Standby Trust (or 'Pourover Trust)': The trust is empty at creation during life and the will transfers the property into the trust at death. This is a statutory trust.</li> <li>Statutory Business Trust: A trust created pursuant to a state's business trust statute used primarily for commercial purposes. Two prominent variants of Statutory Business Trusts are <a href="/wiki/Delaware_statutory_trust" title="Delaware statutory trust">Delaware statutory trusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_business_trust" title="Massachusetts business trust">Massachusetts business trusts</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Law_Commission" title="Uniform Law Commission">Uniform Law Commission</a> promulgated a final amended draft of the Uniform Statutory Entity Act (2009) in 2013. As of 24 January 2017, no states have adopted the Uniform Statutory Entity Act of 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testamentary_trust" title="Testamentary trust">Testamentary trust</a> (or 'Will Trust'): A trust created in an individual's <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">will</a> is called a testamentary trust. Because a will can become effective only upon death, a testamentary trust is generally created at or following the date of the settlor's death.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_trust" title="Unit trust">Unit trust</a>: A trust where the beneficiaries (called <i>unitholders</i>) each possess a certain share (called <i>units</i>) and can direct the trustee to pay money to them out of the trust property according to the number of units they possess. A unit trust is a vehicle for <a href="/wiki/Investment_fund" title="Investment fund">collective investment</a>, rather than disposition, as the person who gives the property to the trustee is also the beneficiary.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Country_specific_variations">Country specific variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Country specific variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While trusts originated in England, and therefore <a href="/wiki/English_trusts_law" class="mw-redirect" title="English trusts law">English trusts law</a> has had a significant influence, particularly among <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> legal systems such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> or the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the impact of trust law has been wide and varied. Even under common law systems, the basic notion of a trust has been implemented in strikingly different ways. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trust_law_in_civil_law_jurisdictions" title="Trust law in civil law jurisdictions">Trust law in civil law jurisdictions</a>, generally including <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</a> only exists in a limited number of jurisdictions (e.g. Curaçao, Liechtenstein and <a href="/wiki/Sint_Maarten" title="Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a>). The trust may however be recognized as an instrument of foreign law in <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">conflict of laws</a> cases, for example within the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels regime">Brussels regime</a> (Europe) and the parties to the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Trust_Convention" title="Hague Trust Convention">Hague Trust Convention</a>. Tax avoidance concerns have historically been one of the reasons that European countries with a civil law system have been reluctant to adopt trusts.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansmann1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyprus">Cyprus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cyprus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cyprus legislators enacted the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olc.gov.cy/olc/olc.nsf/all/AF600F7D0BB6F306C2258187001E13D0/$file/The%20International%20Trusts%20Laws%201992%20to%202013.doc?openelement">Cyprus International Trusts Law of 2012</a> with an aim to facilitate the establishment of trusts by non-Cypriot residents. The Cyprus International Trust is based on common law principles however the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olc.gov.cy/olc/olc.nsf/all/AF600F7D0BB6F306C2258187001E13D0/$file/The%20International%20Trusts%20Laws%201992%20to%202013.doc?openelement">Cyprus International Trusts Law of 2012</a> introduces certain conditions and requirements to for the trust to qualify under the same law. These conditions are: </p> <ul><li>The settlor must be of sound mind and of the right age.</li> <li>The settlor must not be a resident of Cyprus for at least 1 year prior to the establishment of the Cyprus International Trust.</li> <li>The beneficiaries must not be residents of Cyprus for at least 1 year prior to the establishment of the Cyprus International Trust.</li> <li>At least one trustee must be residing in Cyprus during the whole duration of the trust.</li></ul> <p>In addition to above the common law principles of certainty must be present.<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019a_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019a-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Settlor_Powers_provided_by_law">Settlor Powers provided by law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Settlor Powers provided by law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Cyprus International Trust Law of 2012 also introduces certain settlor powers which if exercised will not invalidate the trust and or do not need to be inserted in the trust deed for the settlor to exercise them.<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019a_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019a-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The powers introduced are: </p> <ul><li>to revoke or amend the terms of a trust or any trusts or powers arising wholly or partly under it</li> <li>to advance, distribute, pay or otherwise apply income or capital of the trust property or to give directions for the making of such advancement, distribution, payment or application</li> <li>to exercise the powers of a director or officer or issue binding directions as to the appointment or removal of a director or officer of any company, wholly or partly owned by the trust;</li> <li>to give binding directions to the trustee in connection with the purchase, retention, sale, management, lending, pledging or charging of the trust property or the exercise of any powers or rights arising from such property;</li> <li>to appoint or remove any trustee, enforcer, protector or beneficiary;</li> <li>to appoint or remove any investment manager or investment adviser;</li> <li>to change the applicable law governing the trust or the forum for the administration of the trust;</li> <li>to restrict the exercise of any power or discretion of a trustee by requiring that they are only exercisable with the consent of the settlor or any other person expressly specified in the terms governing the trust.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Duration_of_Cyprus_International_Trust">Duration of Cyprus International Trust</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Duration of Cyprus International Trust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cyprus does not limit the duration of an international trust and it may be formed for an unspecified duration.<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019a_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019a-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charitable_Trust_and_Purpose_Trust">Charitable Trust and Purpose Trust</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Charitable Trust and Purpose Trust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In accordance with Section 7, a Cyprus International Trust may be formed for one or more of the following purposes: </p> <ul><li>the prevention or relief of poverty</li> <li>the advancement of education</li> <li>the advancement of religion</li> <li>the advancement of health or the saving of lives</li> <li>the advancement of citizenship or community development</li> <li>the advancement of the arts, culture, heritage or science</li> <li>the advancement of amateur sport</li> <li>the advancement of human rights, conflict resolution or reconciliation or the promotion of religious or racial harmony or equality and diversity</li> <li>the advancement of environmental protection or improvement</li> <li>the relief of those in need by reason of youth, age, ill-health, disability, financial hardship or other disadvantages</li> <li>the advancement of animal welfare and protection of animals;</li> <li>any other purpose beneficial to the public in general or which may reasonably be considered to be relevant to any of above</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confidentiality_of_Cyprus_International_Trust">Confidentiality of Cyprus International Trust</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Confidentiality of Cyprus International Trust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The law includes specific confidentiality obligations over the trustee, the protector, enforcer or any other person to keep information and details of the trust confidential. This right is waived in the instances that law requires the disclosure of such information or if a judge before which a case is tried in issues a judgment to such effect. Nevertheless, with the changing times, public disclosure of trusts is required in Cyprus.<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such public disclosures are required: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Stamp_Duty_Commissioner_for_validating_the_creation_of_the_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]"><span id="Stamp_Duty_Commissioner_for_validating_the_creation_of_the_Cyprus_International_Trust.5B41.5D"></span>Stamp Duty Commissioner for validating the creation of the Cyprus International Trust<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Stamp Duty Commissioner for validating the creation of the Cyprus International Trust[41]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For a trust to be validly constituted it must be presented to the commissioner of stamp duty and a one-time payment of Euro 430 is made. The commissioner does not keep a copy of the document. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Regulatory_Disclosure_of_ASPs_managing_a_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]"><span id="Regulatory_Disclosure_of_ASPs_managing_a_Cyprus_International_Trust.5B41.5D"></span>Regulatory Disclosure of ASPs managing a Cyprus International Trust<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Regulatory Disclosure of ASPs managing a Cyprus International Trust[41]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The regulation of the industry providing company and trust management functions (ASP) has also brought about the requirement to disclose to the regulator the existence of a Cyprus International Trust. Such obligation burdens the trust company and the information disclosed is the following: </p> <ul><li>The date the trust was created</li> <li>The name of the trust</li> <li>The name and particulars of the trustee</li> <li>The governing law of the trust</li></ul> <p>For the avoidance of any doubt, the regulator does not require particulars of the Settlor, the Beneficiaries and details of the trusts. Neither does the regulator store in any way the trust deed. On the contrary, they rely on the regulated entity to collect, store and update this information </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cyprus_Beneficial_Owner_Register_and_Cyprus_International_Trust[41]"><span id="Cyprus_Beneficial_Owner_Register_and_Cyprus_International_Trust.5B41.5D"></span>Cyprus Beneficial Owner Register and Cyprus International Trust<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cyprus Beneficial Owner Register and Cyprus International Trust[41]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Prevention and Suppression of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Law of 2007-2018<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> introduced mandatory disclosure requirements in respects to trusts. Generally known as the Cyprus Beneficial Ownership Register.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subject to this the following information will be required to be mandatory disclosed: </p> <ul><li>The settlor</li> <li>The trustee</li> <li>The protector</li> <li>The beneficiary or the class of beneficiaries if they have not been identified yet</li> <li>Any other person exercising control over the trust</li></ul> <p>The actual implementation of this law still remains to be seen however the requirements above are expressly extracted from The Prevention and Suppression of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Law of 2007–2018. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="FATCA[41]"><span id="FATCA.5B41.5D"></span>FATCA<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: FATCA[41]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA) a Trustee and or a Trust may be classified as a Foreign Financial Institution (FFI) requiring registration with the IRS and disclosure of results on a yearly basis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="CRS[41]"><span id="CRS.5B41.5D"></span>CRS<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: CRS[41]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the Common Reporting Standard decree, a trust would in most cases classify as either a Reporting Financial Institution (FI) or a Passive Non-Financial Entity (Passive NFE). If the trust is an FI the trust or the trustee will have an obligation to report to its local tax authority in Cyprus in respects to the reportable accounts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taxation_of_Cyprus_International_Trust[40]"><span id="Taxation_of_Cyprus_International_Trust.5B40.5D"></span>Taxation of Cyprus International Trust<sup id="cite_ref-HSharpe-2019a_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSharpe-2019a-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Taxation of Cyprus International Trust[40]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The income and profits derived within and outside of Cyprus are liable to every possible taxation imposed in Cyprus if the beneficiary is a resident of Cyprus in accordance with the Income Tax Laws of Cyprus. </p><p>If the beneficiaries are not Cyprus residents then any income and profit derived from Cypriot sources will be subject to tax. </p><p>Relevant to consider is what income is subject to taxation in Cyprus and the none domicile regime applicable in Cyprus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England_and_Wales">England and Wales</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: England and Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_trust_law" title="English trust law">English trust law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_2">History</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above, the English trust arose from the court of the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a>. </p><p>There are several features which distinguish the modern English trust both from other common law trusts and from civil law approaches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Purpose_trusts_and_the_requirement_for_a_beneficiary">Purpose trusts and the requirement for a beneficiary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Purpose trusts and the requirement for a beneficiary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Purpose_trusts_in_English_law" title="Purpose trusts in English law">Purpose trusts in English law</a></div> <p>In some ways, the modern English trust is, when compared to other jurisdictions, more conservative in its requirements. For example, it retains the requirement that there be a beneficiary.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two main exceptions to this rule: charitable purpose trusts and <a href="/wiki/Re_Denley%27s_Trust_Deed" title="Re Denley's Trust Deed"><i>Re Denley</i> trusts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contrasts with other jurisdictions like Cyprus, <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Law of the British Virgin Islands">the BVI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Law of the Cayman Islands">the Cayman Islands</a>, the Isle of Man, <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Jersey" title="Law of Jersey">Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Gibraltar" title="Law of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which allow for non-charitable purpose trusts to be valid. This will normally be done by appointing a somebody to act as the trust's <a href="/wiki/Protector_(trust)" title="Protector (trust)">Protector</a>. These purpose trusts allow for a trust to be created with a purpose (eg. 'to provide for <i>N</i>'s education', where <i>N</i> is a family member) instead of a named beneficiary. The role of the Protector (also sometimes called an enforcer) is to hold the trustees to account, which the beneficiaries would usually have the right to do. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unincorporated_Associations">Unincorporated Associations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Unincorporated Associations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unincorporated_association" title="Unincorporated association">Unincorporated association</a></div> <p>A major use of trusts is to allow for the existence of unincorporated associations. These often are associations or groups of people that come together for a particular (usually non-commercial purpose). Common examples might be local social and sports clubs, some <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_club" title="Gentlemen's club">gentlemen's clubs</a>, and some professional associations. </p><p>The main way that English law supports the existence of these is by understanding them as a form of trust. The association has no <a href="/wiki/Legal_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal personality">legal personality</a> (ie the capacity to enter into legal relations in their own name). This contrasts with the approach taken in many civil law jurisdictions, like Spain<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or France,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where civil or social associations are often accorded legal personhood. Thus, in England, the officers of an association (eg. its Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer) will be recognised as trustees and will hold the assets of the association on trust for the members of the association with the constitution of the association forming the basis of the rules governing the trust.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many ways trusts in South Africa operate similarly to other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> countries, although the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_South_Africa" title="Law of South Africa">law of South Africa</a> is actually a hybrid of the British common law system and <a href="/wiki/Roman-Dutch_law" title="Roman-Dutch law">Roman-Dutch law</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, in addition to the traditional living trusts and will trusts there is a "bewind trust" (inherited from the Roman-Dutch <i>bewind</i> administered by a <i>bewindhebber</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the beneficiaries own the trust assets while the trustee administers the trust, although this is regarded by modern Dutch law as not actually a trust.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Bewind</i> trusts are created as trading vehicles providing trustees with limited liability and certain tax advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In South Africa, minor children cannot inherit assets and in the absence of a trust and assets held in a state institution, the Guardian's Fund, and released to the children in adulthood. Therefore, testamentary (will) trusts often leave assets in a trust for the benefit of these minor children. </p><p>There are two types of living trusts in South Africa, namely vested trusts and discretionary trusts. In vested trusts, the benefits of the beneficiaries are set out in the trust deed, whereas in discretionary trusts the trustees have full discretion at all times as to how much and when each beneficiary is to benefit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asset_protection">Asset protection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Asset protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until recently, there were tax advantages to living trusts in South Africa, although most of these advantages have been removed. Protection of assets from creditors is a modern advantage. With notable exceptions, assets held by the trust are not owned by the trustees or the beneficiaries, the creditors of trustees or beneficiaries can have no claim against the trust. Under the Insolvency Act (Act 24 of 1936), assets transferred into a living trust remain at risk from external creditors for 6 months if the previous owner of the assets is solvent at the time of transfer, or 24 months if he/she is insolvent at the time of transfer. After 24 months, creditors have no claim against assets in the trust, although they can attempt to attach the loan account, thereby forcing the trust to sell its assets. Assets can be transferred into the living trust by selling it to the trust (through a loan granted to the trust) or donating cash to it (any natural person can donate R100 000 per year without attracting donations tax; 20% donations tax applies to further donations within the same tax year). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tax_considerations">Tax considerations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Tax considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under South African law living trusts are considered tax payers. Two types of tax apply to living trusts, namely income tax and capital gains tax (CGT). A trust pays income tax at a flat rate of 40% (individuals pay according to income scales, usually less than 20%). The trust's income can, however, be taxed in the hands of either the trust or the beneficiary. A trust pays CGT at the rate of 20% (individuals pay 10%). Trusts do not pay deceased estate tax (although trusts may be required to pay back outstanding loans to a deceased estate, in which the loan amounts are taxable with deceased estate tax).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The taxpayer whose residence has been 'locked' into a trust has now been given another opportunity to take advantage of these CGT exemptions. The Taxation Law Amendment Act of 30 September 2009 commenced on 1 January 2010 and granted a 2-year window period from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2011, affording a natural person the opportunity to take transfer of the residence with advantage of no transfer duty being payable or CGT consequences. Whilst taxpayers can take advantage of this opening of a window of opportunity, it is not likely that it will ever become available thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_trust_law" title="United States trust law">United States trust law</a></div> <p>In the United States, a trust is presumed to be irrevocable unless the instrument or will creating it states it is revocable, except in Pennsylvania, California, Oklahoma and Texas (and any other state that has adopted section 602 of the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Trust_Code" title="Uniform Trust Code">Uniform Trust Code</a>), in which trusts are presumed to be revocable unless the instrument or will creating them states they are irrevocable. </p><p>In the United States, <a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">state law</a>, variable from state to state, governs trusts. Many states have adopted the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Trust_Code" title="Uniform Trust Code">Uniform Trust Code</a>, and there are also broad similarities among states' common law of trust. These similarities are summarized in the <a href="/wiki/Restatements_of_the_Law" title="Restatements of the Law">Restatements of the Law</a>, such as the Restatement of Trusts, Third (2003−08). Additionally, as a practical matter, federal law considerations such as federal taxes administered by the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a> may affect the structure and creation of trusts. </p><p>In the United States the tax law allows trusts to be taxed as corporations, partnerships, or not at all depending on the circumstances, although trusts may be used for <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">tax avoidance</a> in certain situations.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansmann1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 478">: 478 </span></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Trust-preferred_security" title="Trust-preferred security">trust-preferred security</a> is a hybrid (debt and equity) security with favorable tax treatment which is treated as <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory capital">regulatory capital</a> on banks' balance sheets. The <a href="/wiki/Dodd-Frank_Wall_Street_Reform_and_Consumer_Protection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act">Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act</a> changed this somewhat by not allowing these assets to be a part of (large) banks' regulatory capital.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 23">: 23 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estate_planning">Estate planning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Estate planning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Estate_planning" title="Estate planning">Estate planning</a></div> <p>Living trusts, as opposed to testamentary (will) trusts, may help a trustor avoid <a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">probate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Avoiding probate may save costs and maintain privacy and living trusts have become very popular.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Probate is potentially costly, and probate records are available to the public while distribution through a trust is private. Both living trusts and wills can also be used to plan for unforeseen circumstances such as incapacity or disability, by giving discretionary powers to the trustee or executor of the will. </p><p>Negative aspects of using a living trust as opposed to a will and probate include upfront legal expenses, the expense of trust administration, and a lack of certain safeguards. The cost of the trust may be 1% of the estate per year versus the one-time probate cost of 1 to 4% for probate, which applies whether or not there is a <a href="/wiki/Intestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestate">drafted will</a>. Unlike trusts, wills must be signed by two to three witnesses, the number depending on the law of the jurisdiction in which the will is executed. Legal protections that apply to probate but do not automatically apply to trusts include provisions that protect the decedent's assets from mismanagement or embezzlement, such as requirements of <a href="/wiki/Surety_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Surety bond">bonding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a>, and itemized accountings of probate assets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estate_tax_effect">Estate tax effect</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Estate tax effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Living trusts generally do not shelter assets from the <a href="/wiki/Estate_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Estate tax (United States)">U.S. federal estate tax</a>. Married couples may, however, effectively double the estate tax exemption amount by setting up the trust with a formula clause.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a living trust, the grantor may retain some level of control to the trust, such by appointment as <a href="/wiki/Protector_(trust)" title="Protector (trust)">protector</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Trust_instrument" title="Trust instrument">trust instrument</a>. Living trusts also, in practical terms, tend to be driven to large extent by <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> considerations. If a living trust fails, the property will usually be held for the grantor/settlor on <a href="/wiki/Resulting_trust" title="Resulting trust">resulting trusts</a>, which in some notable cases, has had high tax consequences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blind_trust" title="Blind trust">Blind trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(charity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation (charity)">Foundation (charity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi_trust" title="Rabbi trust">Rabbi trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Trust_and_Estate_Practitioners" title="Society of Trust and Estate Practitioners">Society of Trust and Estate Practitioners</a>, the international professional association for the trust industry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totten_trust" title="Totten trust">Totten trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusts_%26_Estates_(journal)" title="Trusts & Estates (journal)">Trusts & Estates (journal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_(law)" title="Use (law)">Use (law)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jurisdiction_specific">Jurisdiction specific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction specific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_trust_law" title="Australian trust law">Australian trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henson_trust" title="Henson trust">Henson trust</a> in Canadian law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_trust_law" title="Italian trust law">Italian trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law_in_civil_law_jurisdictions" title="Trust law in civil law jurisdictions">Trust law in civil law jurisdictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law_in_England_and_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law in England and Wales">Trust law in England and Wales</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"Section 2". <i>Restatement of Trusts</i> (Third ed.). St. Paul, Minn.: American Law Institute. 1992. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780314842466" title="Special:BookSources/9780314842466"><bdi>9780314842466</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25422858">25422858</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+2&rft.btitle=Restatement+of+Trusts&rft.place=St.+Paul%2C+Minn.&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=American+Law+Institute&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25422858&rft.isbn=9780314842466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930171158/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/trust.html">"Trust"</a>. <i>BusinessDictionary</i>. WebFinance, Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/trust.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BusinessDictionary&rft.atitle=Trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessdictionary.com%2Fdefinition%2Ftrust.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Restatement (Third) of the Law of Trusts</i> § 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAusness2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ausness, Richard C. (2019). "A Mere Expectancy: What Rights Do Beneficiaries of a Revocable Trust Have Prior to the Death of the Settlor". <i>Quinnipiac Probate Law Journal</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 377.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quinnipiac+Probate+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Mere+Expectancy%3A+What+Rights+Do+Beneficiaries+of+a+Revocable+Trust+Have+Prior+to+the+Death+of+the+Settlor&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=377&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Ausness&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39_U._Colo._L._Rev._177_(1966–1967)-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39_U._Colo._L._Rev._177_(1966–1967)_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, Austin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ucollr39&div=16&id=&page=">"Importance of the Trust"</a>. <i>University of Colorado Law Review</i>. <b>39</b>. U. Colo. L. Rev.: 177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1598930">10.2307/1598930</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1598930">1598930</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150505211940/http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ucollr39&div=16&id=&page=">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2014</span>. <q>The greatest and most distinctive achievement performed by Englishmen in the field of jurisprudence is the development from century to century of the trust idea.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Colorado+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Importance+of+the+Trust&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=177&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1598930&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1598930%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Austin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fucollr39%26div%3D16%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Chapter 15". <i>Restatment of Trusts</i> (Third ed.). 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(2 January 1996). <i>Commercial Law</i> (2nd ed.). London, U.K.: Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140125345" title="Special:BookSources/0140125345"><bdi>0140125345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commercial+Law&rft.place=London%2C+U.K.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=1996-01-02&rft.isbn=0140125345&rft.aulast=Goode&rft.aufirst=Roy+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Bergervoet_and_D.S._Mansur2012" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">M. Bergervoet and D.S. Mansur (14 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cifa-curacao.com/pdfdocuments/WPNR%202012-6926%20De%20Boer.pdf">"De Curaçaose trust in de partijk"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Weekblad voor Privaatrecht, Notariaat en Registratie</i> (in Dutch). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121029022622/http://www.cifa-curacao.com/pdfdocuments/WPNR%202012-6926%20De%20Boer.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weekblad+voor+Privaatrecht%2C+Notariaat+en+Registratie&rft.atitle=De+Cura%C3%A7aose+trust+in+de+partijk&rft.date=2012-04-14&rft.au=M.+Bergervoet+and+D.S.+Mansur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cifa-curacao.com%2Fpdfdocuments%2FWPNR%25202012-6926%2520De%2520Boer.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000821047&dateTexte=">"Loi n°2007-211 du 19 février 2007 instituant la fiducie"</a>. Legifrance.gouv.fr, le service public de la diffusion du droit. 1 February 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100309071215/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000821047&dateTexte=">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Loi+n%C2%B02007-211+du+19+f%C3%A9vrier+2007+instituant+la+fiducie&rft.pub=Legifrance.gouv.fr%2C+le+service+public+de+la+diffusion+du+droit&rft.date=2009-02-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legifrance.gouv.fr%2FaffichTexte.do%3FcidTexte%3DJORFTEXT000000821047%26dateTexte%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000821047&dateTexte=">"Ordonnance n°2009-79 du 22 janvier 2009 (consolidated version)"</a>. Legifrance.gouv.fr, le service public de la diffusion du droit. 1 February 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100309071215/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000821047&dateTexte=">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ordonnance+n%C2%B02009-79+du+22+janvier+2009+%28consolidated+version%29&rft.pub=Legifrance.gouv.fr%2C+le+service+public+de+la+diffusion+du+droit&rft.date=2009-02-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legifrance.gouv.fr%2FaffichTexte.do%3FcidTexte%3DJORFTEXT000000821047%26dateTexte%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hansmann1998-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansmann1998_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansmannMattei1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hansmann, Henry; Mattei, Ugo (May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyulawreview.org/sites/default/files/pdf/NYULawReview-73-2-Hansmann-Mattei.pdf">"The Functions of Trust Law: A Comparative Legal and Economic Analysis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>New York University Law Review</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918120301/http://www.nyulawreview.org/sites/default/files/pdf/NYULawReview-73-2-Hansmann-Mattei.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Functions+of+Trust+Law%3A+A+Comparative+Legal+and+Economic+Analysis&rft.date=1998-05&rft.aulast=Hansmann&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Mattei%2C+Ugo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyulawreview.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpdf%2FNYULawReview-73-2-Hansmann-Mattei.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.westlaw.com/maf/wlau/app/document?docguid=I896d6d3213d411e18eefa443f89988a0&tocDs=AUNZ_CASES_TOC&isTocNav=true&startChunk=1&endChunk=1">"Database Access – UNSW Library"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Database+Access+%E2%80%93+UNSW+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westlaw.com%2Fmaf%2Fwlau%2Fapp%2Fdocument%3Fdocguid%3DI896d6d3213d411e18eefa443f89988a0%26tocDs%3DAUNZ_CASES_TOC%26isTocNav%3Dtrue%26startChunk%3D1%26endChunk%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www6.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/16.html">"Bahr v Nicolay (No 2) [1988] HCA 16; (1988) 164 CLR 604 (15 June 1988)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220923053001/http://www6.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/16.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bahr+v+Nicolay+%28No+2%29+%5B1988%5D+HCA+16%3B+%281988%29+164+CLR+604+%2815+June+1988%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww6.austlii.edu.au%2Fcgi-bin%2Fviewdoc%2Fau%2Fcases%2Fcth%2FHCA%2F1988%2F16.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example <i><a href="/wiki/T_Choithram_International_SA_v_Pagarani" title="T Choithram International SA v Pagarani">T Choithram International SA and others v Pagarani and others</a></i> [2001] 2 All ER 492</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, in England, trusts over land must be evidenced in writing under s.56 of the Law of Property Act 1925</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GlisterLee2015ch4-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GlisterLee2015ch4_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GlisterLee2015ch4_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GlisterLee2015ch4_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlisterLee2015" class="citation book cs1">Glister, James; Lee, James (2015). "Certainty and Capacity". <i>Hanbury and Martin: Modern Equity</i> (20 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Sweet_%26_Maxwell" title="Sweet & Maxwell">Sweet & Maxwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780414032408" title="Special:BookSources/9780414032408"><bdi>9780414032408</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Certainty+and+Capacity&rft.btitle=Hanbury+and+Martin%3A+Modern+Equity&rft.edition=20&rft.pub=Sweet+%26+Maxwell&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780414032408&rft.aulast=Glister&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Lee%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doulton-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doulton_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doulton_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/McPhail_v_Doulton" title="McPhail v Doulton">McPhail v Doulton</a></i></cite>, [1970] UKHL 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Re_Gulbenkian-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Re_Gulbenkian_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/Re_Gulbenkian%27s_Settlements_Trusts" title="Re Gulbenkian's Settlements Trusts">Re Gulbenkian's Settlements Trusts</a></i></cite>, [1968] UKHL 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Re_Hays-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Re_Hays_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Re Hay's Settlement Trusts</i></cite>, [1981] 3 All ER 786.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Jones Trust Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edwardjones.com/groups/ejw_content/documents/document/web043726.pdf">Fundamental Duties of a Trustee: A Guide for Trustees in a post-Uniform Trust Code World</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150723180706/https://www.edwardjones.com/groups/ejw_content/documents/document/web043726.pdf">Archived</a> 23 July 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moffat-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moffat_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoffat2005" class="citation book cs1">Moffat, Graham (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXebm5FeaIcC&pg=PA18"><i>Trusts Law: Text and Materials</i></a> (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139445283" title="Special:BookSources/9781139445283"><bdi>9781139445283</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230412073700/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXebm5FeaIcC&pg=PA18">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trusts+Law%3A+Text+and+Materials&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=18&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781139445283&rft.aulast=Moffat&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEXebm5FeaIcC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trusts.it/admincp/UploadedPDF/200801171738350.jEnghouseBoardmanPhipps19661103.pdf">"Boardman v Phipps [1966] UKHL 2"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170804220851/http://www.trusts.it/admincp/UploadedPDF/200801171738350.jEnghouseBoardmanPhipps19661103.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Boardman+v+Phipps+%5B1966%5D+UKHL+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trusts.it%2Fadmincp%2FUploadedPDF%2F200801171738350.jEnghouseBoardmanPhipps19661103.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/rpte_ereport/2009/june/te_robert_sacks.authcheckdam.pdf">Last Beneficiary Standing: Identifying the Proper Parties in Breach of Fiduciary Cases</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801145557/https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/rpte_ereport/2009/june/te_robert_sacks.authcheckdam.pdf">Archived</a> 1 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. American Bar Association, Section of Real Property, Trust, & Estate Law. 20th Annual Real Property & Estate Planning Symposia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uniformlaws.org/ActSummary.aspx?title=Trust%20Code">Trust Code Summary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180130055421/http://uniformlaws.org/ActSummary.aspx?title=Trust%20Code">Archived</a> 30 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Uniform Law Commission.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schanzenbach MM, Sitkoff RF. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=868761">Did Reform of Prudent Trust Investment Laws Change Trust Portfolio Allocation?</a>. Harvard Law School John M. Olin Center for Law, Economics and Business Discussion Paper Series. Paper 580.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-martinez18-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-martinez18_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinez2007" class="citation book cs1">Martinez, Michael J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cuseaZWNAvUC&q=%22trust+fund+baby%22&pg=PA18"><i>Vault Career Guide to Private Wealth Management</i></a>. New York, New York: Vault, Inc. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781581314489" title="Special:BookSources/9781581314489"><bdi>9781581314489</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/86069641">86069641</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211015160320/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuseaZWNAvUC&q=%22trust+fund+baby%22&pg=PA18">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vault+Career+Guide+to+Private+Wealth+Management&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Vault%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F86069641&rft.isbn=9781581314489&rft.aulast=Martinez&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcuseaZWNAvUC%26q%3D%2522trust%2Bfund%2Bbaby%2522%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/221550/autumn_statement_2012_complete.pdf"><i>Autumn Statement 2012</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. HM Treasury. 2012. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-10-184802-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-10-184802-2"><bdi>978-0-10-184802-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190724191624/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/221550/autumn_statement_2012_complete.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autumn+Statement+2012&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=HM+Treasury&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-10-184802-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.publishing.service.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F221550%2Fautumn_statement_2012_complete.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/spendthrift_clause">"spendthrift clause"</a>. <i>LII / Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=spendthrift+clause&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Fspendthrift_clause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2009–2010" class="citation web cs1">Rosenberg, Scott D. (2009–2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scottrosenberglaw.com/faq.html#Trusts">"Frequently Asked Questions"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111111040628/http://www.scottrosenberglaw.com/faq.html#Trusts">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Cyprus+Lawyer&rft.atitle=Overview+of+Cyprus+International+Trust&rft.date=2019-08-18&rft.au=HSharpe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthecypruslawyer.com%2Fcyprus-international-trust%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HSharpe-2019b-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HSharpe-2019b_41-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHSharpe2019" class="citation web cs1">HSharpe (18 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thecypruslawyer.com/public-disclosure-of-cyprus-international-trust/">"Public disclosure of Cyprus International Trust"</a>. <i>The Cyprus Lawyer</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190820074539/http://thecypruslawyer.com/public-disclosure-of-cyprus-international-trust/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CySEC&rft.atitle=The+Prevention+and+Suppression+of+Money+Laundering+and+Terrorist+Financing+Law+of+2007-2018&rft.date=2019-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cysec.gov.cy%2FCMSPages%2FGetFile.aspx%3Fguid%3D94659b77-3789-4866-863a-2d23e4a58ebd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHSharpe2019" class="citation web cs1">HSharpe (18 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thecypruslawyer.com/cyprus-beneficial-ownership-register/">"Cyprus Beneficial Ownership Register"</a>. <i>The Cyprus Lawyer</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190804175515/http://thecypruslawyer.com/cyprus-beneficial-ownership-register/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BOE&rft.atitle=C%C3%B3digo+de+Asociaciones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boe.es%2Fbiblioteca_juridica%2Fcodigos%2Fcodigo.php%3Fid%3D154%26modo%3D2%26nota%3D0%26tab%3D2%23top&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F1119">"Déclaration initiale d'une association"</a> [Initial declaration of an association]. <i>Service-Public.fr</i> (in French). 25 May 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925163040/https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F1119">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Service-Public.fr&rft.atitle=D%C3%A9claration+initiale+d%27une+association&rft.date=2021-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.service-public.fr%2Fparticuliers%2Fvosdroits%2FF1119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirgo2020" class="citation book cs1">Virgo, Graham (2020). <i>The Principles of Equity & Trusts</i> (4th ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/OUP" class="mw-redirect" title="OUP">OUP</a>. pp. 211–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-885415-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-885415-9"><bdi>978-0-19-885415-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Equity+%26+Trusts&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=211-15&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-885415-9&rft.aulast=Virgo&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Re_Lipinski%27s_Will_Trusts" title="Re Lipinski's Will Trusts">Re Lipinski's Will Trusts</a></i>, [1976] Ch 235</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moorestephens.co.za/images/uploads/trust-overview-gmp-msw.pdf">Trust Overview</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130616045840/http://www.moorestephens.co.za/images/uploads/trust-overview-gmp-msw.pdf">Archived</a> 16 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Moore Stephens Chartered Accountants.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oakley JA. (1996). <i>Trends in Contemporary Trust Law</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VvM-CsSb1EYC&pg=PA108">p. 108</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230430044418/https://books.google.com/books?id=VvM-CsSb1EYC&pg=PA108">Archived</a> 30 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sars.gov.za/businesses-and-employers/trusts/types-of-trust/">"Types of Trust | South African Revenue Service"</a>. 12 February 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220521114655/https://www.sars.gov.za/businesses-and-employers/trusts/types-of-trust/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Types+of+Trust+%7C+South+African+Revenue+Service&rft.date=2021-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sars.gov.za%2Fbusinesses-and-employers%2Ftrusts%2Ftypes-of-trust%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E-book: Trusts for Business Owners, by Peter Carruthers and Robert Velosa.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2009" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Winston E. (18 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawchambers.co.za/article_family_trust_tax_window.htm">"Dump That Trust Through The Window: Family Trust Tax Window"</a>. Winston Miller Attorneys. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100603171643/http://www.lawchambers.co.za/article_family_trust_tax_window.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dump+That+Trust+Through+The+Window%3A+Family+Trust+Tax+Window&rft.pub=Winston+Miller+Attorneys&rft.date=2009-12-18&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Winston+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawchambers.co.za%2Farticle_family_trust_tax_window.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120414222136/http://www.skadden.com/Cimages/siteFile/Skadden_Insights_Special_Edition_Dodd-Frank_Act1.pdf">"The Dodd–Frank Act: Commentary and Insights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom LLP & Affiliates. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skadden.com/Cimages/siteFile/Skadden_Insights_Special_Edition_Dodd-Frank_Act1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Dodd%E2%80%93Frank+Act%3A+Commentary+and+Insights&rft.pub=Skadden%2C+Arps%2C+Slate%2C+Meagher+%26+Flom+LLP+%26+Affiliates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skadden.com%2FCimages%2FsiteFile%2FSkadden_Insights_Special_Edition_Dodd-Frank_Act1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaraway2015" class="citation web cs1">Caraway, David (April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nycbar.org/get-legal-help/article/wills-trusts-and-elder-law/trusts/testamentary-trusts/">"Testamentary Trusts"</a>. <i>New York City Bar</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215000720/http://www.nycbar.org/get-legal-help/article/wills-trusts-and-elder-law/trusts/testamentary-trusts/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+City+Bar&rft.atitle=Testamentary+Trusts&rft.date=2015-04&rft.aulast=Caraway&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nycbar.org%2Fget-legal-help%2Farticle%2Fwills-trusts-and-elder-law%2Ftrusts%2Ftestamentary-trusts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American Bar Association. Ch.5 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/publiced/practical/books/wills/chapter_5.authcheckdam.pdf">Living Trusts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130616193731/http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/publiced/practical/books/wills/chapter_5.authcheckdam.pdf">Archived</a> 16 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Appears to be online copy of: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanbarassoc00amer">The American Bar Association guide to wills and estates</a></i> (1995). See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/publiced/practical/books/wills/chapter_4.authcheckdam.pdf">Ch. 4, Trusts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130616202020/http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/publiced/practical/books/wills/chapter_4.authcheckdam.pdf">Archived</a> 16 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The formula clause may be: "I leave to my child the maximum allowable amount that is not subject to federal estate tax, with the remainder going to my wife." As of 2013, transfers to spouses are exempt from estate tax. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/deborahljacobs/2013/01/02/after-the-fiscal-cliff-deal-estate-and-gift-tax-explained/">After The Fiscal Cliff Deal: Estate And Gift Tax Explained</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170926173028/https://www.forbes.com/sites/deborahljacobs/2013/01/02/after-the-fiscal-cliff-deal-estate-and-gift-tax-explained/">Archived</a> 26 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Forbes</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2003" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, A (2003). <i>Equity and Trusts</i> (3rd ed.). Cavendish Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85941-729-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85941-729-9"><bdi>1-85941-729-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equity+and+Trusts&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cavendish+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85941-729-9&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchellHayton2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Mitchell_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Mitchell (professor)">Mitchell, Charles</a>; Hayton, DJ (2005). <i>Hayton and Marshall's Commentary and Cases on the Law of Trusts and Equitable Remedies</i> (12th ed.). Sweet & Maxwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hayton+and+Marshall%27s+Commentary+and+Cases+on+the+Law+of+Trusts+and+Equitable+Remedies&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Sweet+%26+Maxwell&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Hayton%2C+DJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchellHaytonMatthews2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Mitchell_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Mitchell (professor)">Mitchell, Charles</a>; Hayton, DJ; Matthews, P (2006). <i>Underhill and Hayton's Law Relating to Trusts and Trustees</i> (17th ed.). Butterworths.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Underhill+and+Hayton%27s+Law+Relating+to+Trusts+and+Trustees&rft.edition=17th&rft.pub=Butterworths&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Hayton%2C+DJ&rft.au=Matthews%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trust_(law)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article about <span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Trust_and_Trustees" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trust and Trustees">Trust law</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tedioli.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/trust-law-china.pdf"><i>Trust Law of the People's Republic of China (Order of the President No. 50)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Studio legale Tedioli, 28 April 2001</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trust+Law+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%28Order+of+the+President+No.+50%29&rft.pub=Studio+legale+Tedioli&rft.date=2001-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tedioli.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F03%2Ftrust-law-china.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrust+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Death" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Death" title="Template:Death"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Death" title="Template talk:Death"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Death" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Death"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Death" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cell_death" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_necrosis" title="Temporal lobe necrosis">Temporal lobe necrosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activation-induced_cell_death" title="Activation-induced cell death">AICD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoikis" title="Anoikis">Anoikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autophagy" title="Autophagy">Autophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_apoptosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic apoptosis">Intrinsic apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necroptosis" title="Necroptosis">Necroptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraptosis" title="Paraptosis">Paraptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthanatos" title="Parthanatos">Parthanatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenoptosis" title="Phenoptosis">Phenoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoapoptosis" title="Pseudoapoptosis">Pseudoapoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroptosis" title="Pyroptosis">Pyroptosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">Autolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoschizis" title="Autoschizis">Autoschizis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschar" title="Eschar">Eschar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenic_cell_death" title="Immunogenic cell death">Immunogenic cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_cell_death" title="Ischemic cell death">Ischemic cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitotic_catastrophe" title="Mitotic catastrophe">Mitotic catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_gene" title="Suicide gene">Suicide gene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_death" title="Accidental death">Accidental death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brainstem_death" title="Brainstem death">Brainstem death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_death" title="Clinical death">Clinical death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_on_arrival" title="Dead on arrival">DOA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_death" title="Manner of death">Death by natural causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_rattle" title="Death rattle">Death rattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthanasia" title="Dysthanasia">Dysthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-of-life_care" title="End-of-life care">End-of-life care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_sign" title="Lazarus sign">Lazarus sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_syndrome" title="Lazarus syndrome">Lazarus syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_death#Medical_declaration" title="Legal death">Medical declaration of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_illness" title="Terminal illness">Terminal illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_death" title="Manner of death">Unnatural death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Death-related_lists" title="Category:Death-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">Causes of death by rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deaths_by_year" title="Lists of deaths by year">Notable deaths by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expressions_related_to_death" class="mw-redirect" title="List of expressions related to death">Expressions related to death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">Natural disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_people_by_cause_of_death" title="Lists of people by cause of death">People by cause of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_premature_obituaries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of premature obituaries">Premature obituaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventable_causes_of_death" title="Preventable causes of death">Preventable causes of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unusual_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of unusual deaths">Unusual deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ways_people_dishonor_the_dead" title="List of ways people dishonor the dead">List of ways people dishonor the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ways_people_honor_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ways people honor the dead">List of ways people honor the dead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mortality</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birthday_effect" title="Birthday effect">Birthday effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality" title="Excess mortality">Excess mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gompertz%E2%80%93Makeham_law_of_mortality" title="Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality">Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_death" title="Maternal death">Maternal death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_mortality_in_fiction" title="Maternal mortality in fiction">Maternal mortality in fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micromort" title="Micromort">Micromort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Risk_adjusted_mortality_rate" title="Risk adjusted mortality rate">RAMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_salience" title="Mortality salience">Mortality salience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After death</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b><a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">Body</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallor_mortis" title="Pallor mortis">Pallor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livor_mortis" title="Livor mortis">Livor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algor_mortis" title="Algor mortis">Algor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigor_mortis" title="Rigor mortis">Rigor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putrefaction" title="Putrefaction">Putrefaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletonization" title="Skeletonization">Skeletonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation" title="Cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropreservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropreservation">Neuropreservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embalming" title="Embalming">Embalming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maceration_(bone)" title="Maceration (bone)">Maceration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastination" title="Plastination">Plastination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosection" title="Prosection">Prosection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxidermy" title="Taxidermy">Taxidermy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Disposal_of_human_corpses" title="Disposal of human corpses">Disposal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">Burial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_burial" title="Natural burial">Natural burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">Sky burial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismemberment" title="Dismemberment">Dismemberment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excarnation" title="Excarnation">Excarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promession" title="Promession">Promession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_hydrolysis_(body_disposal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline hydrolysis (body disposal)">Resomation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beating_heart_cadaver" title="Beating heart cadaver">Beating heart cadaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_donation" title="Body donation">Body donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadaveric_spasm" title="Cadaveric spasm">Cadaveric spasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffin_birth" title="Coffin birth">Coffin birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_erection" title="Death erection">Death erection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">Dissection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbeting" title="Gibbeting">Gibbeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmortem_caloricity" title="Postmortem caloricity">Postmortem caloricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_interval" title="Post-mortem interval">Post-mortem interval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b>Other aspects</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">Carrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery" title="Cemetery">Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_after_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness after death">Consciousness after death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Death_customs" title="Category:Death customs">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crematorium" title="Crematorium">Crematorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration_of_graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Desecration of graves">Desecration of graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_oblivion" title="Eternal oblivion">Eternal oblivion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_examiner" title="Medical examiner">Examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">Grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_the_Internet" title="Death and the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_midwife" title="Death midwife">Midwife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">Mourning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_mourning" title="Online mourning">Online mourning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obituary" title="Obituary">Obituary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palingenesis" title="Palingenesis">Palingenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underworld" title="Underworld">Underworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigil" title="Vigil">Vigil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paranormal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">Ghosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-death_experience" title="Near-death experience">Near-death experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-death_studies" title="Near-death studies">Near-death studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-body_experience" title="Out-of-body experience">Out-of-body experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reincarnation_research" title="Template:Reincarnation research">Reincarnation research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_of_death" title="Cause of death">Cause of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">Coroner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death-qualified_jury" title="Death-qualified jury">Death-qualified jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_certificate" title="Death certificate">Death certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_death" title="Presumption of death">Declared death <i>in absentia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">Death row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying_declaration" title="Dying declaration">Dying declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquest" title="Inquest">Inquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_death" title="Legal death">Legal death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necropolitics" title="Necropolitics">Necropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_dying" title="Prohibition of dying">Prohibition of dying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspicious_death" title="Suspicious death">Suspicious death</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_tech&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Death tech (page does not exist)">Death tech</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_Tech" class="extiw" title="pt:Death Tech">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_director" title="Funeral director">Funeral director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_science" title="Mortuary science">Mortuary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Necrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratinomy" title="Biostratinomy">Biostratinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanatology" title="Thanatology">Thanatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_burial_money" title="Chinese burial money">Chinese burial money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coins_for_the_dead" title="Coins for the dead">Coins for the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_tourism" title="Dark tourism">Dark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Awards" title="Darwin Awards">Darwin Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_culture" title="Death and culture">Death and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_anniversary" title="Death anniversary">Death anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_anxiety" title="Death anxiety">Death anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_death_deities" title="List of death deities">Death deity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personifications_of_death" title="Personifications of death">Personification of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying-and-rising_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dying-and-rising deity">Dying-and-rising god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">Psychopomp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Death camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_from_laughter" title="Death from laughter">Death from laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_hoax" title="Death hoax">Death hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_knell" title="Death knell">Death knell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death march</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_messenger" title="Death messenger">Death messenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_notification" title="Death notification">Death notification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_panel" title="Death panel">Death panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_poem" title="Death poem">Death poem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opisthotonic_death_pose" title="Opisthotonic death pose">Death pose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death-positive_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Death-positive movement">Death-positive movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_threat" title="Death threat">Death threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_trajectory" title="Death trajectory">Death trajectory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignified_death" title="Dignified death">Dignified death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_of_the_Dead" title="Festival of the Dead">Festival of the Dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascination_with_death" title="Fascination with death">Fascination with death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_death" title="Hierarchy of death">Hierarchy of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">Last rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">Longevity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Death" title="Museum of Death">Museum of Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necronym" title="Necronym">Necronym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrophilia" title="Necrophilia">Necrophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrophobia" title="Necrophobia">Necrophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_death" title="Philosophy of death">Philosophy of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">Assisted suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thanabot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thanabot (page does not exist)">Thanabot</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief_bot" class="extiw" title="ca:Grief bot">ca</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanatosensitivity" title="Thanatosensitivity">Thanatosensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Death" title="Category:Death">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_death" title="Outline of death">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a 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