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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Secondary and tertiary structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_and_tertiary_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_modifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_modifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Chemical modifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_modifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of RNA</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_RNA-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of RNA subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-RNAs_involved_in_protein_synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNAs_involved_in_protein_synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>RNAs involved in protein synthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RNAs_involved_in_protein_synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulatory_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulatory_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Regulatory RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulatory_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-MicroRNA_(miRNA)_and_small_interfering_RNA_(siRNA)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MicroRNA_(miRNA)_and_small_interfering_RNA_(siRNA)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>MicroRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MicroRNA_(miRNA)_and_small_interfering_RNA_(siRNA)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_non-coding_RNAs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_non-coding_RNAs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Long non-coding RNAs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_non-coding_RNAs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enhancer_RNAs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enhancer_RNAs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Enhancer RNAs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enhancer_RNAs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Small_RNA_in_prokaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_RNA_in_prokaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Small RNA in prokaryotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_RNA_in_prokaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Small_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Small RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CRISPR_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CRISPR_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>CRISPR RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CRISPR_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RNA_synthesis_and_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNA_synthesis_and_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>RNA synthesis and processing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-RNA_synthesis_and_processing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle RNA synthesis and processing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-RNA_synthesis_and_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Synthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RNA_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNA_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>RNA processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RNA_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RNA_in_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNA_in_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>RNA in genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-RNA_in_genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle RNA in genetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-RNA_in_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-RNA_genomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RNA_genomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>RNA genomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RNA_genomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reverse_transcription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reverse_transcription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Reverse transcription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reverse_transcription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Double-stranded_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double-stranded_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Double-stranded RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double-stranded_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circular_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circular_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Circular RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circular_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_discoveries_in_RNA_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_discoveries_in_RNA_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Key discoveries in RNA biology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_discoveries_in_RNA_biology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Key discoveries in RNA biology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Key_discoveries_in_RNA_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relevance_for_prebiotic_chemistry_and_abiogenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relevance_for_prebiotic_chemistry_and_abiogenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relevance_for_prebiotic_chemistry_and_abiogenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Medical applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">RNA</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" 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Available in 115 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-115" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">115 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNS" title="RNS – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="RNS" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%AD_%E1%8A%A4%E1%8A%95_%E1%8A%A4" title="አር ኤን ኤ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አር ኤን ኤ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%B6_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="حمض نووي ريبوزي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حمض نووي ريبوزي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acido_ribonucleico" title="Acido ribonucleico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Acido ribonucleico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cidu_ribonucleico" title="Ácidu ribonucleico – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ácidu ribonucleico" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonuklein_tur%C5%9Fusu" title="Ribonuklein turşusu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ribonuklein turşusu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="اسید ریبونوکلئیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اسید ریبونوکلئیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%8F" title="আরএনএ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আরএনএ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B_(%D0%A0%D0%9D%D0%9A)" title="Рибонуклеин кислотаһы (РНК) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Рибонуклеин кислотаһы (РНК)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Рыбануклеінавыя кіслоты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рыбануклеінавыя кіслоты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Рыбануклійныя кісьлі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рыбануклійныя кісьлі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Рибонуклеинова киселина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рибонуклеинова киселина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinska_kiselina" title="Ribonukleinska kiselina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ribonukleinska kiselina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenkenn_ribonukleek" title="Trenkenn ribonukleek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Trenkenn ribonukleek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80cid_ribonucleic" title="Àcid ribonucleic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àcid ribonucleic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B9%D3%B3%D2%AB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D3%97" title="Рибонуклеин йӳҫекӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Рибонуклеин йӳҫекӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleins%C3%A4ure" title="Ribonukleinsäure – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ribonukleinsäure" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido_ribonucleico" title="Ácido ribonucleico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ácido ribonucleico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARN" title="ARN – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="ARN" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azido_erribonukleiko" title="Azido erribonukleiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Azido erribonukleiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="آران‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آران‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acide_ribonucl%C3%A9ique" title="Acide ribonucléique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acide ribonucléique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aig%C3%A9ad_ribean%C3%BAicl%C3%A9asach" title="Aigéad ribeanúicléasach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aigéad ribeanúicléasach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido_ribonucleico" title="Ácido ribonucleico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ácido ribonucleico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%86%D4%B9" title="ՌՆԹ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="ՌՆԹ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2" title="राइबोज़ न्यूक्लिक अम्ल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="राइबोज़ न्यूक्लिक अम्ल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinska_kiselina" title="Ribonukleinska kiselina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ribonukleinska kiselina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleik_acido" title="Ribonukleik acido – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ribonukleik acido" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam_ribonukleat" title="Asam ribonukleat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Asam ribonukleat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acido_ribonucleic" title="Acido ribonucleic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Acido ribonucleic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isimunyuci" title="Isimunyuci – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isimunyuci" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADb%C3%B3sakjarns%C3%BDra" title="Ríbósakjarnsýra – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ríbósakjarnsýra" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D.%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D.%E0%B2%8E" title="ಆರ್.ಎನ್.ಎ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆರ್.ಎನ್.ಎ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="რიბონუკლეინის მჟავა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რიბონუკლეინის მჟავა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D2%9B%D1%8B%D1%88%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Рибонуклеин қышқылы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Рибонуклеин қышқылы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asid_ribonikleyik" title="Asid ribonikleyik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Asid ribonikleyik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asid_ribonikl%C3%A9yik" title="Asid ribonikléyik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Asid ribonikléyik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%C3%AEda_r%C3%AEbonukley%C3%AE" title="Asîda rîbonukleyî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Asîda rîbonukleyî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Рибонуклеин кислотасы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Рибонуклеин кислотасы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidum_ribonucleicum" title="Acidum ribonucleicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Acidum ribonucleicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukle%C4%ABnsk%C4%81be" title="Ribonukleīnskābe – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ribonukleīnskābe" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinsaier" title="Ribonukleinsaier – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ribonukleinsaier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleino_r%C5%ABg%C5%A1tis" title="Ribonukleino rūgštis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ribonukleino rūgštis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinsav" title="Ribonukleinsav – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ribonukleinsav" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%9D%D0%9A" title="РНК – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="РНК" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B5%BC._%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BB._%E0%B4%8E." title="ആർ. എൻ. എ. – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആർ. എൻ. എ." data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%8F" title="आरएनए – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आरएनए" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%91%E1%83%9F%E1%83%94" title="რიბონუკლეინიშ ბჟე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რიბონუკლეინიშ ბჟე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asid_ribonukleik" title="Asid ribonukleik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Asid ribonukleik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D2%AF%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Рибонуклейн хүчил – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Рибонуклейн хүчил" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonucle%C3%AFnezuur" title="Ribonucleïnezuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ribonucleïnezuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%8F" title="आर एन ए – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आर एन ए" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%83%9C%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8" title="リボ核酸 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リボ核酸" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinsyre" title="Ribonukleinsyre – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ribonukleinsyre" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_ribonucle%C3%AFc" title="Acid ribonucleïc – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Acid ribonucleïc" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonuklein_kislotalar" title="Ribonuklein kislotalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ribonuklein kislotalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%92" title="آر این اے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="آر این اے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF_(RNA)" title="ریبونوکلیک اسید (RNA) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ریبونوکلیک اسید (RNA)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80cid_ribonucl%C3%A8ich" title="Àcid ribonuclèich – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Àcid ribonuclèich" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwasy_rybonukleinowe" title="Kwasy rybonukleinowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kwasy rybonukleinowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido_ribonucleico" title="Ácido ribonucleico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ácido ribonucleico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_ribonucleic" title="Acid ribonucleic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Acid ribonucleic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Рибонуклеиновая кислота – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рибонуклеиновая кислота" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%D9%88_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DA%A9_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%DA%88" title="رائبو نیوکلک ایسڈ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="رائبو نیوکلک ایسڈ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARN" title="ARN – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="ARN" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARN" title="ARN – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="ARN" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A.%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A.%E0%B6%92." title="ආර්.එන්.ඒ. – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ආර්.එන්.ඒ." data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleov%C3%A1_kyselina" title="Ribonukleová kyselina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ribonukleová kyselina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinska_kislina" title="Ribonukleinska kislina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ribonukleinska kislina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A6%DB%8E%D9%86_%D8%A6%DB%95%DB%8C" title="ئار ئێن ئەی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئار ئێن ئەی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Рибонуклеинска киселина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рибонуклеинска киселина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNK" title="RNK – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="RNK" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonukleinsyra" title="Ribonukleinsyra – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ribonukleinsyra" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இரைபோ கருவமிலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இரைபோ கருவமிலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D3%99%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Рибонуклеин әчелеге – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Рибонуклеин әчелеге" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8B_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%82" title="రైబో కేంద్రక ఆమ్లం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రైబో కేంద్రక ఆమ్లం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD" title="อาร์เอ็นเอ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาร์เอ็นเอ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Рибонуклеїнова кислота – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рибонуклеїнова кислота" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%81" title="رائبو مرکزی ترشہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رائبو مرکزی ترشہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="RNA" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%B3%96%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8" title="核糖核酸 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="核糖核酸" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribon%C3%BAkl%C3%A9%C3%B9_k%C3%ADkan" title="Ribonúkléù kíkan – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ribonúkléù kíkan" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%B3%96%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8" title="核糖核酸 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="核糖核酸" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%B3%96%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8" title="核糖核酸 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="核糖核酸" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11053#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Family of large biological molecules</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the biological macromolecule. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/RNA_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="RNA (disambiguation)">RNA (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png/220px-Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png/330px-Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png/440px-Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A hairpin loop from a pre-mRNA. Highlighted are the <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nucleobases</a> (green) and the ribose-phosphate backbone (blue). This is a single strand of RNA that folds back upon itself. </figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li>RNA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular 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style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ribonucleic acid</b> (<b>RNA</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymeric</a> molecule that is essential for most biological functions, either by performing the function itself (<a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding RNA</a>) or by forming a template for the production of proteins (<a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a>). RNA and <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA) are <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a>. The nucleic acids constitute one of the four major <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">macromolecules</a> essential for all known forms of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>. RNA is assembled as a chain of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>. Cellular organisms use <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">messenger RNA</a> (<i><b>mRNA</b></i>) to convey genetic information (using the <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nitrogenous bases</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a>, denoted by the letters G, U, A, and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> encode their genetic information using an RNA <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. </p><p>Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these active processes is <a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">protein synthesis</a>, a universal function in which RNA molecules direct the synthesis of proteins on <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>. This process uses <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">transfer RNA</a> (<i><b>tRNA</b></i>) molecules to deliver <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">ribosomal RNA</a> (<i><b>rRNA</b></i>) then links amino acids together to form coded proteins. </p><p>It has become widely accepted in science<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that early in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_life_on_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of life on Earth">history of life on Earth</a>, prior to the evolution of DNA and possibly of protein-based <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> as well, an "<a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a>" existed in which RNA served as both living organisms' storage method for <a href="/wiki/Genetic_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic information">genetic information</a>—a role fulfilled today by DNA, except in the case of <a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA viruses</a>—and potentially performed catalytic functions in cells—a function performed today by protein enzymes, with the notable and important exception of the ribosome, which is a <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozyme</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_structure_of_RNA">Chemical structure of RNA</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Chemical structure of RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_structure" title="Nucleic acid structure">Nucleic acid structure</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_chemical_composition">Basic chemical composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Basic chemical composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png/250px-Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png/500px-Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="730" /></a><figcaption>Watson-Crick base pairs in a <a href="/wiki/SiRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="SiRNA">siRNA</a>. Hydrogen atoms are not shown.</figcaption></figure> <p>Each <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> in RNA contains a <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a> sugar, with carbons numbered 1' through 5'. A base is attached to the 1' position, in general, <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a> (A), <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a> (G), or <a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a> (U). Adenine and guanine are <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purines</a>, and cytosine and uracil are <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">pyrimidines</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> group is attached to the 3' position of one ribose and the 5' position of the next. The phosphate groups have a negative charge each, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion). The bases form <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a> between cytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15561141_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15561141-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other interactions are possible, such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the GNRA <a href="/wiki/Tetraloop" title="Tetraloop">tetraloop</a> that has a guanine–adenine base-pair.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15561141_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15561141-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_between_DNA_and_RNA">Differences between DNA and RNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Differences between DNA and RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png/220px-50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png/330px-50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png/440px-50S-subunit_of_the_ribosome_3CC2.png 2x" data-file-width="2265" data-file-height="2126" /></a><figcaption>Three-dimensional representation of the <a href="/wiki/50S" class="mw-redirect" title="50S">50S</a> ribosomal subunit. Ribosomal RNA is in brown, proteins in blue. The active site is a small segment of rRNA, indicated in red.</figcaption></figure> <div style="overflow:hidden"> <p>The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, but differs in three primary ways: </p> <ul><li>Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is usually a single-stranded molecule (ssRNA)<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Utah-2015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Utah-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in many of its biological roles and consists of much shorter chains of nucleotides.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Double-stranded_RNA">double-stranded RNA</a> (dsRNA) can form and (moreover) a single RNA molecule can, by complementary base pairing, form intrastrand double helixes, as in <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">tRNA</a>.</li> <li>While the sugar-phosphate "backbone" of DNA contains <i><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">deoxyribose</a></i>, RNA contains <i><a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a></i> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ribose has a <a href="/wiki/Hydroxy_group" title="Hydroxy group">hydroxyl</a> group attached to the pentose ring in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acid nomenclature">2'</a> position, whereas deoxyribose does not. The hydroxyl groups in the ribose backbone make RNA more chemically <a href="/wiki/Lability" title="Lability">labile</a> than DNA by lowering the <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a>.</li> <li>The complementary base to <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a> in DNA is <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a>, whereas in RNA, it is <a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a>, which is an <a href="/wiki/Methylation" title="Methylation">unmethylated</a> form of thymine.<sup id="cite_ref-Biochemistry_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biochemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> <p>Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs, including <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">tRNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/RRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RRNA">rRNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/SnRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="SnRNA">snRNAs</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding RNAs</a>, contain self-complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and pair with itself to form double helices. Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do not consist of long double helices, but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins. </p><p>In this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalysis</a> (like enzymes).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, determination of the structure of the ribosome—an <a href="/wiki/Ribonucleoprotein" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribonucleoprotein">RNA-protein complex</a> that catalyzes the assembly of proteins—revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-ribosome_activity_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ribosome_activity-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RNA_chemical_structure.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/RNA_chemical_structure.GIF/250px-RNA_chemical_structure.GIF" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/RNA_chemical_structure.GIF/330px-RNA_chemical_structure.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/RNA_chemical_structure.GIF 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>Structure of a fragment of an RNA, showing a guanosyl subunit</figcaption></figure> <p>An important structural component of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> group at the 2' position of the <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose sugar</a>. The presence of this functional group causes the helix to mostly take the <a href="/wiki/A-DNA" title="A-DNA">A-form geometry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although in single strand dinucleotide contexts, RNA can rarely also adopt the B-form most commonly observed in DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The A-form geometry results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second consequence of the presence of the 2'-hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule (that is, not involved in formation of a double helix), it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_and_tertiary_structures">Secondary and tertiary structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Secondary and tertiary structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The functional form of single-stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a specific spatial <a href="/wiki/RNA_Tertiary_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA Tertiary Structure">tertiary structure</a>. The scaffold for this structure is provided by <a href="/wiki/Secondary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary structure">secondary structural</a> elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like <a href="/wiki/Hairpin_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Hairpin loop">hairpin loops</a>, bulges, and <a href="/wiki/Internal_loop" title="Internal loop">internal loops</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to create, i.e., design, RNA for any given secondary structure, two or three bases would not be enough, but four bases are enough.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is likely why nature has "chosen" a four base alphabet: fewer than four would not allow the creation of all structures, while more than four bases are not necessary to do so. Since RNA is charged, metal ions such as <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg<sup>2+</sup></a> are needed to stabilise many secondary and <a href="/wiki/RNA_Tertiary_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA Tertiary Structure">tertiary structures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Enantiomer" title="Enantiomer">enantiomer</a> of RNA is <small>D</small>-RNA composed of <small>D</small>-ribonucleotides. All chirality centers are located in the <small>D</small>-ribose. By the use of <small>L</small>-ribose or rather <small>L</small>-ribonucleotides, <small>L</small>-RNA can be synthesized. <small>L</small>-RNA is much more stable against degradation by <a href="/wiki/Ribonuclease" title="Ribonuclease">RNase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25236655_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25236655-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like other structured <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymers</a> such as proteins, one can define topology of a folded RNA molecule. This is often done based on arrangement of intra-chain contacts within a folded RNA, termed as <a href="/wiki/Circuit_topology" title="Circuit topology">circuit topology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_modifications">Chemical modifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chemical modifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG/330px-Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG/500px-Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG/560px-Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Secondary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary structure">Secondary structure</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Telomerase_RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Telomerase RNA">telomerase RNA</a></figcaption></figure> <p>RNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil),<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but these bases and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature. <a href="/wiki/Pseudouridine" title="Pseudouridine">Pseudouridine</a> (Ψ), in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond, and <a href="/wiki/5-methyluridine" class="mw-redirect" title="5-methyluridine">ribothymidine</a> (T) are found in various places (the most notable ones being in the TΨC loop of <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">tRNA</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another notable modified base is <a href="/wiki/Hypoxanthine" title="Hypoxanthine">hypoxanthine</a>, a deaminated adenine base whose <a href="/wiki/Nucleoside" title="Nucleoside">nucleoside</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Inosine" title="Inosine">inosine</a> (I). Inosine plays a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Wobble_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Wobble hypothesis">wobble hypothesis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The greatest structural diversity of modifications can be found in <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">tRNA</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while pseudouridine and nucleosides with <a href="/wiki/2%27-O-methylation" title="2'-O-methylation">2'-O-methylribose</a> often present in rRNA are the most common.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood. However, it is notable that, in ribosomal RNA, many of the post-transcriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions, such as the peptidyl transferase center<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the subunit interface, implying that they are important for normal function.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_RNA">Types of RNA</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types of RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_RNAs" title="List of RNAs">List of RNAs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png/250px-Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png/330px-Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png/340px-Full_length_hammerhead_ribozyme.png 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>Structure of a <a href="/wiki/Hammerhead_ribozyme" title="Hammerhead ribozyme">hammerhead ribozyme</a>, a ribozyme that cuts RNA</figcaption></figure> <p>Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the type of RNA that carries information from DNA to the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a>, the sites of protein synthesis (<a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>) in the cell cytoplasm. The coding sequence of the mRNA determines the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> sequence in the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> that is produced.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Cell_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Cell-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many RNAs do not code for protein (about 97% of the transcriptional output is non-protein-coding in eukaryotes<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>These so-called <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding RNAs</a> ("ncRNA") can be encoded by their own genes (RNA genes), but can also derive from mRNA <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-transcriptome_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transcriptome-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent examples of non-coding RNAs are <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">transfer RNA</a> (tRNA) and <a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">ribosomal RNA</a> (rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation.<sup id="cite_ref-Biochemistry_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biochemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also non-coding RNAs involved in gene regulation, <a href="/wiki/RNA_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA processing">RNA processing</a> and other roles. Certain RNAs are able to <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyse</a> chemical reactions such as cutting and <a href="/wiki/Ligase" title="Ligase">ligating</a> other RNA molecules,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the catalysis of <a href="/wiki/Peptide_bond" title="Peptide bond">peptide bond</a> formation in the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-ribosome_activity_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ribosome_activity-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these are known as <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozymes</a>. </p><p>According to the length of RNA chain, RNA includes <a href="/wiki/Small_RNA" title="Small RNA">small RNA</a> and long RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Noncoding_RNA_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noncoding_RNA-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Usually, <a href="/wiki/Small_RNA" title="Small RNA">small RNAs</a> are shorter than 200 <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nt</a> in length, and long RNAs are greater than 200 <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nt</a> long.<sup id="cite_ref-lncRNA_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lncRNA-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long RNAs, also called large RNAs, mainly include <a href="/wiki/Long_non-coding_RNA" title="Long non-coding RNA">long non-coding RNA</a> (lncRNA) and <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a>. Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S <a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">ribosomal RNA</a> (rRNA), <a href="/wiki/5S_rRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="5S rRNA">5S rRNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">transfer RNA</a> (tRNA), <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a> (miRNA), <a href="/wiki/Small_interfering_RNA" title="Small interfering RNA">small interfering RNA</a> (siRNA), <a href="/wiki/Small_nucleolar_RNA" title="Small nucleolar RNA">small nucleolar RNA</a> (snoRNAs), <a href="/wiki/Piwi-interacting_RNA" title="Piwi-interacting RNA">Piwi-interacting RNA</a> (piRNA), tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA)<sup id="cite_ref-tsRNA_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tsRNA-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA).<sup id="cite_ref-srRNA_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srRNA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are certain exceptions as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/5S_rRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="5S rRNA">5S rRNA</a> of the members of the genus <a href="/wiki/Halococcus" title="Halococcus">Halococcus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>), which have an insertion, thus increasing its size.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RNAs_involved_in_protein_synthesis">RNAs involved in protein synthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: RNAs involved in protein synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">Messenger RNA</a> (mRNA) carries information about a protein sequence to the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>, the protein synthesis factories in the cell. It is <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">coded</a> so that every three nucleotides (a <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codon</a>) corresponds to one amino acid. In <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells, once precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) has been transcribed from DNA, it is processed to mature mRNA. This removes its <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a>—non-coding sections of the pre-mRNA. The mRNA is then exported from the nucleus to the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>, where it is bound to ribosomes and <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translated</a> into its corresponding protein form with the help of <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">tRNA</a>. In prokaryotic cells, which do not have nucleus and cytoplasm compartments, mRNA can bind to ribosomes while it is being transcribed from DNA. After a certain amount of time, the message degrades into its component nucleotides with the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Ribonuclease" title="Ribonuclease">ribonucleases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Cell_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Cell-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">Transfer RNA</a> (tRNA) is a small RNA chain of about 80 <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing <a href="/wiki/Polypeptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypeptide">polypeptide</a> chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. It has sites for amino acid attachment and an <a href="/wiki/Anticodon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticodon">anticodon</a> region for <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codon</a> recognition that binds to a specific sequence on the messenger RNA chain through hydrogen bonding.<sup id="cite_ref-transcriptome_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transcriptome-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Translation_of_mRNA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Translation_of_mRNA.svg/250px-Translation_of_mRNA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Translation_of_mRNA.svg/330px-Translation_of_mRNA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Translation_of_mRNA.svg/500px-Translation_of_mRNA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of how mRNA is used to create polypeptide chains</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">Ribosomal RNA</a> (rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. The rRNA is the component of the ribosome that hosts translation. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleolus" title="Nucleolus">nucleolus</a>, and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Cell_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Cell-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly all the RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cell is rRNA. </p><p><a href="/wiki/TmRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TmRNA">Transfer-messenger RNA</a> (tmRNA) is found in many <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a>. It tags proteins encoded by mRNAs that lack stop codons for degradation and prevents the ribosome from stalling.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulatory_RNA">Regulatory RNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Regulatory RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest known regulators of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> were proteins known as <a href="/wiki/Repressor" title="Repressor">repressors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Activator_(genetics)" title="Activator (genetics)">activators</a> – regulators with specific short binding sites within <a href="/wiki/Enhancer_(genetics)" title="Enhancer (genetics)">enhancer</a> regions near the genes to be regulated.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  Later studies have shown that RNAs also regulate genes. There are several kinds of RNA-dependent processes in eukaryotes regulating the expression of genes at various points, such as <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNAi</a> repressing genes <a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_regulation" title="Post-transcriptional regulation">post-transcriptionally</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_non-coding_RNA" title="Long non-coding RNA">long non-coding RNAs</a> shutting down blocks of <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> <a href="/wiki/Epigenetically" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetically">epigenetically</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enhancer_RNA" title="Enhancer RNA">enhancer RNAs</a> inducing increased gene expression.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris-2014_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Bacteria and archaea</a> have also been shown to use regulatory RNA systems such as <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_small_RNA" title="Bacterial small RNA">bacterial small RNAs</a> and <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gottesman-2005_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gottesman-2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fire and Mello were awarded the 2006 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> for discovering <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNAs</a> (miRNAs), specific short RNA molecules that can base-pair with mRNAs.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_Prize-2006_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-2006-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="MicroRNA_(miRNA)_and_small_interfering_RNA_(siRNA)"><span id="MicroRNA_.28miRNA.29_and_small_interfering_RNA_.28siRNA.29"></span>MicroRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: MicroRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a></div> <p>Post-transcriptional expression levels of many genes can be controlled by <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/MiRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MiRNA">miRNAs</a>, specific short RNA molecules, pair with mRNA regions and target them for degradation.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">antisense</a>-based process involves steps that first process the RNA so that it can <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base-pair</a> with a region of its target mRNAs. Once the base pairing occurs, other proteins direct the mRNA to be destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Nuclease" title="Nuclease">nucleases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris-2014_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long_non-coding_RNAs">Long non-coding RNAs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Long non-coding RNAs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Long_non-coding_RNA" title="Long non-coding RNA">Long Non-coding RNA</a></div> <p>Next to be linked to regulation were <a href="/wiki/XIST" title="XIST">Xist</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Long_noncoding_RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Long noncoding RNA">long noncoding RNAs</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome_inactivation" class="mw-redirect" title="X chromosome inactivation">X chromosome inactivation</a>.  Their roles, at first mysterious, were shown by <a href="/wiki/Jeannie_T._Lee" title="Jeannie T. Lee">Jeannie T. Lee</a> and others to be the <a href="/wiki/RNA_silencing" title="RNA silencing">silencing</a> of blocks of chromatin via recruitment of <a href="/wiki/Polycomb-group_proteins" title="Polycomb-group proteins">Polycomb</a> complex so that messenger RNA could not be transcribed from them.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional lncRNAs, currently defined as RNAs of more than 200 base pairs that do not appear to have coding potential,<sup id="cite_ref-Rinn-2012_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinn-2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been found associated with regulation of <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell</a> <a href="/wiki/Pluripotency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluripotency">pluripotency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rinn-2012_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinn-2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enhancer_RNAs">Enhancer RNAs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Enhancer RNAs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Enhancer_RNA" title="Enhancer RNA">Enhancer RNA</a></div> <p>The third major group of regulatory RNAs is called <a href="/wiki/Enhancer_RNA" title="Enhancer RNA">enhancer RNAs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rinn-2012_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinn-2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  It is not clear at present whether they are a unique category of RNAs of various lengths or constitute a distinct subset of lncRNAs.  In any case, they are transcribed from <a href="/wiki/Enhancers" class="mw-redirect" title="Enhancers">enhancers</a>, which are known regulatory sites in the DNA near genes they regulate.<sup id="cite_ref-Rinn-2012_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinn-2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  They up-regulate the transcription of the gene(s) under control of the enhancer from which they are transcribed.<sup id="cite_ref-Rinn-2012_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinn-2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small_RNA_in_prokaryotes">Small RNA in prokaryotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Small RNA in prokaryotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Small_RNA">Small RNA</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Small RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At first, regulatory RNA was thought to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, a part of the explanation for why so much more transcription in higher organisms was seen than had been predicted. But as soon as researchers began to look for possible RNA regulators in bacteria, they turned up there as well, termed as small RNA (sRNA).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gottesman-2005_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gottesman-2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, the ubiquitous nature of systems of RNA regulation of genes has been discussed as support for the <a href="/wiki/RNA_World" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA World">RNA World</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris-2014_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are indications that the enterobacterial sRNAs are involved in various cellular processes and seem to have significant role in stress responses such as membrane stress, starvation stress, phosphosugar stress and DNA damage. Also, it has been suggested that sRNAs have been evolved to have important role in stress responses because of their kinetic properties that allow for rapid response and stabilisation of the physiological state.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Utah-2015_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Utah-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_small_RNA" title="Bacterial small RNA">Bacterial small RNAs</a> generally act via <a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">antisense</a> pairing with mRNA to down-regulate its translation, either by affecting stability or affecting cis-binding ability.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris-2014_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Riboswitch" title="Riboswitch">Riboswitches</a> have also been discovered. They are cis-acting regulatory RNA sequences acting <a href="/wiki/Allosteric_regulation" title="Allosteric regulation">allosterically</a>. They change shape when they bind <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> so that they gain or lose the ability to bind chromatin to regulate expression of genes.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="CRISPR_RNA">CRISPR RNA</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: CRISPR RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaea also have systems of regulatory RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CRISPR system, recently being used to edit DNA <i>in situ</i>, acts via regulatory RNAs in archaea and bacteria to provide protection against virus invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris-2014_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="RNA_synthesis_and_processing">RNA synthesis and processing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: RNA synthesis and processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthesis">Synthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Synthesis of RNA typically occurs in the cell nucleus and is usually catalyzed by an enzyme—<a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a>—using DNA as a template, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a>. Initiation of transcription begins with the binding of the enzyme to a <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Promoter (biology)">promoter</a> sequence in the DNA (usually found "upstream" of a gene). The DNA double helix is unwound by the <a href="/wiki/Helicase" title="Helicase">helicase</a> activity of the enzyme. The enzyme then progresses along the template strand in the 3’ to 5’ direction, synthesizing a complementary RNA molecule with elongation occurring in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The DNA sequence also dictates where termination of RNA synthesis will occur.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Primary_transcript" title="Primary transcript">Primary transcript</a> RNAs are often <a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">modified</a> by enzymes after transcription. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Poly(A)_tail" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly(A) tail">poly(A) tail</a> and a <a href="/wiki/5%27_cap" class="mw-redirect" title="5' cap">5' cap</a> are added to eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Pre-mRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-mRNA">pre-mRNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a> are removed by the <a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">spliceosome</a>. </p><p>There are also a number of <a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA-dependent RNA polymerases</a> that use RNA as their template for synthesis of a new strand of RNA. For instance, a number of <a href="/wiki/Orthornavirae" title="Orthornavirae">RNA viruses</a> (such as poliovirus) use this type of enzyme to replicate their genetic material.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is part of the <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a> pathway in many organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RNA_processing">RNA processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: RNA processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg/250px-Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg/330px-Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg/500px-Synthesis_of_Pseudouridine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="321" /></a><figcaption>Uridine to pseudouridine is a common RNA modification.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many RNAs are involved in modifying other RNAs. <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">Introns</a> are <a href="/wiki/Splicing_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Splicing (genetics)">spliced</a> out of <a href="/wiki/Pre-mRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-mRNA">pre-mRNA</a> by <a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">spliceosomes</a>, which contain several <a href="/wiki/Small_nuclear_RNA" title="Small nuclear RNA">small nuclear RNAs</a> (snRNA),<sup id="cite_ref-Biochemistry_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biochemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the introns can be ribozymes that are spliced by themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA can also be altered by having its nucleotides modified to nucleotides other than <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytidine" title="Cytidine">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanosine" title="Guanosine">G</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uridine" title="Uridine">U</a>. In eukaryotes, modifications of RNA nucleotides are in general directed by <a href="/wiki/Small_nucleolar_RNA" title="Small nucleolar RNA">small nucleolar RNAs</a> (snoRNA; 60–300 nt),<sup id="cite_ref-transcriptome_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transcriptome-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleolus" title="Nucleolus">nucleolus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cajal_body" title="Cajal body">cajal bodies</a>. snoRNAs associate with enzymes and guide them to a spot on an RNA by basepairing to that RNA. These enzymes then perform the nucleotide modification. rRNAs and tRNAs are extensively modified, but snRNAs and mRNAs can also be the target of base modification.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA can also be methylated.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="RNA_in_genetics">RNA in genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: RNA in genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RNA_genomes">RNA genomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: RNA genomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like DNA, RNA can carry genetic information. <a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA viruses</a> have <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> composed of RNA that encodes a number of proteins. The viral genome is replicated by some of those proteins, while other proteins protect the genome as the virus particle moves to a new host cell. <a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">Viroids</a> are another group of pathogens, but they consist only of RNA, do not encode any protein and are replicated by a host plant cell's polymerase.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reverse_transcription">Reverse transcription</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reverse transcription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reverse transcribing viruses replicate their genomes by <a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse transcription">reverse transcribing</a> DNA copies from their RNA; these DNA copies are then transcribed to new RNA. <a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Retrotransposons</a> also spread by copying DNA and RNA from one another,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Telomerase" title="Telomerase">telomerase</a> contains an <a href="/wiki/Telomerase_RNA_component" title="Telomerase RNA component">RNA that is used as template</a> for building the ends of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_chromosome_structure" title="Eukaryotic chromosome structure">eukaryotic chromosomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Double-stranded_RNA">Double-stranded RNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Double-stranded RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Double-stranded_RNA.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Double-stranded_RNA.gif/250px-Double-stranded_RNA.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Double-stranded_RNA.gif/330px-Double-stranded_RNA.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Double-stranded_RNA.gif/500px-Double-stranded_RNA.gif 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="669" /></a><figcaption>Double-stranded RNA</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA" title="Double-stranded RNA">Double-stranded RNA</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA" title="Double-stranded RNA">Double-stranded RNA</a> (dsRNA) is RNA with two complementary strands, similar to the DNA found in all cells, but with the replacement of thymine by uracil and the adding of one oxygen atom. dsRNA forms the genetic material of some <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA_viruses" title="Double-stranded RNA viruses">double-stranded RNA viruses</a>). Double-stranded RNA, such as viral RNA or <a href="/wiki/SiRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="SiRNA">siRNA</a>, can trigger <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">interferon</a> response in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In eukaryotes, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) plays a role in the activation of the <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune system</a> against viral infections.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Circular_RNA">Circular RNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Circular RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Circular_RNA" title="Circular RNA">Circular RNA</a></div> <p>In the late 1970s, it was shown that there is a single stranded covalently closed, i.e. circular form of RNA expressed throughout the animal and plant kingdom (see <a href="/wiki/Circular_RNA" title="Circular RNA">circRNA</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> circRNAs are thought to arise via a "back-splice" reaction where the <a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">spliceosome</a> joins a upstream 3' acceptor to a downstream 5' donor splice site. So far the function of circRNAs is largely unknown, although for few examples a microRNA sponging activity has been demonstrated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_discoveries_in_RNA_biology">Key discoveries in RNA biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Key discoveries in RNA biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">History of RNA biology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R_Holley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/R_Holley.jpg/250px-R_Holley.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/R_Holley.jpg/330px-R_Holley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/R_Holley.jpg/500px-R_Holley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Robert W. Holley, left, poses with his research team.</figcaption></figure> <p>Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prizes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a> were discovered in 1868 by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Miescher" title="Friedrich Miescher">Friedrich Miescher</a>, who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was later discovered that <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> won the 1959 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Medicine">Nobel Prize in Medicine</a> (shared with <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a>) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the enzyme discovered by Ochoa (<a href="/wiki/Polynucleotide_phosphorylase" title="Polynucleotide phosphorylase">polynucleotide phosphorylase</a>) was later shown to be responsible for RNA degradation, not RNA synthesis. In 1956 Alex Rich and David Davies hybridized two separate strands of RNA to form the first crystal of RNA whose structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of a yeast tRNA was found by <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> in 1965,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> winning Holley the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine</a> (shared with <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Nirenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshall Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a>). </p><p>In the early 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">retroviruses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase" title="Reverse transcriptase">reverse transcriptase</a> were discovered, showing for the first time that enzymes could copy RNA into DNA (the opposite of the usual route for transmission of genetic information). For this work, <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Temin" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Temin">Howard Temin</a> were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1975. In 1976, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Fiers" title="Walter Fiers">Walter Fiers</a> and his team determined the first complete nucleotide sequence of an RNA virus genome, that of <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage_MS2" title="Bacteriophage MS2">bacteriophage MS2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1977, <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNA_splicing" title="RNA splicing">RNA splicing</a> were discovered in both mammalian viruses and in cellular genes, resulting in a 1993 Nobel to <a href="/wiki/Philip_A._Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip A. Sharp">Philip Sharp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard Roberts</a>. Catalytic RNA molecules (<a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozymes</a>) were discovered in the early 1980s, leading to a 1989 Nobel award to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Altman" title="Sidney Altman">Sidney Altman</a>. In 1990, it was found in <i><a href="/wiki/Petunia" title="Petunia">Petunia</a></i> that introduced genes can silence similar genes of the plant's own, now known to be a result of <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At about the same time, 22 nt long RNAs, now called <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNAs</a>, were found to have a role in the <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">C. elegans</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies on RNA interference earned a Nobel Prize for <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Z._Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Z. Fire">Andrew Fire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a> in 2006, and another Nobel for studies on the transcription of RNA to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Kornberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Kornberg">Roger Kornberg</a> in the same year. The discovery of gene regulatory RNAs has led to attempts to develop drugs made of RNA, such as <a href="/wiki/SiRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="SiRNA">siRNA</a>, to silence genes.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adding to the Nobel prizes for research on RNA, in 2009 it was awarded for the elucidation of the atomic structure of the ribosome to <a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venki Ramakrishnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Steitz" title="Thomas A. Steitz">Thomas A. Steitz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ada_Yonath" title="Ada Yonath">Ada Yonath</a>. In 2023 the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> was awarded to <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a> for their discoveries concerning <a href="/wiki/Nucleoside_analogue" title="Nucleoside analogue">modified nucleosides</a> that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relevance_for_prebiotic_chemistry_and_abiogenesis">Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1968, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a> hypothesized that RNA might be catalytic and suggested that the earliest forms of life (self-replicating molecules) could have relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions—an <a href="/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA world hypothesis">RNA world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2022, scientists discovered that RNA can form spontaneously on prebiotic <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">basalt lava glass</a>, presumed to have been abundant on the <a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">early Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AST-20220519_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AST-20220519-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PO-20220603_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PO-20220603-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 2015, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and RNA <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nucleobases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a>, were reportedly formed in the laboratory under <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a> conditions, using starter chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">pyrimidine</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a> commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">Pyrimidine</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs), is one of the most carbon-rich compounds found in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and may have been formed in <a href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">red giants</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">interstellar dust</a> and gas clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20150303_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20150303-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2022, astronomers reported massive amounts of <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis#Producing_molecules:_prebiotic_synthesis" title="Abiogenesis">prebiotic molecules</a>, including possible RNA precursors, in the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center" title="Galactic Center">galactic center</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Milky Way Galaxy">Milky Way Galaxy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SA-20220708_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SA-20220708-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FASS-20220708_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FASS-20220708-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_applications">Medical applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Medical applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>RNA, initially deemed unsuitable for therapeutics due to its short half-life, has been made useful through advances in stabilization. Therapeutic applications arise as RNA folds into complex conformations and binds proteins, nucleic acids, and small molecules to form catalytic centers.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA-based vaccines are thought to be easier to produce than traditional vaccines derived from killed or altered pathogens, because it can take months or years to grow and study a pathogen and determine which molecular parts to extract, inactivate, and use in a vaccine. Small molecules with conventional therapeutic properties can target RNA and DNA structures, thereby treating novel diseases. However, research is scarce on small molecules targeting RNA and approved drugs for human illness. Ribavirin, branaplam, and ataluren are currently available medications that stabilize double-stranded RNA structures and control splicing in a variety of disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protein-coding mRNAs have emerged as new therapeutic candidates, with RNA replacement being particularly beneficial for brief but torrential protein expression.<sup id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In vitro transcribed mRNAs (IVT-mRNA) have been used to deliver proteins for bone regeneration, pluripotency, and heart function in animal models.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SiRNAs, short RNA molecules, play a crucial role in innate defense against viruses and chromatin structure. They can be artificially introduced to silence specific genes, making them valuable for gene function studies, therapeutic target validation, and drug development.<sup id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/MRNA_vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA vaccines">mRNA vaccines</a> have emerged as an important new class of vaccines, using mRNA to manufacture proteins which provoke an immune response. Their first successful large-scale application came in the form of <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">COVID-19 vaccines</a> during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomolecular_structure" title="Biomolecular structure">Biomolecular structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">History of RNA Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RNA_biologists" title="List of RNA biologists">List of RNA Biologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_Society" title="RNA Society">RNA Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">Macromolecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA-based_evolution" title="RNA-based evolution">RNA-based evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptamer" title="Aptamer">Aptamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_origami" title="RNA origami">RNA origami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptome" title="Transcriptome">Transcriptome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA world hypothesis">RNA world hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCopleySmithMarkowitz2007" class="citation journal cs1">Copley SD, Smith E, Markowitz HJ (December 2007). "The origin of the RNA world: co-evolution of genes and metabolism". <i>Bioorganic Chemistry</i>. <b>35</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">430–</span>443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bioorg.2007.08.001">10.1016/j.bioorg.2007.08.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17897696">17897696</a>. <q>The proposal that life on Earth arose from an RNA World is widely accepted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bioorganic+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+the+RNA+world%3A+co-evolution+of+genes+and+metabolism&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E430-%3C%2Fspan%3E443&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bioorg.2007.08.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17897696&rft.aulast=Copley&rft.aufirst=SD&rft.au=Smith%2C+E&rft.au=Markowitz%2C+HJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARNA" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid15561141-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid15561141_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid15561141_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeeGutell2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lee JC, Gutell RR (December 2004). "Diversity of base-pair conformations and their occurrence in rRNA structure and RNA structural motifs". <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>. <b>344</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1225–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmb.2004.09.072">10.1016/j.jmb.2004.09.072</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15561141">15561141</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Diversity+of+base-pair+conformations+and+their+occurrence+in+rRNA+structure+and+RNA+structural+motifs&rft.volume=344&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1225-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jmb.2004.09.072&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15561141&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=JC&rft.au=Gutell%2C+RR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARNA" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarciszewskiFredericClark1999" class="citation book cs1">Barciszewski J, Frederic B, Clark C (1999). <i>RNA biochemistry and biotechnology</i>. 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genetics421" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics" title="Template:Genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics" title="Template talk:Genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics"><abbr title="Edit this 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_genome_editing_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="He Jiankui genome editing incident">He Jiankui genome editing incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gene_expression217" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gene_expression" title="Template:Gene expression"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gene_expression" title="Template talk:Gene expression"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gene_expression" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gene expression"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gene_expression217" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction<br />to genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> → <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">RNA</a> → <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology#Special_transfers_of_biological_sequential_information" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Special transfers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA→RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse transcription">RNA→DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Protein→Protein</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">Transcription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_transcription" title="Bacterial transcription">Bacterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_transcription" title="Archaeal transcription">Archaeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_transcription" title="Eukaryotic transcription">Eukaryotic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Key elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">Transcription factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">Promoter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_transcript" title="Primary transcript">Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-prime_cap" title="Five-prime cap">5' capping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_splicing" title="RNA splicing">Splicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyadenylation" title="Polyadenylation">Polyadenylation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_acetylation_and_deacetylation" title="Histone acetylation and deacetylation">Histone acetylation and deacetylation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">Translation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_translation" title="Bacterial translation">Bacterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_translation" title="Archaeal translation">Archaeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_translation" title="Eukaryotic translation">Eukaryotic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Key elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;white-space:nowrap;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">Transfer RNA (tRNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome-nascent_chain_complex" title="Ribosome-nascent chain complex">Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">Post-translational modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Regulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_imprinting" title="Genomic imprinting">imprinting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptional_regulation" title="Transcriptional regulation">Transcriptional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_regulatory_network" title="Gene regulatory network">Gene regulatory network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element" title="Cis-regulatory element">cis-regulatory element</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lac_operon" title="Lac operon">lac operon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_regulation" title="Post-transcriptional regulation">Post-transcriptional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-bodies" title="P-bodies">sequestration (P-bodies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_splicing" title="Alternative splicing">alternative splicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translational_regulation" title="Translational regulation">Translational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-translational_regulation" title="Post-translational regulation">Post-translational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">reversible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteolysis" title="Proteolysis">irreversible</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influential people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_RNA99" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_RNA" title="Template:Types of RNA"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_RNA" title="Template talk:Types of RNA"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_RNA" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of RNA"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_RNA99" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">RNA</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protein synthesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">Messenger RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">Ribosomal RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_recognition_particle_RNA" title="Signal recognition particle RNA">Signal recognition particle RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">Transfer RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-messenger_RNA" title="Transfer-messenger RNA">Transfer-messenger RNA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">RNA processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_nuclear_RNA" title="Small nuclear RNA">Small nuclear RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_nucleolar_RNA" title="Small nucleolar RNA">Small nucleolar RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_RNA" title="Guide RNA">Guide RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNase_P" class="mw-redirect" title="RNase P">RNase P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNase_MRP" title="RNase MRP">RNase MRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_RNA" title="Y RNA">Y RNA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gene regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">Antisense RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-natural_antisense_transcript" title="Cis-natural antisense transcript">Cis-natural antisense transcript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_non-coding_RNA" title="Long non-coding RNA">Long noncoding RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">MicroRNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piwi-interacting_RNA" title="Piwi-interacting RNA">Piwi-interacting RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RasiRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RasiRNA">Repeat-associated siRNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_interfering_RNA" title="Small interfering RNA">Small interfering RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_temporal_RNA" title="Small temporal RNA">Small temporal RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-acting_siRNA" title="Trans-acting siRNA">Trans-acting siRNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_hairpin_RNA" title="Short hairpin RNA">Short hairpin RNA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cis-regulatory elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Riboswitch" title="Riboswitch">Riboswitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SECIS_element" title="SECIS element">SECIS element</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parasites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Retrotransposon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">Reverse transcribing virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">Viroid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telomerase_RNA_component" title="Telomerase RNA component">Telomerase RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vault_RNA" title="Vault RNA">Vault RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RNAs" title="List of RNAs">List of RNAs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_nucleic_acids398" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nucleic_acids" title="Template:Nucleic acids"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nucleic_acids" title="Template talk:Nucleic acids"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleic_acids" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleic acids"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_nucleic_acids398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Constituents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Nucleobases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside" title="Nucleoside">Nucleosides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleotide" title="Deoxyribonucleotide">Deoxynucleotides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ribonucleic acids </a><br /><span class="nobold">(coding, <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">non-coding</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#In_translation">Translational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">Messenger </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_transcript" title="Primary transcript">precursor, heterogenous nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleoside-modified_messenger_RNA" title="Nucleoside-modified messenger RNA">modified Messenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">Transfer </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">Ribosomal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-messenger_RNA" title="Transfer-messenger RNA">Transfer-messenger </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Regulatory_RNAs">Regulatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">Interferential </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">Micro </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_interfering_RNA" title="Small interfering RNA">Small interfering </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piwi-interacting_RNA" title="Piwi-interacting RNA">Piwi-interacting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">Antisense </a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#In_RNA_processing">Processual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_nuclear_RNA" title="Small nuclear RNA">Small nuclear </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_nucleolar_RNA" title="Small nucleolar RNA">Small nucleolar </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Cajal_body-specific_RNA" title="Small Cajal body-specific RNA">Small Cajal Body RNAs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_RNA" title="Y RNA">Y RNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhancer_RNA" title="Enhancer RNA">Enhancer RNAs </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guide_RNA" title="Guide RNA">Guide </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">Ribozyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hairpin_RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Small hairpin RNA">Small hairpin </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_temporal_RNA" title="Small temporal RNA">Small temporal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-acting_siRNA" title="Trans-acting siRNA">Trans-acting small interfering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgenomic_mRNA" title="Subgenomic mRNA">Subgenomic messenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">Deoxyribonucleic <br />acids </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organellar_DNA" title="Organellar DNA">Organellar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast_DNA" title="Chloroplast DNA">Chloroplast </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_DNA" title="Complementary DNA">Complementary </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribozyme" title="Deoxyribozyme">Deoxyribozyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_DNA" title="Genomic DNA">Genomic </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachimoji_DNA" title="Hachimoji DNA">Hachimoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicopy_single-stranded_DNA" title="Multicopy single-stranded DNA">Multicopy single-stranded </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_analogue" title="Nucleic acid analogue">Analogues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xeno_nucleic_acid" title="Xeno nucleic acid">Xeno </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycol_nucleic_acid" title="Glycol nucleic acid">Glycol </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threose_nucleic_acid" title="Threose nucleic acid">Threose </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose">Hexose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locked_nucleic_acid" title="Locked nucleic acid">Locked </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide_nucleic_acid" title="Peptide nucleic acid">Peptide </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morpholino" title="Morpholino">Morpholino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cloning_vector" title="Cloning vector">Cloning vectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagemid" title="Phagemid">Phagemid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Lambda phage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmid" title="Cosmid">Cosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosmid" title="Fosmid">Fosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_artificial_chromosome" title="Human artificial chromosome">Artificial chromosomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P1-derived_artificial_chromosome" title="P1-derived artificial chromosome">P1-derived </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_artificial_chromosome" title="Bacterial artificial chromosome">Bacterial </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_artificial_chromosome" title="Yeast artificial chromosome">Yeast </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_artificial_chromosome" title="Human artificial chromosome">Human</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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