CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Outer space - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"bbd0570f-a638-4e5f-b93c-b6e32ec034b4","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Outer_space","wgTitle":"Outer space","wgCurRevisionId":1277586481,"wgRevisionId":1277586481,"wgArticleId":177602,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Kinyarwanda-language sources (rw)","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","Good articles","CS1 location test","Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata","Pages using Sister project links with default search","Outer space","Space plasmas","Environments","Vacuum"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage" :"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Outer_space","wgRelevantArticleId":177602,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q4169","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness", "fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp", "ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.17"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg/1200px-Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1225"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg/800px-Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="816"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg/640px-Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="653"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Outer space - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Outer_space rootpage-Outer_space skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Outer+space" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Outer+space" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Outer+space" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Outer+space" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Terminology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_and_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Formation and state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Human access </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_access-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human access subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effect_on_biology_and_human_bodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_biology_and_human_bodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Effect on biology and human bodies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_biology_and_human_bodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vacuum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vacuum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Vacuum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vacuum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weightlessness_and_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weightlessness_and_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Weightlessness and radiation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weightlessness_and_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boundary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boundary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Boundary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boundary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Legal status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earth_orbit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth_orbit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Earth orbit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth_orbit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Regions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Regions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regions_near_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regions_near_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Regions near the Earth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regions_near_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interplanetary_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interplanetary_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Interplanetary space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interplanetary_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interstellar_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interstellar_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Interstellar space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interstellar_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intergalactic_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intergalactic_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Intergalactic space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intergalactic_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History of discovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Exploration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Application </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Outer space</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 121 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-121" aria-hidden="true" > 121 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruimte" title="Ruimte – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ruimte" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komovuot%C3%A2" title="Komovuotâ – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Komovuotâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="अंतरिक्ष – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अंतरिक्ष" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodor" title="Rodor – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Rodor" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="فضاء خارجي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فضاء خارجي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espaciu_esterior" title="Espaciu esterior – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Espaciu esterior" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B4%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ائشیک فضاسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ائشیک فضاسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6" title="মহাকাশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহাকাশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0i-khong" title="Thài-khong – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thài-khong" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Касмічная прастора – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Касмічная прастора" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Касьмічная прастора – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Касьмічная прастора" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="अंतरिक्ष – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अंतरिक्ष" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Космическо пространство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Космическо пространство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanjski_svemir" title="Vanjski svemir – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vanjski svemir" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egor" title="Egor – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Egor" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Огторгойн орон зай – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Огторгойн орон зай" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espai_exterior" title="Espai exterior – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espai exterior" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%95%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5_%D1%83%C3%A7%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85%C4%95" title="Тĕнче уçлăхĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тĕнче уçлăхĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmick%C3%BD_prostor" title="Kosmický prostor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kosmický prostor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengezeze_reChadenga" title="Dengezeze reChadenga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Dengezeze reChadenga" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_gofod" title="Y gofod – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y gofod" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ydre_rum" title="Ydre rum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ydre rum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="فضاء براني – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="فضاء براني" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomuvuohta" title="Gomuvuohta – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Gomuvuohta" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltraum" title="Weltraum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Weltraum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Διάστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διάστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Инеменель – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Инеменель" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio_exterior" title="Espacio exterior – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espacio exterior" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekstertero" title="Ekstertero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekstertero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanpo-espazio" title="Kanpo-espazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kanpo-espazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%88" title="ماورای جو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماورای جو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espace_(cosmologie)" title="Espace (cosmologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Espace (cosmologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_sp%C3%A1s_amuigh" title="An spás amuigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An spás amuigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espazo_exterior" title="Espazo exterior – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Espazo exterior" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA" title="太空 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="太空" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B6%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B6" title="શૂન્યાવકાશ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="શૂન્યાવકાશ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%A3%BC_%EA%B3%B5%EA%B0%84" title="우주 공간 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우주 공간" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%AB%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տիեզերական տարածություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տիեզերական տարածություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="अंतरिक्ष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंतरिक्ष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svemirsko_prostranstvo" title="Svemirsko prostranstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Svemirsko prostranstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luar_angkasa" title="Luar angkasa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Luar angkasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Космос – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Космос" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geimur" title="Geimur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Geimur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spazio_(astronomia)" title="Spazio (astronomia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spazio (astronomia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%9C" title="חלל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חלל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alapaap" title="Alapaap – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Alapaap" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Космос – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Космос" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%9A%D8%A8%D9%95%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نیٚبٕر آسمان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="نیٚبٕر آسمان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Ғарыш – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғарыш" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anga-nje" title="Anga-nje – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Anga-nje" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8spas_(kosmoloji)" title="Lèspas (kosmoloji) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lèspas (kosmoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Космос – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Космос" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ອາວະກາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອາວະກາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatium_(astronomia)" title="Spatium (astronomia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Spatium (astronomia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmisk%C4%81_telpa" title="Kosmiskā telpa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kosmiskā telpa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltraum" title="Weltraum – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Weltraum" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%88" title="Арш – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Арш" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmin%C4%97_erdv%C4%97" title="Kosminė erdvė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kosminė erdvė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vil%C3%A1g%C5%B1r" title="Világűr – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Világűr" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habakabaka" title="Habakabaka – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Habakabaka" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="ബഹിരാകാശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബഹിരാകാശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अंतराळ विज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अंतराळ विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D" title="უქიანო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უქიანო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%89" title="الفضاء الخارجى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الفضاء الخارجى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkasa_lepas" title="Angkasa lepas – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Angkasa lepas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9B_(%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F)" title="ꯑꯇꯤꯡꯀꯣꯛ (ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯟ) – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯇꯤꯡꯀꯣꯛ (ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯟ)" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Сансар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сансар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E" title="အပြင်ဖက်အာကာသ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အပြင်ဖက်အာကာသ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruimte_(astronomie)" title="Ruimte (astronomie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ruimte (astronomie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="अन्तरिक्ष – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अन्तरिक्ष" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E7%A9%BA%E9%96%93" title="宇宙空間 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宇宙空間" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Космосан есалла – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Космосан есалла" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdensrommet" title="Verdensrommet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Verdensrommet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdsrommet" title="Verdsrommet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Verdsrommet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espaci_(cosmologia)" title="Espaci (cosmologia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Espaci (cosmologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A9%9C" title="ਪੁਲਾੜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੁਲਾੜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7" title="خلا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="خلا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84" title="بهرنی تشیال – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بهرنی تشیال" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outa_spies" title="Outa spies – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Outa spies" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przestrze%C5%84_kosmiczna" title="Przestrzeń kosmiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przestrzeń kosmiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espa%C3%A7o_sideral" title="Espaço sideral – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espaço sideral" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feza" title="Feza – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Feza" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa%C8%9Biul_cosmic" title="Spațiul cosmic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Spațiul cosmic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%27usaq_pacha" title="Ch'usaq pacha – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ch'usaq pacha" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Космическое пространство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Космическое пространство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ooter_space" title="Ooter space – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ooter space" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hap%C3%ABsira_kozmike" title="Hapësira kozmike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hapësira kozmike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spazziu" title="Spazziu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Spazziu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="අභ්‍යවකාශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අභ්‍යවකාශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Outer space" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7" title="خلا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="خلا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozmick%C3%BD_priestor_(astron%C3%B3mia)" title="Kozmický priestor (astronómia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kozmický priestor (astronómia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesoljski_prostor" title="Vesoljski prostor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vesoljski prostor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przestrzy%C5%84stwo_kosmiczne" title="Przestrzyństwo kosmiczne – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Przestrzyństwo kosmiczne" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="بۆشاییی دەرەکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بۆشاییی دەرەکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Свемир (космологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Свемир (космологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svemir_(kosmologija)" title="Svemir (kosmologija) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Svemir (kosmologija)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaruus" title="Avaruus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Avaruus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rymden" title="Rymden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rymden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalawakan" title="Kalawakan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kalawakan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF" title="புறவெளி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புறவெளி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallunt_tuffi%C9%A3t" title="Tallunt tuffiɣt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tallunt tuffiɣt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%9E%C3%A4l%C3%A4mi_f%C3%A4za" title="Ğälämi fäza – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ğälämi fäza" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%94%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఔటర్ స్పేస్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఔటర్ స్పేస్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8" title="อวกาศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อวกาศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzay" title="Uzay – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Uzay" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos" title="Kosmos – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kosmos" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%80" title="Космічний простір – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Космічний простір" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D8%A8%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B7" title="فضائے بسیط – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فضائے بسیط" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%95%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%84%DB%87%D9%82%D9%89" title="ئالەم بوشلۇقى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئالەم بوشلۇقى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B4ng_gian_ngo%C3%A0i_thi%C3%AAn_th%E1%BB%83" title="Không gian ngoài thiên thể – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Không gian ngoài thiên thể" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E8%99%9B" title="太虛 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="太虛" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalarakan" title="Kalarakan – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kalarakan" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%B1%82%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4" title="外层空间 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="外层空间" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A1" title="קאסמאס – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאסמאס" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%92furuf%C3%BA" title="Òfurufú – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Òfurufú" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA" title="太空 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="太空" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%B1%82%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4" title="外层空间 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="外层空间" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4169#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Outer_space" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Outer_space">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Outer_space">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Outer_space" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Outer_space" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&oldid=1277586481" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Outer_space&id=1277586481&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOuter_space">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOuter_space">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Outer_space&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Outer_space" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikinews mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Space" hreflang="en">Wikinews</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Space" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikivoyage badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Space" hreflang="en">Wikivoyage</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4169" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Void between celestial bodies</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the space between celestial bodies. For the general concept, see <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Outer_space_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Outer space (disambiguation)">Outer space (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg/310px-Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg/465px-Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg/620px-Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4537" data-file-height="4630" /></a><figcaption>Being essentially empty, outer space allows the earliest (redder) galaxies to be viewed without obstruction, as in the <a href="/wiki/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field" title="Webb's First Deep Field">Webb's First Deep Field</a> image.</figcaption></figure> Outer space (or simply space) is the expanse that exists beyond <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Earth's atmosphere</a> and between <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial bodies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-1">[1]</a> It contains ultra-low <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(pressure)" title="Orders of magnitude (pressure)">levels of particle densities</a>, constituting a <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high_vacuum" title="Ultra-high vacuum">near-perfect vacuum</a><a href="#cite_note-Roth_2012-2">[2]</a> of predominantly <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>, permeated by <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">neutrinos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">dust</a>. The baseline <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> of outer space, as set by the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">background radiation</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, is 2.7 kelvins (−270 °C; −455 °F).<a href="#cite_note-CBE2008-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Warm%E2%80%93hot_intergalactic_medium" title="Warm–hot intergalactic medium">plasma between galaxies</a> is thought to account for about half of the <a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">baryonic (ordinary) matter</a> in the universe, having a <a href="/wiki/Number_density" title="Number density">number density</a> of less than one <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">hydrogen atom</a> per cubic metre and a <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinetic temperature">kinetic temperature</a> of millions of <a href="/wiki/Kelvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvins">kelvins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-baas41_908-4">[4]</a> Local concentrations of matter have condensed into <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, but even galaxies and <a href="/wiki/Star_system" title="Star system">star systems</a> consist almost entirely of empty space. Most of the remaining <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass-energy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a> is made up of an unknown form, dubbed <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreedmanKaufmann2005573,_599–601-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trimble_1987-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasa_darkenergy-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreedmanKaufmann2005650–653-8">[8]</a> Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above Earth's surface. The <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line" title="Kármán line">Kármán line</a>, an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary200984-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-space_begin-10">[10]</a> is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. Certain portions of the upper <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">mesosphere</a> are sometimes referred to as "near space". The framework for international <a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">space law</a> was established by the <a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a>, which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of <a href="/wiki/National_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="National sovereignty">national sovereignty</a> and permits all states to freely <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">explore outer space</a>. Despite the drafting of <a href="/wiki/UN_resolution" class="mw-redirect" title="UN resolution">UN resolutions</a> for the peaceful uses of outer space, <a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">anti-satellite weapons</a> have been tested in <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Earth orbit</a>. The concept that the space between the Earth and the Moon must be a vacuum was first proposed in the 17th century after scientists discovered that <a href="/wiki/Air_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pressure">air pressure</a> decreased with altitude. The immense scale of outer space was grasped in the 20th century when the distance to the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a> was first measured. Humans began the physical exploration of space later in the same century with the advent of high-altitude <a href="/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloon (aircraft)">balloon flights</a>. This was followed by crewed <a href="/wiki/Rocket_launch" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket launch">rocket flights</a> and, then, crewed Earth orbit, first achieved by <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1961. The economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high, limiting human <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> to <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Uncrewed_spacecraft" title="Uncrewed spacecraft">uncrewed spacecraft</a> have reached all of the known <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. Outer space represents a challenging environment for <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">human exploration</a> because of the hazards of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Microgravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Microgravity">Microgravity</a> has a negative effect on human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> that causes both <a href="/wiki/Muscle_atrophy" title="Muscle atrophy">muscle atrophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_osteopenia" title="Spaceflight osteopenia">bone loss</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> The use of the short version space, as meaning 'the region beyond Earth's sky', predates the use of full term "outer space", with the earliest recorded use of this meaning in an epic poem by <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> called <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a>, published in 1667.<a href="#cite_note-harper2001-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brady2007-12">[12]</a> The term outward space existed in a poem from 1842 by the English poet Lady <a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Stuart-Wortley" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmeline Stuart-Wortley">Emmeline Stuart-Wortley</a> called "The Maiden of Moscow",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuart_Wortley1841410-13">[13]</a> but in astronomy the term outer space found its application for the first time in 1845 by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Humboldt184539-14">[14]</a> The term was eventually popularized through the writings of <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> after 1901.<a href="#cite_note-entymonline-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a> used the term of free space to name the space of altitudes above Earth where spacecrafts reach conditions sufficiently free from atmospheric drag, differentiating it from <a href="/wiki/Airspace" title="Airspace">airspace</a>, identifying a legal space above territories free from the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign" title="Sovereign">sovereign</a> jurisdiction of countries.<a href="#cite_note-Betz-16">[16]</a> "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spaceborne" class="extiw" title="wikt:spaceborne">Spaceborne</a>" denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a spacecraft;<a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster_2022-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fall_Cao_Hong_Eymard_2022-18">[18]</a> similarly, "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space-based" class="extiw" title="wikt:space-based">space-based</a>" means based in outer space or on a planet or moon.<a href="#cite_note-based-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_and_state">Formation and state</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An artist's concept of the expanding universe opening up from the viewer's left, facing the viewer in a 3/4 pose." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/330px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/495px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/660px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a>, where visible space is represented by the circular sections. At left, a dramatic expansion occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Inflationary_epoch" title="Inflationary epoch">inflationary epoch</a>, and at the center, the expansion <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">accelerates</a>. Neither time nor size are to scale.</figcaption></figure> The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddle201533-20">[20]</a> According to the Big Bang theory, the very early universe was an extremely hot and dense state about <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">13.8 billion years ago</a><a href="#cite_note-planck_2013-21">[21]</a> which rapidly <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expanded</a>. About 380,000 years later the universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination epoch</a>. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space.<a href="#cite_note-SciAm301_1_36-22">[22]</a> Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> that forms what is now called outer space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilk2000105–308-23">[23]</a> As light has a finite velocity, this theory constrains the size of the directly observable universe.<a href="#cite_note-SciAm301_1_36-22">[22]</a> The present day <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">shape of the universe</a> has been determined from measurements of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background</a> using satellites like the <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a>. These observations indicate that the <a href="/wiki/Spatial_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial geometry">spatial geometry</a> of the observable universe is "<a href="/wiki/Flatness_(cosmology)" title="Flatness (cosmology)">flat</a>", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity.<a href="#cite_note-WMAP-24">[24]</a> The flat universe, combined with the measured mass density of the universe and the accelerating <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">expansion of the universe</a>, indicates that space has a non-zero <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">vacuum energy</a>, which is called <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparkeGallagher2007329–330-25">[25]</a> Estimates put the average <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> of the present day universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters.<a href="#cite_note-nasa_wmap-26">[26]</a> The density of the universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>—to conditions in vast <a href="/wiki/Void_(astronomy)" title="Void (astronomy)">voids</a> that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter.<a href="#cite_note-aj89_1461-27">[27]</a> Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the universe, dark energy's influence is 5 <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">orders of magnitude</a> smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-rvmphys_75_559-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environment">Environment</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">Space environment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Space weathering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_(iotw2225c).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_%28iotw2225c%29.jpg/440px-Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_%28iotw2225c%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_%28iotw2225c%29.jpg/660px-Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_%28iotw2225c%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_%28iotw2225c%29.jpg/880px-Night_Sky_from_Hawai%E2%80%98i_and_Chile_%28iotw2225c%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="28565" data-file-height="6098" /></a><figcaption>A wide field view of outer space as seen from Earth's surface at night. The <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">interplanetary dust cloud</a> is visible as the horizontal band of <a href="/wiki/Zodiacal_light" title="Zodiacal light">zodiacal light</a>, including the false dawn<a href="#cite_note-eso_2017-29">[29]</a> (edges) and <a href="/wiki/Gegenschein" title="Gegenschein">gegenschein</a> (center), which is visually crossed by the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a></figcaption></figure> Outer space is the closest known approximation to a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_vacuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect vacuum">perfect vacuum</a>. It has effectively no <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>, allowing stars, <a href="/wiki/Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Planets">planets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moons" class="mw-redirect" title="Moons">moons</a> to move freely along their ideal <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbits</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary formation">initial formation</a> stage. The deep vacuum of <a href="#Intergalactic_space">intergalactic space</a> is not devoid of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, as it contains a few <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen atoms">hydrogen atoms</a> per cubic meter.<a href="#cite_note-pasj20_230-30">[30]</a> By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorowitzBeiser1971-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-patrick-32">[32]</a> The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the <a href="/wiki/Mean_free_path" title="Mean free path">mean free path</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> in intergalactic space is about 1023 km, or 10 billion light years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies197793-33">[33]</a> In spite of this, <a href="/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)" title="Extinction (astronomy)">extinction</a>, which is the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a> of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fitzpatrick2004-34">[34]</a> Stars, planets, and moons retain their <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmospheres</a> by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChamberlain19782-35">[35]</a> The Earth's atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> drops to about 0.032 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">Pa</a> at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude,<a href="#cite_note-squire2000-36">[36]</a> compared to 100,000 Pa for the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a> (IUPAC) definition of <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard pressure</a>. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to <a href="/wiki/Radiation_pressure" title="Radiation pressure">radiation pressure</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_pressure" title="Dynamic pressure">dynamic pressure</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">thermosphere</a> in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">space weather</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jmsj_85B_193-37">[37]</a> The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic</a> activity of the gas,<a href="#cite_note-Spitzer_1948-38">[38]</a> as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrialnik2000195–196-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpitzer197828–30-40">[40]</a> All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> (CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">cosmic neutrino background</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fp2_30-41">[41]</a>) The current <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> temperature of the background radiation is about 2.7 K (−455 °F).<a href="#cite_note-apj707_2_916-42">[42]</a> The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in the <a href="/wiki/Boomerang_Nebula" title="Boomerang Nebula">Boomerang Nebula</a> is 1 K (−458 °F),<a href="#cite_note-ALMA2013-43">[43]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Solar_corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar corona">solar corona</a> reaches temperatures over 1,200,000–2,600,000 K (2,200,000–4,700,000 °F).<a href="#cite_note-apj325_442-44">[44]</a> Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about every class of celestial object. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scale <a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">dynamos</a>, creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μ<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">G</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Davis%E2%80%93Greenstein_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Davis–Greenstein effect">Davis–Greenstein effect</a> causes elongated <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">dust grains</a> to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a>. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields that exist in several nearby galaxies. <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">Magneto-hydrodynamic</a> processes in <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">active</a> <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">elliptical galaxies</a> produce their characteristic <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_jet" title="Astrophysical jet">jets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio lobe">radio lobes</a>. Non-thermal <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_radio_source" title="Astronomical radio source">radio sources</a> have been detected even among the most distant <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">high-z</a> sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.<a href="#cite_note-WielebinskiBeck2010-45">[45]</a> Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a> known as cosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 106 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a> up to an extreme 1020 eV of <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_cosmic_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray">ultra-high-energy cosmic rays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rmp83_3_907-46">[46]</a> The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> is only about 1% of that of protons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELang1999462-47">[47]</a> Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">health threat</a> to space travelers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide199311&#45;217-48">[48]</a> Smells retained from low Earth orbit, when returning from <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">extravehicular activity</a>, have a burned/metallic odor, similar to the scent of <a href="/wiki/Arc_welding" title="Arc welding">arc welding</a> fumes, resulting from <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in low Earth orbit around the ISS, which clings to suits and equipment.<a href="#cite_note-ls2012-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-PopSicSmell-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-a981-51">[51]</a> Other regions of space could have very different smells, like that of different alcohols in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-m655-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_access">Human access</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_biology_and_human_bodies">Effect on biology and human bodies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants_in_space" title="Plants in space">Plants in space</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The lower half shows a blue planet with patchy white clouds. The upper half has a man in a white spacesuit and maneuvering unit against a black background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg/170px-Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg/255px-Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg/340px-Bruce_McCandless_II_during_EVA_in_1984.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Because of the hazards of a vacuum, astronauts must wear a pressurized <a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">space suit</a> while outside their spacecraft.</figcaption></figure> Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA <a href="/wiki/BIOPAN" title="BIOPAN">BIOPAN</a> facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-Astrobiology_11_4_281-53">[53]</a> Seeds of <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicotiana_tabacum" title="Nicotiana tabacum">Nicotiana tabacum</a> germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years.<a href="#cite_note-Astrobiology_12_5_517-54">[54]</a> A strain of <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a> has survived 559 days when exposed to low Earth orbit or a simulated Martian environment.<a href="#cite_note-Astrobiology_12_5_498-55">[55]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">lithopanspermia</a> hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a>-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.<a href="#cite_note-Nicholson2010-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vacuum">Vacuum</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression" title="Uncontrolled decompression">Uncontrolled decompression</a></div> The lack of pressure in space is the most immediate dangerous characteristic of space to humans. Pressure decreases above Earth, reaching a level at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi) that matches the <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure_of_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapor pressure of water">vapor pressure of water</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Human_body_temperature" title="Human body temperature">temperature of the human body</a>. This pressure level is called the <a href="/wiki/Armstrong_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Armstrong line">Armstrong line</a>, named after American physician <a href="/wiki/Harry_G._Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry G. Armstrong">Harry G. Armstrong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tarver_et_al_2022-57">[57]</a> At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiantadosi2003188–189-58">[58]</a> Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">pressure</a>, such as during a rapid decompression, can cause <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary barotrauma">pulmonary barotrauma</a>—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest.<a href="#cite_note-Battisti_et_al_2022-59">[59]</a> Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture.<a href="#cite_note-krebs_pilmanis1996-60">[60]</a> Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Busby_1967-61">[61]</a> As a consequence of rapid decompression, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes.<a href="#cite_note-bmj286-62">[62]</a> Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kilopascals (1 psi), and this condition is called <a href="/wiki/Ebullism" title="Ebullism">ebullism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jramc157_1_85-63">[63]</a> The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillings19731–34-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-landis20070807-65">[65]</a> Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a <a href="/wiki/Pressure_suit" title="Pressure suit">pressure suit</a>. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kilopascals (0.3 psi).<a href="#cite_note-am39_376-66">[66]</a> Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5 mi) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi) pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllery200068-67">[67]</a> Most space suits use around 30–39 kilopascals (4–6 psi) of pure oxygen, about the same as the partial pressure of oxygen at the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">gas embolisms</a> if not managed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavisJohnsonStepanek2008270–271-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weightlessness_and_radiation">Weightlessness and radiation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Humans evolved</a> for life in Earth <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravity</a>, and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience <a href="/wiki/Space_motion_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Space motion sickness">space motion sickness</a>. This can cause nausea and vomiting, <a href="/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a>, headaches, <a href="/wiki/Lethargy" title="Lethargy">lethargy</a>, and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in <a href="/wiki/Muscle_atrophy" title="Muscle atrophy">muscle atrophy</a> and deterioration of the skeleton, or <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_osteopenia" title="Spaceflight osteopenia">spaceflight osteopenia</a>. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanasManzey200815–48-69">[69]</a> Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">cardiovascular system</a>, decreased production of <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>, balance disorders, and a weakening of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.<a href="#cite_note-cmaj180_13_1317-70">[70]</a> During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an <a href="/wiki/Acute_health_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute health hazard">acute health hazard</a>. Exposure to high-energy, ionizing <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cell</a> count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes, <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, lungs and the <a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nsbri_radiation-71">[71]</a> On a round-trip <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-curtis_and_Letaw-72">[72]</a> The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. The impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.<a href="#cite_note-sas4_11_1013-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boundary">Boundary</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the furthest reaches of space, see <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg/300px-Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="500" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg/450px-Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg/600px-Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of Earth's atmosphere gradual transition into outer space</figcaption></figure> The transition between Earth's atmosphere and outer space lacks a well-defined physical boundary, with the air pressure steadily decreasing with altitude until it mixes with the solar wind. Various definitions for a practical boundary have been proposed, ranging from 30 km (19 mi) out to 1,600,000 km (990,000 mi).<a href="#cite_note-Betz-16">[16]</a> High-altitude <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/High-altitude_balloon" title="High-altitude balloon">high-altitude balloons</a> have reached altitudes above Earth of up to 50 km.<a href="#cite_note-Grush-74">[74]</a> Up until 2021, the United States designated people who travel above an altitude of 50 mi (80 km) as astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWongFergusson201016-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Astronaut_Badge" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Astronaut Badge">Astronaut wings</a> are now only awarded to spacecraft crew members that "demonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety."<a href="#cite_note-FAA_2021-76">[76]</a> In 2009, measurements of the direction and speed of ions in the atmosphere were made from a <a href="/wiki/Sounding_rocket" title="Sounding rocket">sounding rocket</a>. The altitude of 118 km (73.3 mi) above Earth was the midpoint for charged particles transitioning from the gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more extreme flows of outer space. The latter can reach velocities well over 268 m/s (880 ft/s).<a href="#cite_note-thompton20090409-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-jgr114-78">[78]</a> Spacecraft have entered into a highly elliptical <a href="/wiki/Orbital_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital flight">orbit</a> with a perigee as low as 80 to 90 km (50 to 56 mi), surviving for multiple orbits.<a href="#cite_note-McDowell_2018-79">[79]</a> At an altitude of 120 km (75 mi),<a href="#cite_note-McDowell_2018-79">[79]</a> descending spacecraft such as <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> begin <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_entry" title="Atmospheric entry">atmospheric entry</a> (termed the Entry Interface), when <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric drag">atmospheric drag</a> becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-petty20030213-80">[80]</a> The <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line" title="Kármán line">Kármán line</a>, established by the <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_A%C3%A9ronautique_Internationale" title="Fédération Aéronautique Internationale">Fédération Aéronautique Internationale</a>, and used internationally by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Betz-16">[16]</a> is set at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This line is named after <a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a>, who argued for an altitude where a vehicle would have to travel faster than <a href="/wiki/Orbital_speed" title="Orbital speed">orbital velocity</a> to derive sufficient <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_lift" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic lift">aerodynamic lift</a> from the atmosphere to support itself,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary200984-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-space_begin-10">[10]</a> which he calculated to be at an altitude of about 83.8 km (52.1 mi).<a href="#cite_note-Grush-74">[74]</a> This distinguishes altitudes below as the region of <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airspace" title="Airspace">airspace</a>, and above as the space of <a href="/wiki/Astronautics" title="Astronautics">astronautics</a> and free space.<a href="#cite_note-Betz-16">[16]</a> There is no internationally recognized legal altitude limit on national airspace, although the Kármán line is the most frequently used for this purpose. Objections have been made to setting this limit too high, as it could inhibit space activities due to concerns about airspace violations.<a href="#cite_note-McDowell_2018-79">[79]</a> It has been argued for setting no specified singular altitude in international law, instead applying different limits depending on the case, in particular based on the craft and its purpose. Spacecraft have flown over foreign countries as low as 30 km (19 mi), as in the example of the Space Shuttle.<a href="#cite_note-Grush-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_status">Legal status</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg/170px-SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg/255px-SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg/340px-SM-3_launch_to_destroy_the_NRO-L_21_satellite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Conventional anti-satellite weapons such as the <a href="/wiki/RIM-161_Standard_Missile_3" title="RIM-161 Standard Missile 3">SM-3 missile</a> remain legal under the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_armed_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of armed conflict">law of armed conflict</a>, even though they create hazardous <a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">space debris</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a> provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of outer space, the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty, calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a <a href="/wiki/Common_heritage_of_mankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Common heritage of mankind">common heritage of mankind</a> has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations.<a href="#cite_note-Durrani-81">[81]</a> It prohibits the deployment of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> in outer space. The treaty was passed by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK). As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.<a href="#cite_note-unoosa2-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-unoosa-83">[83]</a> Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space.<a href="#cite_note-garros-84">[84]</a> Four additional <a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">space law</a> treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space">Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a>. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">anti-satellite weapons</a> have been successfully tested by the USA, USSR, China,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWongFergusson20104-85">[85]</a> and in 2019, India.<a href="#cite_note-Solanki2019-86">[86]</a> The 1979 <a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a> turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.<a href="#cite_note-esf20071105-87">[87]</a> In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, The Republic of the Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia: with their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or the <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogotá Declaration">Bogotá Declaration</a>, they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country.<a href="#cite_note-bogota1976-88">[88]</a> These claims are not internationally accepted.<a href="#cite_note-aasl31_2006-89">[89]</a> An increasing issue of international space law and regulation has been the dangers of the growing number of <a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">space debris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-European_Society_of_International_Law_2023_p580-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth_orbit">Earth orbit</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric orbit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orbital_decay" title="Orbital decay">Orbital decay</a></div> A spacecraft enters orbit when its <a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">centripetal</a> acceleration due to gravity is less than or equal to the <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal</a> acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>, this velocity is about 7.8 km/s (17,400 mph);<a href="#cite_note-hill1999-91">[91]</a> by contrast, the fastest piloted airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2.2 km/s (4,900 mph) in 1967 by the <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shiner20071101-92">[92]</a> To achieve an orbit, a <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> must travel faster than a <a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">sub-orbital spaceflight</a> along an arcing <a href="/wiki/Trajectory" title="Trajectory">trajectory</a>. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 <a href="/wiki/Megajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Megajoule">MJ</a>/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude.<a href="#cite_note-dimotakis1999-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">escape velocity</a> required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 11.2 km/s (25,100 mph).<a href="#cite_note-williams2010-94">[94]</a> Orbiting spacecraft with a <a href="/wiki/Apsis" title="Apsis">perigee</a> below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhosh200047–48-95">[95]</a> which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. At altitudes above 800 km (500 mi), orbital lifetime is measured in centuries.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_FAQ-96">[96]</a> Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-slsa-97">[97]</a> Low Earth orbit overlaps the inner <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a>, a toroidal region composed primarily of high energy protons. This region represents a <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">space weather</a> threat to space systems and is difficult to shield against. Operational problems for satellites are particularly prevalent over the <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Anomaly" title="South Atlantic Anomaly">South Atlantic Anomaly</a>, where charged particles approach closest to Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Baker_et_al_2018-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regions">Regions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location of Earth</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regions_near_the_Earth">Regions near the Earth</h3></div> Space in proximity to the Earth is physically similar to the remainder of interplanetary space, but is home to a multitude of Earth–orbiting satellites and has been subject to extensive studies. For identification purposes, this volume is divided into overlapping regions of space.<a href="#cite_note-uscode.house.gov_2022-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010363,_379-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-sdc20150426-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-sr2165-102">[102]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>Near-Earth space is the region of space extending from low Earth orbits out to <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-uscode.house.gov_2022-99">[99]</a> This region includes the major orbits for <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellites</a> and is the site of most of humanity's space activity. The region has seen high levels of space debris, sometimes dubbed <a href="/wiki/Space_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Space pollution">space pollution</a>, threatening any space activity in this region.<a href="#cite_note-uscode.house.gov_2022-99">[99]</a> Some of this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.<a href="#cite_note-portree_loftus1999-103">[103]</a> Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density inside low-Earth orbital space, the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line, is still sufficient to produce significant <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a> on satellites.<a href="#cite_note-slsa-97">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debris-GEO1280.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Debris-GEO1280.jpg/220px-Debris-GEO1280.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Debris-GEO1280.jpg/330px-Debris-GEO1280.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Debris-GEO1280.jpg/440px-Debris-GEO1280.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A computer-generated map of objects orbiting Earth, as of 2005. About 95% are debris, not working artificial satellites<a href="#cite_note-ARES-104">[104]</a></figcaption></figure> Geospace is a region of space that includes Earth's <a href="/wiki/Upper_atmosphere" title="Upper atmosphere">upper atmosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010363,_379-100">[100]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belts</a> lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the <a href="/wiki/Magnetopause" title="Magnetopause">magnetopause</a>, which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-geospace-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010379-106">[106]</a> The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with <a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">heliophysics</a>—the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFichtnerLiu2011341–345-107">[107]</a> The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form a <a href="/wiki/Magnetotail" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetotail">magnetotail</a> that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoskinen201032,_42-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-HonesJr1986-109">[109]</a> For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendillo2000275-110">[110]</a> Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storms</a> can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a> location and timing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman2006244-111">[111]</a> Magnetic storms can be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They create <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">aurorae</a> seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_pole" title="Geomagnetic pole">geomagnetic poles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oecd-112">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg/220px-Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg/330px-Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg/440px-Artemis_1_at_maximum_distance_from_Earth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Earth and the Moon as seen from cislunar space on the 2022 <a href="/wiki/Artemis_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Artemis 1">Artemis 1</a> mission</figcaption></figure> xGeo space is a concept used by the US to refer to space of <a href="/wiki/High_Earth_orbit" title="High Earth orbit">high Earth orbits</a>, ranging from beyond <a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">geosynchronous orbit</a> (GEO) at approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi),<a href="#cite_note-sdc20150426-101">[101]</a> out to the <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_point#Earth–Moon" title="Lagrange point">L2 Earth-Moon Lagrange point</a> at 448,900 km (278,934 mi). This is located beyond the orbit of the Moon and therefore includes cislunar space.<a href="#cite_note-Hitchens_2022-113">[113]</a> Translunar space is the region of lunar <a href="/wiki/Transfer_orbit" title="Transfer orbit">transfer orbits</a>, between the Moon and Earth.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_2013-114">[114]</a> Cislunar space is a region outside of Earth that includes <a href="/wiki/Lunar_orbit" title="Lunar orbit">lunar orbits</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon" title="Orbit of the Moon">Moon's orbital space around Earth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_point" title="Lagrange point">Lagrange points</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sr2165-102">[102]</a> The region where a body's <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_potential" title="Gravitational potential">gravitational potential</a> remains dominant against gravitational potentials from other bodies, is the body's <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence_(astrodynamics)" title="Sphere of influence (astrodynamics)">sphere of influence</a> or gravity well, mostly described with the <a href="/wiki/Hill_sphere" title="Hill sphere">Hill sphere</a> model.<a href="#cite_note-yoder1995-115">[115]</a> In the case of Earth this includes all space from the Earth to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarbieri2006253-116">[116]</a> or 1.5 million km (0.93 million mi). Beyond Earth's Hill sphere extends along <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbital</a> path its orbital and <a href="/wiki/Co-orbital" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-orbital">co-orbital</a> space. This space is co-populated by groups of co-orbital <a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Object" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-Earth Object">Near-Earth Objects</a> (NEOs), such as <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_orbit" title="Horseshoe orbit">horseshoe librators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth_trojan" title="Earth trojan">Earth trojans</a>, with some NEOs at times becoming <a href="/wiki/Temporary_satellite" title="Temporary satellite">temporary satellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quasi-satellite" title="Quasi-satellite">quasi-moons</a> to Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Granvik_et_al_2012-117">[117]</a> Deep space is defined by the United States government as all of outer space which lies further from Earth than a typical low-Earth-orbit, thus assigning the Moon to deep-space.<a href="#cite_note-USC_10101-118">[118]</a> Other definitions vary the starting point of deep-space from, "That which lies beyond the orbit of the moon," to "That which lies beyond the farthest reaches of the Solar System itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickson201057-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamson200697-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins-121">[121]</a> The <a href="/wiki/ITU-R" title="ITU-R">International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication</a>, including with satellites, defines deep-space as, "distances from the Earth equal to, or greater than, 2 million km (1.2 million mi),"<a href="#cite_note-ITU-122">[122]</a> which is about five times the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_distance_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar distance (astronomy)">Moon's orbital distance</a>, but which distance is also far less than the distance between Earth and any adjacent planet.<a href="#cite_note-Williams_2021-123">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbitalaltitudes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Orbitalaltitudes.svg/700px-Orbitalaltitudes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="700" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Orbitalaltitudes.svg/1050px-Orbitalaltitudes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Orbitalaltitudes.svg/1400px-Orbitalaltitudes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Near-Earth space showing the low-Earth (blue), medium Earth (green), and high Earth (red) orbits. The last extends beyond the radius of geosynchronous orbits</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interplanetary_space">Interplanetary space</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="At lower left, a white coma stands out against a black background. Nebulous material streams away to the top and left, slowly fading with distance." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg/220px-Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg/330px-Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg/440px-Comet_Hale-Bopp_1995O1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The sparse plasma (blue) and dust (white) in the tail of <a href="/wiki/Comet_Hale%E2%80%93Bopp" title="Comet Hale–Bopp">comet Hale–Bopp</a> are being shaped by pressure from <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">solar radiation</a> and the solar wind, respectively.</figcaption></figure> Interplanetary space within the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> is the space between the eight planets, the space between the planets and the Sun, as well as that space beyond the orbit of the outermost planet <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> where the solar wind remains active. The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun which creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a>) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>/cm3 and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapagiannis197212–149-124">[124]</a> Interplanetary space extends out to the <a href="/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopause (astronomy)">heliopause</a> where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-universetoday_interplanetaryspace-125">[125]</a> The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind.<a href="#cite_note-phillips2009-126">[126]</a> The heliopause in turn deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, with this modulation effect peaking during solar maximum.<a href="#cite_note-Kohler2017-127">[127]</a> The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical unit</a> at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely empty, and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionized</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a> and various subatomic particles. There is gas, plasma and dust,<a href="#cite_note-EA-20190312-128">[128]</a> small <a href="/wiki/Meteor" title="Meteor">meteors</a>, and several dozen types of <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a> molecules discovered to date by <a href="/wiki/Rotational_spectroscopy" title="Rotational spectroscopy">microwave spectroscopy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-asp2003-129">[129]</a> A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the <a href="/wiki/Zodiacal_light" title="Zodiacal light">zodiacal light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-leinert_grun_1990-130">[130]</a> Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapagiannis197212–149-124">[124]</a> There are magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.<a href="#cite_note-ssr69_3_215-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interstellar_space">Interstellar space</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Interstellar space" redirects here. For the album, see <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_Space" title="Interstellar Space">Interstellar Space</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Patchy orange and blue nebulosity against a black background, with a curved orange arc wrapping around a star at the center." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg/220px-52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg/330px-52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg/440px-52706main_hstorion_lg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1074" data-file-height="895" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bow_shock" title="Bow shock">Bow shock</a> formed by the <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> of the young star <a href="/w/index.php?title=LL_Orionis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LL Orionis (page does not exist)">LL Orionis</a> (center) as it collides with the <a href="/wiki/Orion_Nebula" title="Orion Nebula">Orion Nebula</a> flow</figcaption></figure> Interstellar space is the physical space outside of the bubbles of plasma known as <a href="/wiki/Astrosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrosphere">astrospheres</a>, formed by <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">stellar winds</a> originating from individual stars, or formed by solar wind emanating from the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-jpl_interstellarspace-132">[132]</a> It is the space between the stars or <a href="/wiki/Stellar_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar systems">stellar systems</a> within a nebula or galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Interstellar space contains an <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a> of sparse matter and radiation. The boundary between an astrosphere and interstellar space is known as an <a href="/wiki/Astropause" class="mw-redirect" title="Astropause">astropause</a>. For the Sun, the astrosphere and astropause are called the heliosphere and heliopause. Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a>. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">planetary nebula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ferrière2001-134">[134]</a> The cataclysmic explosion of a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> propagates <a href="/wiki/Shock_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Shock waves">shock waves</a> of stellar ejecta outward, distributing it throughout the interstellar medium, including the heavy elements previously formed within the star's core.<a href="#cite_note-witt2001-135">[135]</a> The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 106 particles per m3,<a href="#cite_note-Boulares1990-136">[136]</a> but cold <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular clouds">molecular clouds</a> can hold 108–1012 per m3.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrialnik2000195–196-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferrière2001-134">[134]</a> A <a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">number of molecules</a> exist in interstellar space, which can form dust particles as tiny as 0.1 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERauchfuss200872–81-137">[137]</a> The tally of molecules discovered through <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a> is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a> allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the <a href="/wiki/Trihydrogen_cation" title="Trihydrogen cation">trihydrogen cation</a>. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS103_33_12232-138">[138]</a> The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">pc</a> of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the <a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a>, which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the <a href="/wiki/Orion_Arm" title="Orion Arm">Orion Arm</a> of the Milky Way Galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ophiuchus" title="Ophiuchus">Ophiuchus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)" title="Taurus (constellation)">Taurus</a>. The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more. This volume contains about 104–105 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the <a href="/wiki/Stellar-wind_bubble" title="Stellar-wind bubble">astrospheres</a> that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.<a href="#cite_note-redfield2006-139">[139]</a> When stars are moving at sufficiently high <a href="/wiki/Peculiar_velocities" class="mw-redirect" title="Peculiar velocities">peculiar velocities</a>, their astrospheres can generate <a href="/wiki/Bow_shock" title="Bow shock">bow shocks</a> as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_Boundary_Explorer" title="Interstellar Boundary Explorer">Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX)</a> and NASA's <a href="/wiki/Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a> probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a <a href="/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">subsonic</a> bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium.<a href="#cite_note-bow_science-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-bow-141">[141]</a> A bow shock is a third boundary characteristic of an astrosphere, lying outside the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere#Termination_shock" title="Heliosphere">termination shock</a> and the astropause.<a href="#cite_note-bow-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intergalactic_space">Intergalactic space</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Warm%E2%80%93hot_intergalactic_medium" title="Warm–hot intergalactic medium">Warm–hot intergalactic medium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intracluster_medium" title="Intracluster medium">Intracluster medium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_dust" title="Intergalactic dust">Intergalactic dust</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Structure of the Universe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg/220px-Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg/330px-Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg/440px-Structure_of_the_Universe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2682" data-file-height="2196" /></a><figcaption>Large-scale matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber-like structures represent the matter, and the empty regions in between represent the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_void" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic void">cosmic voids</a> of the intergalactic medium</figcaption></figure> Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies show that the universe has a foam-like structure, with <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">groups and clusters of galaxies</a> lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_void" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic void">cosmic voids</a> that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of 7–30 megaparsecs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWszolek201367-142">[142]</a> Surrounding and stretching between galaxies is the <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergalactic medium">intergalactic medium</a> (IGM). This <a href="/wiki/Rarefaction" title="Rarefaction">rarefied</a> plasma<a href="#cite_note-jafelice_opher1992-143">[143]</a> is organized in a <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">galactic filamentary</a> structure.<a href="#cite_note-wadsley2002-144">[144]</a> The diffuse photoionized gas contains filaments of higher density, about one atom per cubic meter,<a href="#cite_note-Harvard_&_Smithsonian_2022_k265-145">[145]</a> which is 5–200 times the average density of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-apj_714_1715-146">[146]</a> The IGM is inferred to be mostly primordial in composition, with 76% hydrogen by mass, and enriched with higher mass elements from high-velocity galactic outflows.<a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer_Davé_2006-147">[147]</a> As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 105 K to 107 K.<a href="#cite_note-baas41_908-4">[4]</a> At these temperatures, it is called the <a href="/wiki/Warm%E2%80%93hot_intergalactic_medium" title="Warm–hot intergalactic medium">warm–hot intergalactic medium</a> (WHIM). Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 105 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics. Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state.<a href="#cite_note-apj_714_1715-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-ssr134_1_141-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-apjs_182_378-149">[149]</a> When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 108 K and above in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Intracluster_medium" title="Intracluster medium">intracluster medium</a> (ICM).<a href="#cite_note-apj546_100-150">[150]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:679px;max-width:679px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Overview of different scales of space as <a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">regions around Earth</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:L2_rendering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/L2_rendering.jpg/93px-L2_rendering.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/L2_rendering.jpg/140px-L2_rendering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/L2_rendering.jpg/186px-L2_rendering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2763" data-file-height="2305" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Earth#Earth–Moon_system" title="Earth">Earth-Moon System</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png/93px-Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png/140px-Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png/186px-Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Inner_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner Solar System">Inner Solar System</a> with <a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth objects</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg/93px-Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg/140px-Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg/186px-Oort_cloud_Sedna_orbit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2499" data-file-height="2499" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_(large).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_%28large%29.png/93px-Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_%28large%29.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_%28large%29.png/140px-Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_%28large%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_%28large%29.png/186px-Angular_map_of_fusors_around_Sol_within_9ly_%28large%29.png 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="843" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs">Nearest stars</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg/93px-Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg/140px-Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg/186px-Local_Interstellar_Clouds_with_motion_arrows.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Local_Interstellar_Cloud" title="Local Interstellar Cloud">Local Interstellar Cloud</a> and neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Galaxymap.com,_map_100_parsecs_(2022).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Galaxymap.com%2C_map_100_parsecs_%282022%29.png/93px-Galaxymap.com%2C_map_100_parsecs_%282022%29.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Galaxymap.com%2C_map_100_parsecs_%282022%29.png/140px-Galaxymap.com%2C_map_100_parsecs_%282022%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Galaxymap.com%2C_map_100_parsecs_%282022%29.png/186px-Galaxymap.com%2C_map_100_parsecs_%282022%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="2160" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearby_stellar_associations_and_moving_groups" title="List of nearby stellar associations and moving groups">Star associations</a> and interstellar medium map of the <a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Galaxymap.com,_map_1000_parsecs_(2022).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Galaxymap.com%2C_map_1000_parsecs_%282022%29.png/93px-Galaxymap.com%2C_map_1000_parsecs_%282022%29.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Galaxymap.com%2C_map_1000_parsecs_%282022%29.png/140px-Galaxymap.com%2C_map_1000_parsecs_%282022%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Galaxymap.com%2C_map_1000_parsecs_%282022%29.png/186px-Galaxymap.com%2C_map_1000_parsecs_%282022%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="2160" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular clouds</a> around the Sun inside the <a href="/wiki/Orion-Cygnus_Arm" class="mw-redirect" title="Orion-Cygnus Arm">Orion-Cygnus Arm</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:OrionSpur.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/OrionSpur.png/93px-OrionSpur.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/OrionSpur.png/140px-OrionSpur.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/OrionSpur.png/186px-OrionSpur.png 2x" data-file-width="2021" data-file-height="2352" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Orion-Cygnus Arm and neighbouring arms</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg/93px-Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg/140px-Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg/186px-Milky_Way_Arms_ssc2008-10.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="461" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Orion-Cygnus Arm inside the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Milky_Way_side_view.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Milky_Way_side_view.png/93px-Milky_Way_side_view.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Milky_Way_side_view.png/140px-Milky_Way_side_view.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Milky_Way_side_view.png/186px-Milky_Way_side_view.png 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="4200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The Sun within the structure of the Milky Way</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:06-Local_Group_(LofE06240).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/06-Local_Group_%28LofE06240%29.png/93px-06-Local_Group_%28LofE06240%29.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/06-Local_Group_%28LofE06240%29.png/140px-06-Local_Group_%28LofE06240%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/06-Local_Group_%28LofE06240%29.png/186px-06-Local_Group_%28LofE06240%29.png 2x" data-file-width="5172" data-file-height="3786" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Satellite_galaxies_of_the_Milky_Way" title="Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way">Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way</a> in <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:07-Laniakea_(LofE07240).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/07-Laniakea_%28LofE07240%29.png/93px-07-Laniakea_%28LofE07240%29.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/07-Laniakea_%28LofE07240%29.png/140px-07-Laniakea_%28LofE07240%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/07-Laniakea_%28LofE07240%29.png/186px-07-Laniakea_%28LofE07240%29.png 2x" data-file-width="5172" data-file-height="3786" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster" title="Virgo Supercluster">Virgo SCl</a> in <a href="/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster" title="Laniakea Supercluster">Laniakea SCl</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Laniakea.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Laniakea.gif/93px-Laniakea.gif" decoding="async" width="93" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Laniakea.gif/140px-Laniakea.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Laniakea.gif/186px-Laniakea.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="600" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Laniakea SCl in <a href="/wiki/Pisces%E2%80%93Cetus_Supercluster_Complex" title="Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex">Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png/93px-Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png/140px-Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png/186px-Observable_Universe_with_Measurements_01.png 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="3072" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Observable_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Observable Universe">Observable Universe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_discovery">History of discovery</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_knowledge_about_galaxies,_clusters_of_galaxies,_and_large-scale_structure" title="Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure">Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure</a></div> In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> suggested that nature abhors a vacuum, a principle that became known as the <a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">horror vacui</a>. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> argument by the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>, who denied the possible existence of a void in space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198110-151">[151]</a> Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorterParkDaston200627-152">[152]</a> As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> argued that the entirety of space must be filled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckert20065-153">[153]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, the 2nd-century astronomer <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a> became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the empty space, moving or standing still".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamRonan198582–87-154">[154]</a> The Italian scientist <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. It would remain for his pupil <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometer</a> and created a scientific sensation in Europe. Torricelli suggested that since air has weight, then <a href="/wiki/Air_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pressure">air pressure</a> should decrease with altitude.<a href="#cite_note-West_2013-155">[155]</a> The French mathematician <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> proposed an experiment to test this hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltonBrush2001267–268-156">[156]</a> In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the <a href="/wiki/Puy_de_D%C3%B4me" title="Puy de Dôme">Puy de Dôme</a> mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECajori191764–66-157">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A glass display case holds a mechanical device with a lever arm, plus two metal hemispheres attached to draw ropes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg/170px-Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg/255px-Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg/340px-Magedurger_Halbkugeln_Luftpumpe_Deutsches_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2616" data-file-height="3488" /></a><figcaption>The original <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres" title="Magdeburg hemispheres">Magdeburg hemispheres</a> (left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right)</figcaption></figure> In 1650, German scientist <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke" title="Otto von Guericke">Otto von Guericke</a> constructed the first <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump" title="Vacuum pump">vacuum pump</a>: a device that would further refute the principle of horror vacui. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenz2001127–128-158">[158]</a> In the 15th century, German theologian <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Cusanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolaus Cusanus">Nicolaus Cusanus</a> speculated that the universe lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETassoulTassoul200422-159">[159]</a> These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> in the 16th century. He extended the Copernican <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> cosmology to the concept of an infinite universe filled with a substance he called <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>, which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGatti200299–104-160">[160]</a> English philosopher <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly196597–107-161">[161]</a> This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlenickApostolGoodstein1986356-162">[162]</a> The concept of a universe filled with a <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a> retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHariharan20032-163">[163]</a> In 1887, the <a href="/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment" title="Michelson–Morley experiment">Michelson–Morley experiment</a> tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> depending on the direction of the planet's motion. The <a href="/wiki/Null_result" title="Null result">null result</a> indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlenickApostolGoodstein1986357–365-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1992206–209-165">[165]</a> The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite universe was the Englishman <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Digges" title="Thomas Digges">Thomas Digges</a> in 1576.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaor1991195-166">[166]</a> But the scale of the universe remained unknown until the <a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_distant_astronomical_objects#Timeline_of_most_distant_astronomical_object_recordholders" title="List of the most distant astronomical objects">first successful measurement of the distance</a> to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Bessel">Friedrich Bessel</a>. He showed that the star system <a href="/wiki/61_Cygni" title="61 Cygni">61 Cygni</a> had a <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">parallax</a> of just 0.31 <a href="/wiki/Arcsecond" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcsecond">arcseconds</a> (compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 <a href="/wiki/Light_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Light year">light years</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb199971–73-167">[167]</a> In 1917, <a href="/wiki/Heber_Doust_Curtis" title="Heber Doust Curtis">Heber Curtis</a> noted that <a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">novae</a> in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis1988-168">[168]</a> The distance to the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a> was determined in 1923 by American astronomer <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> by measuring the brightness of <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">cepheid variables</a> in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Leavitt" class="mw-redirect" title="Henrietta Leavitt">Henrietta Leavitt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-csiro_20041025-169">[169]</a> This established that the Andromeda Galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETysonGoldsmith2004114–115-170">[170]</a> With this Hubble formulated the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble constant">Hubble constant</a>, which allowed for the first time a calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-years. This became increasingly precise with better measurements, until 2006 when data of the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> allowed a very accurate calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe.<a href="#cite_note-p537-171">[171]</a> The modern concept of outer space is based on the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Bang cosmology">"Big Bang" cosmology</a>, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nature127_3210_706-172">[172]</a> This theory holds that the universe originated from a state of extreme energy density that has since undergone <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">continuous expansion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Big_Bang-173">[173]</a> The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Charles É. Guillaume</a> in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist <a href="/wiki/Erich_Regener" title="Erich Regener">Erich Regener</a> used the total measured energy of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-174">[174]</a> American physicists <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a> predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory.<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploration">Exploration</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_presence_in_space" title="Human presence in space">Human presence in space</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astronautics" title="Astronautics">Astronautics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:As08-16-2593.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/As08-16-2593.jpg/220px-As08-16-2593.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/As08-16-2593.jpg/330px-As08-16-2593.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/As08-16-2593.jpg/440px-As08-16-2593.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2015" data-file-height="1781" /></a><figcaption>South is up in the <a href="/wiki/First_image_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="First image of Earth">first image of Earth</a> taken by a person,<a href="#cite_note-Apollo8FlightJournalDay1-175">[175]</a> probably by <a href="/wiki/Bill_Anders" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Anders">Bill Anders</a> (during the 1968 <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a> mission)</figcaption></figure> For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the American <a href="/wiki/Explorer_II" title="Explorer II">Explorer II</a> crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi).<a href="#cite_note-ssr13_2_199-176">[176]</a> This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German <a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">A-4 rocket</a> climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the uncrewed satellite <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> was launched by a Russian <a href="/wiki/R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka">R-7 rocket</a>, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2009209–224-177">[177]</a> This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> was sent into orbit on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>. The first humans to escape low Earth orbit were <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> in 1968 on board the American <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a>, which achieved lunar orbit<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison200260–63-178">[178]</a> and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrloff2001-179">[179]</a> The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Luna_1" title="Luna 1">Luna 1</a>, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardestyEismanKrushchev200889–90-180">[180]</a> In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Venera_1" title="Venera 1">Venera 1</a> became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the 1962 fly-by of Venus by <a href="/wiki/Mariner_2" title="Mariner 2">Mariner 2</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins200786-181">[181]</a> The first fly-by of Mars was by <a href="/wiki/Mariner_4" title="Mariner 4">Mariner 4</a> in 1964. Since that time, uncrewed spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many <a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">minor planets</a> and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20087,_68–69-182">[182]</a> In August 2012, <a href="/wiki/Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a> became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar space">interstellar space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mike_wall-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application">Application</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Space science">Space science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration" title="Benefits of space exploration">Benefits of space exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation" title="Earth observation">Earth observation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commercialization_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercialization of space">Commercialization of space</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_habitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Space habitation">Space habitation</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg/300px-ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg/450px-ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg/600px-ISS-44_Milky_Way.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1065" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> is an orbiting laboratory for space applications and habitability. Visible in the background is yellow-green <a href="/wiki/Airglow" title="Airglow">airglow</a> of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a> and the interstellar field of the Milky Way.</figcaption></figure> Outer space has become an important element of global society. It provides multiple applications that are beneficial to the economy and scientific research. The placing of artificial satellites in Earth orbit has produced numerous benefits and has become the dominating sector of the <a href="/wiki/Space_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Space economy">space economy</a>. They allow relay of <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">long-range communications</a> like television, provide a means of <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">precise navigation</a>, and permit direct monitoring of <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather conditions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> of the Earth. The latter role serves a variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and <a href="/wiki/Spy_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy satellite">surveillance</a> of military activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERazani201297–99-184">[184]</a> They facilitate the discovery and monitoring of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> influences.<a href="#cite_note-Space_Foundation_2023_k582-185">[185]</a> Satellites make use of the significantly reduced drag in space to stay in stable orbits, allowing them to efficiently span the whole globe, compared to for example <a href="/wiki/Stratospheric_balloon" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratospheric balloon">stratospheric balloons</a> or <a href="/wiki/High-altitude_platform_station" title="High-altitude platform station">high-altitude platform stations</a>, which have other benefits.<a href="#cite_note-Bisset_2023_s159-186">[186]</a> The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>. This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed.<a href="#cite_note-hubblesite_cosmicdawn-187">[187]</a> Not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. The <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">interplanetary zodiacal dust</a> emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an <a href="/wiki/Infrared_telescope" title="Infrared telescope">infrared telescope</a> out past the dust increases its effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-esa105-188">[188]</a> Likewise, a site like the <a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(crater)" title="Daedalus (crater)">Daedalus crater</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Far_side_of_the_Moon" title="Far side of the Moon">far side of the Moon</a> could shield a <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescope</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference" title="Electromagnetic interference">radio frequency interference</a> that hampers Earth-based observations.<a href="#cite_note-maccone2001-189">[189]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solardisk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Solardisk.jpg/220px-Solardisk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Solardisk.jpg/330px-Solardisk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Solardisk.jpg/440px-Solardisk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption>Concept for a <a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">space-based solar power</a> system to beam energy down to Earth<a href="#cite_note-BBC_2020-190">[190]</a></figcaption></figure> The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-chapman1991-191">[191]</a> Like <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">asteroid mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_manufacturing" title="Space manufacturing">space manufacturing</a> would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return.<a href="#cite_note-IJA10_307-192">[192]</a> An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $9,000–$31,000 per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then).<a href="#cite_note-jsr43_3_696-193">[193]</a> The cost of access to space has declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9" title="Falcon 9">Falcon 9</a> have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fully <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Reusable launch system">reusable launch systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">non-rocket spacelaunch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Momentum_exchange_tether" title="Momentum exchange tether">momentum exchange tethers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_elevators" class="mw-redirect" title="Space elevators">space elevators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolonkin2010xv-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar travel</a> for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys lasting several decades. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Project_Daedalus" title="Project Daedalus">Daedalus Project</a> study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a>, would require 36 years to reach the "nearby" <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri" title="Alpha Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a> system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems include <a href="/wiki/Light_sail" class="mw-redirect" title="Light sail">light sails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bussard_ramjet" title="Bussard ramjet">ramjets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beam-powered_propulsion" title="Beam-powered propulsion">beam-powered propulsion</a>. More advanced propulsion systems could use <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> as a fuel, potentially reaching <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_speed" title="Relativistic speed">relativistic velocities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Crawford1990-195">[195]</a> From the Earth's surface, the ultracold temperature of outer space can be used as a <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> cooling technology for various applications on Earth through <a href="/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive daytime radiative cooling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yu_et_al_2022-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ma_2021-197">[197]</a> This enhances <a href="/wiki/Long-wave_infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-wave infrared">longwave infrared</a> (LWIR) <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> heat transfer through the amosphere's <a href="/wiki/Infrared_window" title="Infrared window">infrared window</a> into outer space, lowering ambient temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Zevenhovena-2018-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wang-2021-199">[199]</a> <a href="/wiki/Photonic_metamaterial" title="Photonic metamaterial">Photonic metamaterials</a> can be used to suppress solar heating.<a href="#cite_note-Heo-2022-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_Accords" title="Artemis Accords">Artemis Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">List of government space agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">List of topics in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbers' paradox">Olbers' paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Outline of space science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_art" title="Space art">Space art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Space race">Space race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">Space station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_knowledge_about_the_interstellar_and_intergalactic_medium" title="Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium">Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration" title="Timeline of Solar System exploration">Timeline of Solar System exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline of spaceflight</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Merriam-Webster-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/">"Applicable definitions of outer space, space, and expanse"</a>, Merriam-Webster dictionary, retrieved 2024-06-17, <q> Outer space (n.) space immediately outside the earth's atmosphere. Space (n.) physical space independent of what occupies it. The region beyond the earth's atmosphere or beyond the solar system. Expanse (n.) great extent of something spread out.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+dictionary&rft.atitle=Applicable+definitions+of+outer+space%2C+space%2C+and+expanse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roth_2012-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Roth_2012_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth2012" class="citation cs2">Roth, A. (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oBqs3sr9r48C&pg=PA6">Vacuum Technology</a>, Elsevier, p. 6, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59874-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59874-5"><bdi>978-0-444-59874-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vacuum+Technology&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-444-59874-5&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoBqs3sr9r48C%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBE2008-3"><a href="#cite_ref-CBE2008_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChuss2008" class="citation cs2">Chuss, David T. (June 26, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/cobe/">Cosmic Background Explorer</a>, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130509235348/http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/cobe/">archived</a> from the original on May 9, 2013, retrieved 2013-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Background+Explorer&rft.pub=NASA+Goddard+Space+Flight+Center&rft.date=2008-06-26&rft.aulast=Chuss&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flambda.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fproduct%2Fcobe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-baas41_908-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baas41_908_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-baas41_908_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuptaGaleazziUrsino2010" class="citation cs2">Gupta, Anjali; et al. (May 2010), "Detection and Characterization of the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium", Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 41: 908, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010AAS...21631808G">2010AAS...21631808G</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Detection+and+Characterization+of+the+Warm-Hot+Intergalactic+Medium&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=908&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010AAS...21631808G&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Anjali&rft.au=Galeazzi%2C+M.&rft.au=Ursino%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreedmanKaufmann2005573,_599–601-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreedmanKaufmann2005573,_599–601_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreedmanKaufmann2005">Freedman & Kaufmann 2005</a>, pp. 573, 599–601. </li> <li id="cite_note-Trimble_1987-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Trimble_1987_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrimble1987" class="citation cs2">Trimble, V. (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2hz008rs">"Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Astronomy_and_Astrophysics" title="Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics">Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>, 25: 425–472, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987ARA&A..25..425T">1987ARA&A..25..425T</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.aa.25.090187.002233">10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123199266">123199266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Existence+and+nature+of+dark+matter+in+the+universe&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E425-%3C%2Fspan%3E472&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123199266%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.aa.25.090187.002233&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987ARA%26A..25..425T&rft.aulast=Trimble&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F2hz008rs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa_darkenergy-7"><a href="#cite_ref-nasa_darkenergy_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy/">"Dark Energy, Dark Matter"</a>, NASA Science, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602083852/http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy/">archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2013, retrieved May 31, 2013, <q>It turns out that roughly 68% of the Universe is dark energy. Dark matter makes up about 27%.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NASA+Science&rft.atitle=Dark+Energy%2C+Dark+Matter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.nasa.gov%2Fastrophysics%2Ffocus-areas%2Fwhat-is-dark-energy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreedmanKaufmann2005650–653-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreedmanKaufmann2005650–653_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreedmanKaufmann2005">Freedman & Kaufmann 2005</a>, pp. 650–653. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary200984-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Leary200984_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Leary200984_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Leary2009">O'Leary 2009</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-space_begin-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-space_begin_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-space_begin_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/">"Where does space begin?"</a>, Aerospace Engineering, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117034012/http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/">archived</a> from the original on 2015-11-17, retrieved 2015-11-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerospace+Engineering&rft.atitle=Where+does+space+begin%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faerospaceengineering.aero%2Fwhere-does-space-begin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harper2001-11"><a href="#cite_ref-harper2001_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2001" class="citation cs2">Harper, Douglas (November 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=space">Space</a>, The Online Etymology Dictionary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224134354/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=space">archived</a> from the original on 2009-02-24, retrieved 2009-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space&rft.pub=The+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.date=2001-11&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dspace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brady2007-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Brady2007_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrady2007" class="citation cs2">Brady, Maura (October 2007), "Space and the Persistence of Place in "Paradise Lost"", Milton Quarterly, 41 (3): 167–182, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1094-348X.2007.00164.x">10.1111/j.1094-348X.2007.00164.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24461820">24461820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Milton+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Space+and+the+Persistence+of+Place+in+%22Paradise+Lost%22&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E182&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1094-348X.2007.00164.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24461820%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Maura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuart_Wortley1841410-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStuart_Wortley1841410_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStuart_Wortley1841">Stuart Wortley 1841</a>, p. 410. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVon_Humboldt184539-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVon_Humboldt184539_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVon_Humboldt1845">Von Humboldt 1845</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-entymonline-15"><a href="#cite_ref-entymonline_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation cs2">Harper, Douglas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=outer+space&searchmode=none">"Outer"</a>, Online Etymology Dictionary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100312043648/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=outer+space&searchmode=none">archived</a> from the original on 2010-03-12, retrieved 2008-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Outer&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Douter%2Bspace%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Betz-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Betz_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Betz_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Betz_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Betz_16-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetz2023" class="citation web cs1">Betz, Eric (2023-11-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/the-karman-line-where-does-space-begin/">"The Kármán Line: Where space begins"</a>. Astronomy Magazine. Retrieved 2024-04-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n+Line%3A+Where+space+begins&rft.date=2023-11-27&rft.aulast=Betz&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astronomy.com%2Fspace-exploration%2Fthe-karman-line-where-does-space-begin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merriam-Webster_2022-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster_2022_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spaceborne">"Definition of SPACEBORNE"</a>, Merriam-Webster, 2022-05-17, retrieved 2022-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Definition+of+SPACEBORNE&rft.date=2022-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fspaceborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fall_Cao_Hong_Eymard_2022-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Fall_Cao_Hong_Eymard_2022_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spaceborne">"Spaceborne definition and meaning"</a>, Collins English Dictionary, 2022-05-17, retrieved 2022-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Spaceborne+definition+and+meaning&rft.date=2022-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fspaceborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-based-19"><a href="#cite_ref-based_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/based">"-based"</a>, Cambridge Dictionary, 2024, retrieved 2024-04-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Dictionary&rft.atitle=-based&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fbased&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddle201533-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiddle201533_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiddle2015">Liddle 2015</a>, pp. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-planck_2013-21"><a href="#cite_ref-planck_2013_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlanck_Collaboration2014" class="citation cs2">Planck Collaboration (2014), "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific results", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 571: 1, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1303.5062">1303.5062</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014A&A...571A...1P">2014A&A...571A...1P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201321529">10.1051/0004-6361/201321529</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218716838">218716838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Planck+2013+results.+I.+Overview+of+products+and+scientific+results&rft.volume=571&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1303.5062&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218716838%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201321529&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014A%26A...571A...1P&rft.au=Planck+Collaboration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SciAm301_1_36-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SciAm301_1_36_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SciAm301_1_36_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2009" class="citation cs2">Turner, Michael S. (September 2009), "Origin of the Universe", Scientific American, 301 (3): 36–43, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009SciAm.301c..36T">2009SciAm.301c..36T</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0909-36">10.1038/scientificamerican0909-36</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19708526">19708526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=301&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19708526&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0909-36&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009SciAm.301c..36T&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilk2000105–308-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilk2000105–308_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSilk2000">Silk 2000</a>, pp. 105–308. </li> <li id="cite_note-WMAP-24"><a href="#cite_ref-WMAP_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_shape.html">WMAP – Shape of the universe</a>, NASA, December 21, 2012, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120601032707/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_shape.html">archived</a> from the original on June 1, 2012, retrieved June 4, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=WMAP+%E2%80%93+Shape+of+the+universe&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2012-12-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmap.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Funiverse%2Funi_shape.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESparkeGallagher2007329–330-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESparkeGallagher2007329–330_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSparkeGallagher2007">Sparke & Gallagher 2007</a>, pp. 329–330. </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa_wmap-26"><a href="#cite_ref-nasa_wmap_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWollack2011" class="citation cs2">Wollack, Edward J. (June 24, 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html">What is the Universe Made Of?</a>, NASA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160726014944/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html">archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2016, retrieved 2011-10-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+the+Universe+Made+Of%3F&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2011-06-24&rft.aulast=Wollack&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmap.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Funiverse%2Funi_matter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aj89_1461-27"><a href="#cite_ref-aj89_1461_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrummBrosch1984" class="citation cs2">Krumm, N.; Brosch, N. (October 1984), "Neutral hydrogen in cosmic voids", Astronomical Journal, 89: 1461–1463, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984AJ.....89.1461K">1984AJ.....89.1461K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F113647">10.1086/113647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomical+Journal&rft.atitle=Neutral+hydrogen+in+cosmic+voids&rft.volume=89&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1461-%3C%2Fspan%3E1463&rft.date=1984-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F113647&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984AJ.....89.1461K&rft.aulast=Krumm&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Brosch%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rvmphys_75_559-28"><a href="#cite_ref-rvmphys_75_559_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeeblesRatra2003" class="citation cs2">Peebles, P.; Ratra, B. (2003), "The cosmological constant and dark energy", Reviews of Modern Physics, 75 (2): 559–606, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0207347">astro-ph/0207347</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RvMP...75..559P">2003RvMP...75..559P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.559">10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118961123">118961123</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=The+cosmological+constant+and+dark+energy&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E559-%3C%2Fspan%3E606&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0207347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118961123%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.75.559&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003RvMP...75..559P&rft.aulast=Peebles&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Ratra%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eso_2017-29"><a href="#cite_ref-eso_2017_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1707a/">"False Dawn"</a>, www.eso.org, retrieved 14 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.eso.org&rft.atitle=False+Dawn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eso.org%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fpotw1707a%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pasj20_230-30"><a href="#cite_ref-pasj20_230_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadokoro1968" class="citation cs2">Tadokoro, M. (1968), "A Study of the Local Group by Use of the Virial Theorem", Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan, 20: 230, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968PASJ...20..230T">1968PASJ...20..230T</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Astronomical+Society+of+Japan&rft.atitle=A+Study+of+the+Local+Group+by+Use+of+the+Virial+Theorem&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=230&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1968PASJ...20..230T&rft.aulast=Tadokoro&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> This source estimates a density of 7 × 10−29 g/cm3 for the <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">atomic mass unit</a> is 1.66 × 10−24 g, for roughly 40 atoms per cubic meter. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorowitzBeiser1971-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorowitzBeiser1971_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorowitzBeiser1971">Borowitz & Beiser 1971</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-patrick-32"><a href="#cite_ref-patrick_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyson2012" class="citation cs2">Tyson, Patrick (January 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131207001720/http://www.climates.com/KA/BASIC%20PARAMETERS/molecularnumbers.pdf">The Kinetic Atmosphere: Molecular Numbers</a> (PDF), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.climates.com/KA/BASIC%20PARAMETERS/molecularnumbers.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 December 2013, retrieved 13 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kinetic+Atmosphere%3A+Molecular+Numbers&rft.date=2012-01&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.climates.com%2FKA%2FBASIC%2520PARAMETERS%2Fmolecularnumbers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies197793-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies197793_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavies1977">Davies 1977</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-fitzpatrick2004-34"><a href="#cite_ref-fitzpatrick2004_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrick2004" class="citation cs2">Fitzpatrick, E. L. (May 2004), "Interstellar Extinction in the Milky Way Galaxy", in Witt, Adolf N.; Clayton, Geoffrey C.; Draine, Bruce T. (eds.), Astrophysics of Dust, ASP Conference Series, vol. 309, p. 33, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0401344">astro-ph/0401344</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ASPC..309...33F">2004ASPC..309...33F</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interstellar+Extinction+in+the+Milky+Way+Galaxy&rft.btitle=Astrophysics+of+Dust&rft.series=ASP+Conference+Series&rft.pages=33&rft.date=2004-05&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0401344&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004ASPC..309...33F&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=E.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChamberlain19782-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChamberlain19782_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChamberlain1978">Chamberlain 1978</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-squire2000-36"><a href="#cite_ref-squire2000_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquire2000" class="citation cs2">Squire, Tom (September 27, 2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111015062917/http://tpsx.arc.nasa.gov/cgi-perl/alt.pl">"U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976"</a>, Thermal Protection Systems Expert and Material Properties Database, NASA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tpsx.arc.nasa.gov/cgi-perl/alt.pl">the original</a> on October 15, 2011, retrieved 2011-10-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thermal+Protection+Systems+Expert+and+Material+Properties+Database&rft.atitle=U.S.+Standard+Atmosphere%2C+1976&rft.date=2000-09-27&rft.aulast=Squire&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftpsx.arc.nasa.gov%2Fcgi-perl%2Falt.pl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jmsj_85B_193-37"><a href="#cite_ref-jmsj_85B_193_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes2007" class="citation cs2">Forbes, Jeffrey M. (2007), "Dynamics of the thermosphere", Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, Series II, 85B: 193–213, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JMeSJ..85B.193F">2007JMeSJ..85B.193F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2151%2Fjmsj.85b.193">10.2151/jmsj.85b.193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Meteorological+Society+of+Japan&rft.atitle=Dynamics+of+the+thermosphere&rft.volume=85B&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E213&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2151%2Fjmsj.85b.193&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007JMeSJ..85B.193F&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spitzer_1948-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Spitzer_1948_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpitzer1948" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer" title="Lyman Spitzer">Spitzer, Lyman Jr.</a> (January 1948), "The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. I", Astrophysical Journal, 107: 6, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948ApJ...107....6S">1948ApJ...107....6S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F144984">10.1086/144984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Temperature+of+Interstellar+Matter.+I&rft.volume=107&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1948-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F144984&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948ApJ...107....6S&rft.aulast=Spitzer&rft.aufirst=Lyman+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrialnik2000195–196-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrialnik2000195–196_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrialnik2000195–196_39-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrialnik2000">Prialnik 2000</a>, pp. 195–196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpitzer197828–30-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpitzer197828–30_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpitzer1978">Spitzer 1978</a>, p. 28–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-fp2_30-41"><a href="#cite_ref-fp2_30_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiaki2014" class="citation cs2">Chiaki, Yanagisawa (June 2014), "Looking for Cosmic Neutrino Background", Frontiers in Physics, 2: 30, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014FrP.....2...30Y">2014FrP.....2...30Y</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffphy.2014.00030">10.3389/fphy.2014.00030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Physics&rft.atitle=Looking+for+Cosmic+Neutrino+Background&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffphy.2014.00030&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014FrP.....2...30Y&rft.aulast=Chiaki&rft.aufirst=Yanagisawa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-apj707_2_916-42"><a href="#cite_ref-apj707_2_916_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFixsen2009" class="citation cs2">Fixsen, D. J. (December 2009), "The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background", The Astrophysical Journal, 707 (2): 916–920, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0911.1955">0911.1955</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApJ...707..916F">2009ApJ...707..916F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F707%2F2%2F916">10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119217397">119217397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Temperature+of+the+Cosmic+Microwave+Background&rft.volume=707&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E916-%3C%2Fspan%3E920&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0911.1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119217397%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F707%2F2%2F916&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009ApJ...707..916F&rft.aulast=Fixsen&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ALMA2013-43"><a href="#cite_ref-ALMA2013_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2013-10-alma-reveals-ghostly-coldest-universe.html">ALMA reveals ghostly shape of 'coldest place in the universe'</a>, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, October 24, 2013, retrieved 2020-10-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ALMA+reveals+ghostly+shape+of+%27coldest+place+in+the+universe%27&rft.pub=National+Radio+Astronomy+Observatory&rft.date=2013-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2013-10-alma-reveals-ghostly-coldest-universe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-apj325_442-44"><a href="#cite_ref-apj325_442_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWithbroe1988" class="citation cs2">Withbroe, George L. (February 1988), "The temperature structure, mass, and energy flow in the corona and inner solar wind", Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 325: 442–467, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988ApJ...325..442W">1988ApJ...325..442W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F166015">10.1086/166015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal%2C+Part+1&rft.atitle=The+temperature+structure%2C+mass%2C+and+energy+flow+in+the+corona+and+inner+solar+wind&rft.volume=325&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E442-%3C%2Fspan%3E467&rft.date=1988-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F166015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988ApJ...325..442W&rft.aulast=Withbroe&rft.aufirst=George+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WielebinskiBeck2010-45"><a href="#cite_ref-WielebinskiBeck2010_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWielebinskiBeck2010" class="citation cs2">Wielebinski, Richard; Beck, Rainer (2010), "Cosmic Magnetic Fields − An Overview", in Block, David L.; Freeman, Kenneth C.; Puerari, Ivânio (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PK7MoOWD-F8C&pg=PA67">Galaxies and their Masks: A Conference in Honour of K.C. Freeman, FRS</a>, Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 67–82, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010gama.conf...67W">2010gama.conf...67W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-7317-7_5">10.1007/978-1-4419-7317-7_5</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-7317-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-7317-7"><bdi>978-1-4419-7317-7</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170920155433/https://books.google.com/books?id=PK7MoOWD-F8C&pg=PA67">archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cosmic+Magnetic+Fields+%E2%88%92+An+Overview&rft.btitle=Galaxies+and+their+Masks%3A+A+Conference+in+Honour+of+K.C.+Freeman%2C+FRS&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-7317-7_5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010gama.conf...67W&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-7317-7&rft.aulast=Wielebinski&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Beck%2C+Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPK7MoOWD-F8C%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rmp83_3_907-46"><a href="#cite_ref-rmp83_3_907_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLetessier-SelvonStanev2011" class="citation cs2">Letessier-Selvon, Antoine; Stanev, Todor (July 2011), "Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays", Reviews of Modern Physics, 83 (3): 907–942, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1103.0031">1103.0031</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011RvMP...83..907L">2011RvMP...83..907L</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.83.907">10.1103/RevModPhys.83.907</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119237295">119237295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Ultrahigh+energy+cosmic+rays&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E907-%3C%2Fspan%3E942&rft.date=2011-07&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1103.0031&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119237295%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.83.907&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011RvMP...83..907L&rft.aulast=Letessier-Selvon&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rft.au=Stanev%2C+Todor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELang1999462-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELang1999462_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLang1999">Lang 1999</a>, p. 462. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELide199311&#45;217-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELide199311&#45;217_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLide1993">Lide 1993</a>, p. 11-217. </li> <li id="cite_note-ls2012-49"><a href="#cite_ref-ls2012_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/34085-space-smell.html">What Does Space Smell Like?</a>, Live Science, July 20, 2012, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140228045646/http://www.livescience.com/34085-space-smell.html">archived</a> from the original on February 28, 2014, retrieved February 19, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Does+Space+Smell+Like%3F&rft.pub=Live+Science&rft.date=2012-07-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F34085-space-smell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PopSicSmell-50"><a href="#cite_ref-PopSicSmell_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLizzie_Schiffman2013" class="citation cs2">Lizzie Schiffman (July 17, 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-07/what-does-space-smell">What Does Space Smell Like</a>, Popular Science, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140224030433/http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-07/what-does-space-smell">archived</a> from the original on February 24, 2014, retrieved February 19, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Does+Space+Smell+Like&rft.pub=Popular+Science&rft.date=2013-07-17&rft.au=Lizzie+Schiffman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popsci.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2F2013-07%2Fwhat-does-space-smell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-a981-51"><a href="#cite_ref-a981_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/space-science-and-astrobiology-at-ames/interesting-fact-of-the-month-current/interesting-fact-of-the-month-2021/">"Interesting Fact of the Month 2021"</a>. NASA. 2023-08-03. Retrieved 2024-09-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Interesting+Fact+of+the+Month+2021&rft.date=2023-08-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fspace-science-and-astrobiology-at-ames%2Finteresting-fact-of-the-month-current%2Finteresting-fact-of-the-month-2021%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-m655-52"><a href="#cite_ref-m655_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2024" class="citation web cs1">Cooper, Keith (2024-01-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/what-does-space-smell-like">"What does space smell like?"</a>. Space.com. Retrieved 2024-09-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=What+does+space+smell+like%3F&rft.date=2024-01-08&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Fwhat-does-space-smell-like&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Astrobiology_11_4_281-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Astrobiology_11_4_281_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaggioPintadoAscasoDe_La_Torre2011" class="citation cs2">Raggio, J.; et al. (May 2011), "Whole Lichen Thalli Survive Exposure to Space Conditions: Results of Lithopanspermia Experiment with Aspicilia fruticulosa", Astrobiology, 11 (4): 281–292, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011AsBio..11..281R">2011AsBio..11..281R</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2010.0588">10.1089/ast.2010.0588</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21545267">21545267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology&rft.atitle=Whole+Lichen+Thalli+Survive+Exposure+to+Space+Conditions%3A+Results+of+Lithopanspermia+Experiment+with+Aspicilia+fruticulosa&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E281-%3C%2Fspan%3E292&rft.date=2011-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21545267&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fast.2010.0588&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011AsBio..11..281R&rft.aulast=Raggio&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Pintado%2C+A.&rft.au=Ascaso%2C+C.&rft.au=De+La+Torre%2C+R.&rft.au=De+Los+R%C3%ADos%2C+A.&rft.au=Wierzchos%2C+J.&rft.au=Horneck%2C+G.&rft.au=Sancho%2C+L.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Astrobiology_12_5_517-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Astrobiology_12_5_517_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTepferZalarLeach2012" class="citation cs2">Tepfer, David; et al. (May 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eea.spaceflight.esa.int/attachments/spacestations/ID5017fe77cc303.pdf">"Survival of Plant Seeds, Their UV Screens, and nptII DNA for 18 Months Outside the International Space Station"</a> (PDF), Astrobiology, 12 (5): 517–528, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AsBio..12..517T">2012AsBio..12..517T</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2011.0744">10.1089/ast.2011.0744</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22680697">22680697</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141213201107/http://eea.spaceflight.esa.int/attachments/spacestations/ID5017fe77cc303.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2014-12-13, retrieved 2013-05-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology&rft.atitle=Survival+of+Plant+Seeds%2C+Their+UV+Screens%2C+and+nptII+DNA+for+18+Months+Outside+the+International+Space+Station&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E517-%3C%2Fspan%3E528&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22680697&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fast.2011.0744&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012AsBio..12..517T&rft.aulast=Tepfer&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Zalar%2C+Andreja&rft.au=Leach%2C+Sydney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feea.spaceflight.esa.int%2Fattachments%2Fspacestations%2FID5017fe77cc303.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Astrobiology_12_5_498-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Astrobiology_12_5_498_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWassmannMoellerRabbowPanitz2012" class="citation cs2">Wassmann, Marko; et al. (May 2012), "Survival of Spores of the UV-ResistantBacillus subtilis Strain MW01 After Exposure to Low-Earth Orbit and Simulated Martian Conditions: Data from the Space Experiment ADAPT on EXPOSE-E", Astrobiology, 12 (5): 498–507, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AsBio..12..498W">2012AsBio..12..498W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2011.0772">10.1089/ast.2011.0772</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22680695">22680695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology&rft.atitle=Survival+of+Spores+of+the+UV-ResistantBacillus+subtilis+Strain+MW01+After+Exposure+to+Low-Earth+Orbit+and+Simulated+Martian+Conditions%3A+Data+from+the+Space+Experiment+ADAPT+on+EXPOSE-E&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E498-%3C%2Fspan%3E507&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22680695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fast.2011.0772&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012AsBio..12..498W&rft.aulast=Wassmann&rft.aufirst=Marko&rft.au=Moeller%2C+Ralf&rft.au=Rabbow%2C+Elke&rft.au=Panitz%2C+Corinna&rft.au=Horneck%2C+Gerda&rft.au=Reitz%2C+G%C3%BCnther&rft.au=Douki%2C+Thierry&rft.au=Cadet%2C+Jean&rft.au=Stan-Lotter%2C+Helga&rft.au=Cockell%2C+Charles+S.&rft.au=Rettberg%2C+Petra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholson2010-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson2010_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2010" class="citation cs2">Nicholson, W. L. (April 2010), "Towards a General Theory of Lithopanspermia", Astrobiology Science Conference 2010, vol. 1538, pp. 5272–528, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010LPICo1538.5272N">2010LPICo1538.5272N</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology+Science+Conference+2010&rft.atitle=Towards+a+General+Theory+of+Lithopanspermia&rft.volume=1538&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5272-%3C%2Fspan%3E528&rft.date=2010-04&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010LPICo1538.5272N&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tarver_et_al_2022-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Tarver_et_al_2022_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarverVolnerCooper2022" class="citation cs2">Tarver, William J.; et al. (October 24, 2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europepmc.org/article/NBK/nbk470190">Aerospace Pressure Effects</a>, Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29262037">29262037</a>, retrieved 2024-04-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aerospace+Pressure+Effects&rft.place=Treasure+Island%2C+FL&rft.pub=StatPearls+Publishing&rft.date=2022-10-24&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29262037&rft.aulast=Tarver&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft.au=Volner%2C+Keith&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Jeffrey+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuropepmc.org%2Farticle%2FNBK%2Fnbk470190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiantadosi2003188–189-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPiantadosi2003188–189_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPiantadosi2003">Piantadosi 2003</a>, pp. 188–189. </li> <li id="cite_note-Battisti_et_al_2022-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Battisti_et_al_2022_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattistiHaftelMurphy-Lavoie2022" class="citation cs2">Battisti, Amanda S.; et al. (June 27, 2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482348/">Barotrauma</a>, StatPearls Publishing LLC, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29493973">29493973</a>, retrieved 2022-12-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barotrauma&rft.pub=StatPearls+Publishing+LLC&rft.date=2022-06-27&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29493973&rft.aulast=Battisti&rft.aufirst=Amanda+S.&rft.au=Haftel%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Murphy-Lavoie%2C+Heather+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK482348%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-krebs_pilmanis1996-60"><a href="#cite_ref-krebs_pilmanis1996_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrebsPilmanis1996" class="citation cs2">Krebs, Matthew B.; Pilmanis, Andrew A. (November 1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA318718.pdf">Human pulmonary tolerance to dynamic over-pressure</a> (PDF), United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121130045759/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA318718">archived</a> from the original on 2012-11-30, retrieved 2011-12-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+pulmonary+tolerance+to+dynamic+over-pressure&rft.pub=United+States+Air+Force+Armstrong+Laboratory&rft.date=1996-11&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=Matthew+B.&rft.au=Pilmanis%2C+Andrew+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA318718.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Busby_1967-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Busby_1967_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBusby1967" class="citation cs2">Busby, D. E. (July 1967), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19670023576/downloads/19670023576.pdf">A prospective look at medical problems from hazards of space operations</a> (PDF), Clinical Space Medicine, NASA, NASA-CR-856, retrieved 2022-12-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+prospective+look+at+medical+problems+from+hazards+of+space+operations&rft.series=Clinical+Space+Medicine&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1967-07&rft.aulast=Busby&rft.aufirst=D.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Fapi%2Fcitations%2F19670023576%2Fdownloads%2F19670023576.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bmj286-62"><a href="#cite_ref-bmj286_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardingMills1983" class="citation cs2">Harding, R. M.; Mills, F. J. (April 30, 1983), "Aviation medicine. Problems of altitude I: hypoxia and hyperventilation", British Medical Journal, 286 (6375): 1408–1410, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.286.6375.1408">10.1136/bmj.286.6375.1408</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1547870">1547870</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6404482">6404482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Aviation+medicine.+Problems+of+altitude+I%3A+hypoxia+and+hyperventilation&rft.volume=286&rft.issue=6375&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1408-%3C%2Fspan%3E1410&rft.date=1983-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1547870%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6404482&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.286.6375.1408&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=R.+M.&rft.au=Mills%2C+F.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jramc157_1_85-63"><a href="#cite_ref-jramc157_1_85_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodkinson2011" class="citation cs2">Hodkinson, P. D. (March 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426054930/http://www.ramcjournal.com/2011/mar11/hodkinson.pdf">"Acute exposure to altitude"</a> (PDF), Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 157 (1): 85–91, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjramc-157-01-15">10.1136/jramc-157-01-15</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21465917">21465917</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43248662">43248662</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ramcjournal.com/2011/mar11/hodkinson.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2012-04-26, retrieved 2011-12-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Army+Medical+Corps&rft.atitle=Acute+exposure+to+altitude&rft.volume=157&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43248662%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21465917&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjramc-157-01-15&rft.aulast=Hodkinson&rft.aufirst=P.+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramcjournal.com%2F2011%2Fmar11%2Fhodkinson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillings19731–34-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillings19731–34_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBillings1973">Billings 1973</a>, pp. 1–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-landis20070807-65"><a href="#cite_ref-landis20070807_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandis2007" class="citation cs2">Landis, Geoffrey A. (August 7, 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090721182306/http://www.geoffreylandis.com/vacuum.html">Human Exposure to Vacuum</a>, www.geoffreylandis.com, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geoffreylandis.com/vacuum.html">the original</a> on July 21, 2009, retrieved 2009-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Exposure+to+Vacuum&rft.pub=www.geoffreylandis.com&rft.date=2007-08-07&rft.aulast=Landis&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geoffreylandis.com%2Fvacuum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-am39_376-66"><a href="#cite_ref-am39_376_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebb1968" class="citation cs2">Webb, P. (1968), "The Space Activity Suit: An Elastic Leotard for Extravehicular Activity", Aerospace Medicine, 39 (4): 376–383, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4872696">4872696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerospace+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Space+Activity+Suit%3A+An+Elastic+Leotard+for+Extravehicular+Activity&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E376-%3C%2Fspan%3E383&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4872696&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllery200068-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllery200068_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllery2000">Ellery 2000</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavisJohnsonStepanek2008270–271-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavisJohnsonStepanek2008270–271_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavisJohnsonStepanek2008">Davis, Johnson & Stepanek 2008</a>, pp. 270–271. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanasManzey200815–48-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanasManzey200815–48_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKanasManzey2008">Kanas & Manzey 2008</a>, pp. 15–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-cmaj180_13_1317-70"><a href="#cite_ref-cmaj180_13_1317_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsKuipersMukaiThirsk2009" class="citation cs2">Williams, David; et al. (June 23, 2009), "Acclimation during space flight: effects on human physiology", Canadian Medical Association Journal, 180 (13): 1317–1323, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.090628">10.1503/cmaj.090628</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2696527">2696527</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19509005">19509005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Medical+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=Acclimation+during+space+flight%3A+effects+on+human+physiology&rft.volume=180&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1317-%3C%2Fspan%3E1323&rft.date=2009-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2696527%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19509005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1503%2Fcmaj.090628&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Kuipers%2C+Andre&rft.au=Mukai%2C+Chiaki&rft.au=Thirsk%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nsbri_radiation-71"><a href="#cite_ref-nsbri_radiation_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy" class="citation cs2">Kennedy, Ann R., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsbri.org/SCIENCE-and-TECHNOLOGY/Radiation-Effects/">Radiation Effects</a>, National Space Biological Research Institute, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120103195825/http://www.nsbri.org/SCIENCE-and-TECHNOLOGY/Radiation-Effects/">archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-03, retrieved 2011-12-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radiation+Effects&rft.pub=National+Space+Biological+Research+Institute&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Ann+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsbri.org%2FSCIENCE-and-TECHNOLOGY%2FRadiation-Effects%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-curtis_and_Letaw-72"><a href="#cite_ref-curtis_and_Letaw_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisLetaw1989" class="citation cs2">Curtis, S. B.; Letaw, J. W. (1989), "Galactic cosmic rays and cell-hit frequencies outside the magnetosphere", Advances in Space Research, 9 (10): 293–298, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989AdSpR...9c.293C">1989AdSpR...9c.293C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2889%2990452-3">10.1016/0273-1177(89)90452-3</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11537306">11537306</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Space+Research&rft.atitle=Galactic+cosmic+rays+and+cell-hit+frequencies+outside+the+magnetosphere&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E298&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11537306&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0273-1177%2889%2990452-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989AdSpR...9c.293C&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=S.+B.&rft.au=Letaw%2C+J.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sas4_11_1013-73"><a href="#cite_ref-sas4_11_1013_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSetlow2003" class="citation cs2">Setlow, Richard B. (November 2003), "The hazards of space travel", Science and Society, 4 (11): 1013–1016, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7400016">10.1038/sj.embor.7400016</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326386">1326386</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14593437">14593437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+hazards+of+space+travel&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1013-%3C%2Fspan%3E1016&rft.date=2003-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1326386%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14593437&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7400016&rft.aulast=Setlow&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grush-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grush_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grush_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grush_74-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrush2018" class="citation web cs1">Grush, Loren (2018-12-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/13/18130973/space-karman-line-definition-boundary-atmosphere-astronauts">"Why defining the boundary of space may be crucial for the future of spaceflight"</a>. The Verge. Retrieved 2024-04-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=Why+defining+the+boundary+of+space+may+be+crucial+for+the+future+of+spaceflight&rft.date=2018-12-13&rft.aulast=Grush&rft.aufirst=Loren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2018%2F12%2F13%2F18130973%2Fspace-karman-line-definition-boundary-atmosphere-astronauts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWongFergusson201016-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWongFergusson201016_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWongFergusson2010">Wong & Fergusson 2010</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FAA_2021-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FAA_2021_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/FAA_Order_8800.2.pdf">FAA Commercial Space Astronaut Wings Program</a> (PDF), Federal Aviation Administration, July 20, 2021, retrieved 2022-12-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FAA+Commercial+Space+Astronaut+Wings+Program&rft.pub=Federal+Aviation+Administration&rft.date=2021-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2FdocumentLibrary%2Fmedia%2FOrder%2FFAA_Order_8800.2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thompton20090409-77"><a href="#cite_ref-thompton20090409_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2009" class="citation cs2">Thompson, Andrea (April 9, 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090409-edge-space.html">Edge of Space Found</a>, space.com, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090714002304/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090409-edge-space.html">archived</a> from the original on July 14, 2009, retrieved 2009-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edge+of+Space+Found&rft.pub=space.com&rft.date=2009-04-09&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Fscienceastronomy%2F090409-edge-space.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jgr114-78"><a href="#cite_ref-jgr114_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangalliKnudsenLarsenZhan2009" class="citation cs2">Sangalli, L.; et al. (2009), "Rocket-based measurements of ion velocity, neutral wind, and electric field in the collisional transition region of the auroral ionosphere", Journal of Geophysical Research, 114 (A4): A04306, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JGRA..114.4306S">2009JGRA..114.4306S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2008JA013757">10.1029/2008JA013757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Rocket-based+measurements+of+ion+velocity%2C+neutral+wind%2C+and+electric+field+in+the+collisional+transition+region+of+the+auroral+ionosphere&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=A4&rft.pages=A04306&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2008JA013757&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JGRA..114.4306S&rft.aulast=Sangalli&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Knudsen%2C+D.+J.&rft.au=Larsen%2C+M.+F.&rft.au=Zhan%2C+T.&rft.au=Pfaff%2C+R.+F.&rft.au=Rowland%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McDowell_2018-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McDowell_2018_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDowell_2018_79-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McDowell_2018_79-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowell2018" class="citation cs2">McDowell, Jonathan C. (October 2018), "The edge of space: Revisiting the Karman Line", Acta Astronautica, 151: 668–677, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.07894">1807.07894</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018AcAau.151..668M">2018AcAau.151..668M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2018.07.003">10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.07.003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Astronautica&rft.atitle=The+edge+of+space%3A+Revisiting+the+Karman+Line&rft.volume=151&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E668-%3C%2Fspan%3E677&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1807.07894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2018.07.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018AcAau.151..668M&rft.aulast=McDowell&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-petty20030213-80"><a href="#cite_ref-petty20030213_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetty2003" class="citation cs2">Petty, John Ira (February 13, 2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111027174930/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/events/entry/">"Entry"</a>, Human Spaceflight, NASA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/events/entry/">the original</a> on October 27, 2011, retrieved 2011-12-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Spaceflight&rft.atitle=Entry&rft.date=2003-02-13&rft.aulast=Petty&rft.aufirst=John+Ira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspaceflight.nasa.gov%2Fshuttle%2Freference%2Fshutref%2Fevents%2Fentry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Durrani-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Durrani_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurrani2019" class="citation cs2">Durrani, Haris (19 July 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/">"Is Spaceflight Colonialism?"</a>, The Nation, retrieved 6 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=Is+Spaceflight+Colonialism%3F&rft.date=2019-07-19&rft.aulast=Durrani&rft.aufirst=Haris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Fapollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unoosa2-82"><a href="#cite_ref-unoosa2_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180322130911/http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf">Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as of 1 January 2017</a> (PDF), United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs/ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, March 23, 2017, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 22, 2018, retrieved 2018-03-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Status+of+International+Agreements+relating+to+activities+in+outer+space+as+of+1+January+2017&rft.pub=United+Nations+Office+for+Outer+Space+Affairs%2F+Committee+on+the+Peaceful+Uses+of+Outer+Space&rft.date=2017-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2Fspacelaw%2Ftreatystatus%2FAC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unoosa-83"><a href="#cite_ref-unoosa_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110427091708/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/outerspt.html">Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies</a>, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, January 1, 2008, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/outerspt.html">the original</a> on April 27, 2011, retrieved 2009-12-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+on+Principles+Governing+the+Activities+of+States+in+the+Exploration+and+Use+of+Outer+Space%2C+including+the+Moon+and+Other+Celestial+Bodies&rft.pub=United+Nations+Office+for+Outer+Space+Affairs&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Foosa%2FSpaceLaw%2Fouterspt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-garros-84"><a href="#cite_ref-garros_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/gares/index.html">Index of Online General Assembly Resolutions Relating to Outer Space</a>, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2011, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100115120820/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/gares/index.html">archived</a> from the original on 2010-01-15, retrieved 2009-12-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Index+of+Online+General+Assembly+Resolutions+Relating+to+Outer+Space&rft.pub=United+Nations+Office+for+Outer+Space+Affairs&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Foosa%2FSpaceLaw%2Fgares%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWongFergusson20104-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWongFergusson20104_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWongFergusson2010">Wong & Fergusson 2010</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Solanki2019-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Solanki2019_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolanki2019" class="citation cs2">Solanki, Lalit (2019-03-27), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328134405/https://themirk.com/india-enters-the-elite-club-successfully-shot-down-low-orbit-satellite/">"India Enters the Elite Club: Successfully Shot Down Low Orbit Satellite"</a>, The Mirk, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://themirk.com/india-enters-the-elite-club-successfully-shot-down-low-orbit-satellite/">the original</a> on 2019-03-28, retrieved 2019-03-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mirk&rft.atitle=India+Enters+the+Elite+Club%3A+Successfully+Shot+Down+Low+Orbit+Satellite&rft.date=2019-03-27&rft.aulast=Solanki&rft.aufirst=Lalit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthemirk.com%2Findia-enters-the-elite-club-successfully-shot-down-low-orbit-satellite%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-esf20071105-87"><a href="#cite_ref-esf20071105_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081215174524/http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/news/ext-news-singleview/article/columbus-launch-puts-space-law-to-the-test-358.html">Columbus launch puts space law to the test</a>, European Science Foundation, November 5, 2007, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/news/ext-news-singleview/article/columbus-launch-puts-space-law-to-the-test-358.html">the original</a> on December 15, 2008, retrieved 2009-12-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Columbus+launch+puts+space+law+to+the+test&rft.pub=European+Science+Foundation&rft.date=2007-11-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esf.org%2Fresearch-areas%2Fhumanities%2Fnews%2Fext-news-singleview%2Farticle%2Fcolumbus-launch-puts-space-law-to-the-test-358.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bogota1976-88"><a href="#cite_ref-bogota1976_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRepresentatives_of_the_States_traversed_by_the_Equator1976" class="citation cs2">Representatives of the States traversed by the Equator (December 3, 1976), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jaxa.jp/library/space_law/chapter_2/2-2-1-2_e.html">"Declaration of the first meeting of equatorial countries"</a>, Space Law, Bogota, Republic of Colombia: JAXA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111124065449/http://www.jaxa.jp/library/space_law/chapter_2/2-2-1-2_e.html">archived</a> from the original on November 24, 2011, retrieved 2011-10-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Law&rft.atitle=Declaration+of+the+first+meeting+of+equatorial+countries&rft.date=1976-12-03&rft.au=Representatives+of+the+States+traversed+by+the+Equator&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jaxa.jp%2Flibrary%2Fspace_law%2Fchapter_2%2F2-2-1-2_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aasl31_2006-89"><a href="#cite_ref-aasl31_2006_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGangale2006" class="citation cs2">Gangale, Thomas (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927091830/http://pweb.jps.net/~gangale/opsa/ir/WhoOwnsGeostationaryOrbit.htm">"Who Owns the Geostationary Orbit?"</a>, Annals of Air and Space Law, 31, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pweb.jps.net/~gangale/opsa/ir/WhoOwnsGeostationaryOrbit.htm">the original</a> on 2011-09-27, retrieved 2011-10-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Air+and+Space+Law&rft.atitle=Who+Owns+the+Geostationary+Orbit%3F&rft.volume=31&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Gangale&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpweb.jps.net%2F~gangale%2Fopsa%2Fir%2FWhoOwnsGeostationaryOrbit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-European_Society_of_International_Law_2023_p580-90"><a href="#cite_ref-European_Society_of_International_Law_2023_p580_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esil-sedi.eu/esil-reflection-clearing-up-the-space-junk-on-the-flaws-and-potential-of-international-space-law-to-tackle-the-space-debris-problem/">"ESIL Reflection – Clearing up the Space Junk – On the Flaws and Potential of International Space Law to Tackle the Space Debris Problem – European Society of International Law"</a>, European Society of International Law, 2023-03-09, retrieved 2024-04-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Society+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=ESIL+Reflection+%E2%80%93+Clearing+up+the+Space+Junk+%E2%80%93+On+the+Flaws+and+Potential+of+International+Space+Law+to+Tackle+the+Space+Debris+Problem+%E2%80%93+European+Society+of+International+Law&rft.date=2023-03-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesil-sedi.eu%2Fesil-reflection-clearing-up-the-space-junk-on-the-flaws-and-potential-of-international-space-law-to-tackle-the-space-debris-problem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hill1999-91"><a href="#cite_ref-hill1999_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill1999" class="citation cs2">Hill, James V. H. (April 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/getting_to_low_earth_orbit.shtml">"Getting to Low Earth Orbit"</a>, Space Future, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120319163414/http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/getting_to_low_earth_orbit.shtml">archived</a> from the original on 2012-03-19, retrieved 2012-03-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Future&rft.atitle=Getting+to+Low+Earth+Orbit&rft.date=1999-04&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=James+V.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spacefuture.com%2Farchive%2Fgetting_to_low_earth_orbit.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shiner20071101-92"><a href="#cite_ref-shiner20071101_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShiner2007" class="citation cs2">Shiner, Linda (November 1, 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/x-15_walkaround.html">X-15 Walkaround</a>, Air & Space Magazine, retrieved 2009-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=X-15+Walkaround&rft.pub=Air+%26+Space+Magazine&rft.date=2007-11-01&rft.aulast=Shiner&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airspacemag.com%2Fhistory-of-flight%2Fx-15_walkaround.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dimotakis1999-93"><a href="#cite_ref-dimotakis1999_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimotakisGarwinKatzVesecky1999" class="citation cs2">Dimotakis, P.; et al. (October 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829090237/http://en.scientificcommons.org/18569633">100 lbs to Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Small-Payload Launch Options</a>, The Mitre Corporation, pp. 1–39, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.scientificcommons.org/18569633">the original</a> on 2017-08-29, retrieved 2012-01-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=100+lbs+to+Low+Earth+Orbit+%28LEO%29%3A+Small-Payload+Launch+Options&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.pub=The+Mitre+Corporation&rft.date=1999-10&rft.aulast=Dimotakis&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Garwin%2C+R.&rft.au=Katz%2C+J.&rft.au=Vesecky%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.scientificcommons.org%2F18569633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-williams2010-94"><a href="#cite_ref-williams2010_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2010" class="citation cs2">Williams, David R. (November 17, 2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html">"Earth Fact Sheet"</a>, Lunar & Planetary Science, NASA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101030234253/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html">archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2010, retrieved 2012-05-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lunar+%26+Planetary+Science&rft.atitle=Earth+Fact+Sheet&rft.date=2010-11-17&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fplanetary%2Ffactsheet%2Fearthfact.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhosh200047–48-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhosh200047–48_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGhosh2000">Ghosh 2000</a>, pp. 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA_FAQ-96"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_FAQ_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/faq/#">Frequently Asked Questions</a>, Astromaterials Research & Exploration Science: NASA Orbital Debris Program Office, retrieved 2024-04-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions&rft.pub=Astromaterials+Research+%26+Exploration+Science%3A+NASA+Orbital+Debris+Program+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov%2Ffaq%2F%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-slsa-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-slsa_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slsa_97-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennewellMcDonald2011" class="citation cs2">Kennewell, John; McDonald, Andrew (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/1/3/8">Satellite Lifetimes and Solar Activity</a>, Commonwealth of Australia Bureau of Weather, Space Weather Branch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111228025141/http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/1/3/8">archived</a> from the original on 2011-12-28, retrieved 2011-12-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Satellite+Lifetimes+and+Solar+Activity&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Australia+Bureau+of+Weather%2C+Space+Weather+Branch&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kennewell&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=McDonald%2C+Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ips.gov.au%2FEducational%2F1%2F3%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baker_et_al_2018-98"><a href="#cite_ref-Baker_et_al_2018_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerEricksonFennellFoster2018" class="citation cs2">Baker, D. N.; et al. (February 2018), "Space Weather Effects in the Earth's Radiation Belts", Space Science Reviews, 214 (1), id. 17, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018SSRv..214...17B">2018SSRv..214...17B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11214-017-0452-7">10.1007/s11214-017-0452-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Space+Weather+Effects+in+the+Earth%27s+Radiation+Belts&rft.volume=214&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=id.+17&rft.date=2018-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11214-017-0452-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018SSRv..214...17B&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=D.+N.&rft.au=Erickson%2C+P.+J.&rft.au=Fennell%2C+J.+F.&rft.au=Foster%2C+J.+C.&rft.au=Jaynes%2C+A.+N.&rft.au=Verronen%2C+P.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-uscode.house.gov_2022-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uscode.house.gov_2022_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uscode.house.gov_2022_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uscode.house.gov_2022_99-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:42%20section:18302%20edition:prelim)#:~:text=(7)%20Near%2DEarth%20space,and%20includes%20geo%2Dsynchronous%20orbit.">"42 USC 18302: Definitions"</a>, uscode.house.gov (in Kinyarwanda), December 15, 2022, retrieved December 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=uscode.house.gov&rft.atitle=42+USC+18302%3A+Definitions&rft.date=2022-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuscode.house.gov%2Fview.xhtml%3Freq%3D%28title%3A42%2520section%3A18302%2520edition%3Aprelim%29%23%3A~%3Atext%3D%287%29%2520Near%252DEarth%2520space%2Cand%2520includes%2520geo%252Dsynchronous%2520orbit.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010363,_379-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010363,_379_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010363,_379_100-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchrijverSiscoe2010">Schrijver & Siscoe 2010</a>, p. 363, 379. </li> <li id="cite_note-sdc20150426-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sdc20150426_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sdc20150426_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell2015" class="citation cs2">Howell, Elizabeth (April 24, 2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/29222-geosynchronous-orbit.html">"What Is a Geosynchronous Orbit?"</a>, Space.com, retrieved 8 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Geosynchronous+Orbit%3F&rft.date=2015-04-24&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F29222-geosynchronous-orbit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sr2165-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sr2165_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sr2165_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrickland2012" class="citation cs2">Strickland, John K. (October 1, 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2165/1">The cislunar gateway with no gate</a>, The Space Review, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207003135/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2165/1">archived</a> from the original on February 7, 2016, retrieved 2016-02-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+cislunar+gateway+with+no+gate&rft.pub=The+Space+Review&rft.date=2012-10-01&rft.aulast=Strickland&rft.aufirst=John+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thespacereview.com%2Farticle%2F2165%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-portree_loftus1999-103"><a href="#cite_ref-portree_loftus1999_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPortreeLoftus1999" class="citation cs2">Portree, David; Loftus, Joseph (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000901071135/http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TP-1999-208856.pdf">"Orbital Debris: A Chronology"</a> (PDF), NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N, 99, NASA: 13, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999STIN...9941786P">1999STIN...9941786P</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TP-1999-208856.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2000-09-01, retrieved 2012-05-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NASA+Sti%2FRecon+Technical+Report+N&rft.atitle=Orbital+Debris%3A+A+Chronology&rft.volume=99&rft.pages=13&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999STIN...9941786P&rft.aulast=Portree&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Loftus%2C+Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fston.jsc.nasa.gov%2Fcollections%2FTRS%2F_techrep%2FTP-1999-208856.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ARES-104"><a href="#cite_ref-ARES_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/photo-gallery/">Photo Gallery</a>, ARES | NASA Orbital Debris Program Office, retrieved 2024-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Photo+Gallery&rft.pub=ARES+%26%23124%3B+NASA+Orbital+Debris+Program+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov%2Fphoto-gallery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-geospace-105"><a href="#cite_ref-geospace_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKintnerGMDT_Committee_and_Staff2002" class="citation cs2">Kintner, Paul; GMDT Committee and Staff (September 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ilwsonline.org/lwsgeospace_cospar.pdf">Report of the Living With a Star Geospace Mission Definition Team</a> (PDF), NASA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121102115356/http://ilwsonline.org/lwsgeospace_cospar.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2012-11-02, retrieved 2012-04-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Living+With+a+Star+Geospace+Mission+Definition+Team&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2002-09&rft.aulast=Kintner&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=GMDT+Committee+and+Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Filwsonline.org%2Flwsgeospace_cospar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010379-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrijverSiscoe2010379_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchrijverSiscoe2010">Schrijver & Siscoe 2010</a>, p. 379. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFichtnerLiu2011341–345-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFichtnerLiu2011341–345_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFichtnerLiu2011">Fichtner & Liu 2011</a>, pp. 341–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoskinen201032,_42-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoskinen201032,_42_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoskinen2010">Koskinen 2010</a>, pp. 32, 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-HonesJr1986-109"><a href="#cite_ref-HonesJr1986_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHones1986" class="citation cs2">Hones, Edward W. Jr. (March 1986), "The Earth's Magnetotail", Scientific American, 254 (3): 40–47, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986SciAm.254c..40H">1986SciAm.254c..40H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0386-40">10.1038/scientificamerican0386-40</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24975910">24975910</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Earth%27s+Magnetotail&rft.volume=254&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=1986-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24975910%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0386-40&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986SciAm.254c..40H&rft.aulast=Hones&rft.aufirst=Edward+W.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendillo2000275-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendillo2000275_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMendillo2000">Mendillo 2000</a>, p. 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman2006244-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodman2006244_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoodman2006">Goodman 2006</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-oecd-112"><a href="#cite_ref-oecd_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/25/46891645.pdf">"Geomagnetic Storms"</a> (PDF), OECD/IFP Futures Project on "Future Global Shocks", CENTRA Technology, Inc., pp. 1–69, January 14, 2011, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314111613/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/25/46891645.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on March 14, 2012, retrieved 2012-04-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OECD%2FIFP+Futures+Project+on+%22Future+Global+Shocks%22&rft.atitle=Geomagnetic+Storms&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=2011-01-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fdataoecd%2F57%2F25%2F46891645.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchens_2022-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchens_2022_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchens2022" class="citation cs2">Hitchens, Theresa (2022-04-21), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://breakingdefense.sites.breakingmedia.com/2022/04/to-infinity-and-beyond-new-space-force-unit-to-monitor-xgeo-beyond-earths-orbit/">"To infinity and beyond: New Space Force unit to monitor 'xGEO' beyond Earth's orbit"</a>, Breaking Defense, retrieved 2022-12-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Breaking+Defense&rft.atitle=To+infinity+and+beyond%3A+New+Space+Force+unit+to+monitor+%27xGEO%27+beyond+Earth%27s+orbit&rft.date=2022-04-21&rft.aulast=Hitchens&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbreakingdefense.sites.breakingmedia.com%2F2022%2F04%2Fto-infinity-and-beyond-new-space-force-unit-to-monitor-xgeo-beyond-earths-orbit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA_2013-114"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_2013_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/whyweexplore/why_we_explore_main.html">"Why We Explore"</a>, NASA, June 13, 2013, retrieved December 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Why+We+Explore&rft.date=2013-06-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fexploration%2Fwhyweexplore%2Fwhy_we_explore_main.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-yoder1995-115"><a href="#cite_ref-yoder1995_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoder1995" class="citation cs2">Yoder, Charles F. (1995), "Astrometric and Geodetic Properties of Earth and the Solar System", in Ahrens, Thomas J. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426082632/http://terra.sgt-inc.com/pub/jmccarth/GEODYN_class/class_materials_DVD/references/4_yoder.pdf">Global earth physics a handbook of physical constants</a> (PDF), AGU reference shelf Series, vol. 1, Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, p. 1, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995geph.conf....1Y">1995geph.conf....1Y</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87590-851-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87590-851-9"><bdi>978-0-87590-851-9</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://terra.sgt-inc.com/pub/jmccarth/GEODYN_class/class_materials_DVD/references/4_yoder.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on April 26, 2012, retrieved 2011-12-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Astrometric+and+Geodetic+Properties+of+Earth+and+the+Solar+System&rft.btitle=Global+earth+physics+a+handbook+of+physical+constants&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=AGU+reference+shelf+Series&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=American+Geophysical+Union&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995geph.conf....1Y&rft.isbn=978-0-87590-851-9&rft.aulast=Yoder&rft.aufirst=Charles+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fterra.sgt-inc.com%2Fpub%2Fjmccarth%2FGEODYN_class%2Fclass_materials_DVD%2Freferences%2F4_yoder.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988">. This work lists a Hill sphere radius of 234.9 times the <a href="/wiki/Mean_radius" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean radius">mean radius</a> of Earth, or 234.9 × 6,371 km = 1.5 million km. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarbieri2006253-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarbieri2006253_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarbieri2006">Barbieri 2006</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-Granvik_et_al_2012-117"><a href="#cite_ref-Granvik_et_al_2012_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranvikVaubaillonJedicke2012" class="citation cs2">Granvik, Mikael; et al. (March 2012), "The population of natural Earth satellites", Icarus, 218 (1): 262–277, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.3781">1112.3781</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Icar..218..262G">2012Icar..218..262G</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2011.12.003">10.1016/j.icarus.2011.12.003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Icarus&rft.atitle=The+population+of+natural+Earth+satellites&rft.volume=218&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E262-%3C%2Fspan%3E277&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1112.3781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2011.12.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Icar..218..262G&rft.aulast=Granvik&rft.aufirst=Mikael&rft.au=Vaubaillon%2C+Jeremie&rft.au=Jedicke%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USC_10101-118"><a href="#cite_ref-USC_10101_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title51-section10101&num=0&edition=prelim">"51 U.S.C 10101 -National and Commercial Space Programs, Subtitle I-General, Chapter 101-Definitions"</a>, United States Code, Office of Law Revision Council, U. S. House of Representatives, retrieved January 5, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+States+Code&rft.atitle=51+U.S.C+10101+-National+and+Commercial+Space+Programs%2C+Subtitle+I-General%2C+Chapter+101-Definitions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuscode.house.gov%2Fview.xhtml%3Freq%3Dgranuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title51-section10101%26num%3D0%26edition%3Dprelim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickson201057-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickson201057_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDickson2010">Dickson 2010</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamson200697-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamson200697_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliamson2006">Williamson 2006</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Collins_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">"Definition of 'deep space'", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/deep-space">Collins English Dictionary</a>, retrieved 2018-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Definition+of+%27deep+space%27&rft.btitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fus%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fdeep-space&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ITU-122"><a href="#cite_ref-ITU_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/art1.pdf">ITU-R Radio Regulations, Article 1, Terms and definitions, Section VIII, Technical terms relating to space, paragraph 1.177.</a> (PDF), International Telecommunication Union, retrieved 2018-02-05, <q>1.177 deep space: Space at distances from the Earth equal to, or greater than, 2×106 km</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ITU-R+Radio+Regulations%2C+Article+1%2C+Terms+and+definitions%2C+Section+VIII%2C+Technical+terms+relating+to+space%2C+paragraph+1.177.&rft.pub=International+Telecommunication+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flife.itu.int%2Fradioclub%2Frr%2Fart1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_2021-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2021_123-0">^</a> The semi-major axis of the Moon's orbit is 384,400 km, which is 19.2% of two million km, or about one-fifth. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2021" class="citation cs2">Williams, David R. (December 20, 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html">Moon Fact Sheet</a>, NASA, retrieved 2023-09-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moon+Fact+Sheet&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2021-12-20&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fplanetary%2Ffactsheet%2Fmoonfact.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapagiannis197212–149-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapagiannis197212–149_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapagiannis197212–149_124-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPapagiannis1972">Papagiannis 1972</a>, pp. 12–149. </li> <li id="cite_note-universetoday_interplanetaryspace-125"><a href="#cite_ref-universetoday_interplanetaryspace_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbby_Cessna2009" class="citation cs2">Abby Cessna (July 5, 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.universetoday.com/34074/interplanetary-space/">"Interplanetary space"</a>, Universe Today, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319173041/http://www.universetoday.com/34074/interplanetary-space/">archived</a> from the original on March 19, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Universe+Today&rft.atitle=Interplanetary+space&rft.date=2009-07-05&rft.au=Abby+Cessna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.universetoday.com%2F34074%2Finterplanetary-space%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phillips2009-126"><a href="#cite_ref-phillips2009_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2009" class="citation cs2">Phillips, Tony (2009-09-29), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091014035616/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/29sep_cosmicrays.htm">Cosmic Rays Hit Space Age High</a>, NASA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/29sep_cosmicrays.htm">the original</a> on 2009-10-14, retrieved 2009-10-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Rays+Hit+Space+Age+High&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2009-09-29&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.nasa.gov%2Fheadlines%2Fy2009%2F29sep_cosmicrays.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kohler2017-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Kohler2017_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohler2017" class="citation cs2">Kohler, Susanna (December 1, 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aasnova.org/2017/12/01/a-shifting-shield-provides-protection-against-cosmic-rays/">"A Shifting Shield Provides Protection Against Cosmic Rays"</a>, Nova, American Astronomical Society, p. 2992, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017nova.pres.2992K">2017nova.pres.2992K</a>, retrieved 2019-01-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nova&rft.atitle=A+Shifting+Shield+Provides+Protection+Against+Cosmic+Rays&rft.pages=2992&rft.date=2017-12-01&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017nova.pres.2992K&rft.aulast=Kohler&rft.aufirst=Susanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faasnova.org%2F2017%2F12%2F01%2Fa-shifting-shield-provides-protection-against-cosmic-rays%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EA-20190312-128"><a href="#cite_ref-EA-20190312_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNASA2019" class="citation cs2">NASA (March 12, 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/nsfc-wsf031219.php">"What scientists found after sifting through dust in the solar system"</a>, <a href="/wiki/EurekAlert!" class="mw-redirect" title="EurekAlert!">EurekAlert!</a>, retrieved 12 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EurekAlert%21&rft.atitle=What+scientists+found+after+sifting+through+dust+in+the+solar+system&rft.date=2019-03-12&rft.au=NASA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2019-03%2Fnsfc-wsf031219.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-asp2003-129"><a href="#cite_ref-asp2003_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynnKellerJacobsenWirick2003" class="citation cs2">Flynn, G. J.; et al. (2003), "The Origin of Organic Matter in the Solar System: Evidence from the Interplanetary Dust Particles", in Norris, R.; Stootman, F. (eds.), Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars, Proceedings of IAU Symposium No. 213, vol. 213, p. 275, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004IAUS..213..275F">2004IAUS..213..275F</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Organic+Matter+in+the+Solar+System%3A+Evidence+from+the+Interplanetary+Dust+Particles&rft.btitle=Bioastronomy+2002%3A+Life+Among+the+Stars%2C+Proceedings+of+IAU+Symposium+No.+213&rft.pages=275&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004IAUS..213..275F&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft.au=Keller%2C+L.+P.&rft.au=Jacobsen%2C+C.&rft.au=Wirick%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-leinert_grun_1990-130"><a href="#cite_ref-leinert_grun_1990_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeinertGrun1990" class="citation cs2">Leinert, C.; Grun, E. (1990), "Interplanetary Dust", Physics of the Inner Heliosphere I, p. 207, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990pihl.book..207L">1990pihl.book..207L</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-75361-9_5">10.1007/978-3-642-75361-9_5</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-75363-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-75363-3"><bdi>978-3-642-75363-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interplanetary+Dust&rft.btitle=Physics+of+the+Inner+Heliosphere+I&rft.pages=207&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-75361-9_5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990pihl.book..207L&rft.isbn=978-3-642-75363-3&rft.aulast=Leinert&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Grun%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ssr69_3_215-131"><a href="#cite_ref-ssr69_3_215_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1994" class="citation cs2">Johnson, R. E. (August 1994), "Plasma-Induced Sputtering of an Atmosphere", Space Science Reviews, 69 (3–4): 215–253, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994SSRv...69..215J">1994SSRv...69..215J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02101697">10.1007/BF02101697</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121800711">121800711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Plasma-Induced+Sputtering+of+an+Atmosphere&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=1994-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121800711%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02101697&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994SSRv...69..215J&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jpl_interstellarspace-132"><a href="#cite_ref-jpl_interstellarspace_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJia-Rui_Cook2013" class="citation cs2">Jia-Rui Cook (September 12, 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-278">"How do we know when Voyager reaches interstellar space?"</a>, JPL News, 2013-278, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130915060510/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-278">archived</a> from the original on September 15, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JPL+News&rft.atitle=How+do+we+know+when+Voyager+reaches+interstellar+space%3F&rft.date=2013-09-12&rft.au=Jia-Rui+Cook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews.php%3Frelease%3D2013-278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2023" class="citation web cs1">Cooper, Keith (2023-01-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/interstellar-space-definition-explanation">"Interstellar space: What is it and where does it begin?"</a>. Space.com. Retrieved 2024-01-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Interstellar+space%3A+What+is+it+and+where+does+it+begin%3F&rft.date=2023-01-17&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Finterstellar-space-definition-explanation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferrière2001-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrière2001_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrière2001_134-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrière2001" class="citation cs2">Ferrière, Katia M. (2001), "The interstellar environment of our galaxy", Reviews of Modern Physics, 73 (4): 1031–1066, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0106359">astro-ph/0106359</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001RvMP...73.1031F">2001RvMP...73.1031F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.73.1031">10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16232084">16232084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=The+interstellar+environment+of+our+galaxy&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1031-%3C%2Fspan%3E1066&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0106359&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16232084%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.73.1031&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001RvMP...73.1031F&rft.aulast=Ferri%C3%A8re&rft.aufirst=Katia+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-witt2001-135"><a href="#cite_ref-witt2001_135-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitt2001" class="citation cs2">Witt, Adolf N. (October 2001), "The Chemical Composition of the Interstellar Medium", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences – Origin and early evolution of solid matter in the Solar System, vol. 359, p. 1949, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001RSPTA.359.1949W">2001RSPTA.359.1949W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2001.0889">10.1098/rsta.2001.0889</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:91378510">91378510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chemical+Composition+of+the+Interstellar+Medium&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences+%E2%80%93+Origin+and+early+evolution+of+solid+matter+in+the+Solar+System&rft.pages=1949&rft.date=2001-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A91378510%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2001.0889&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001RSPTA.359.1949W&rft.aulast=Witt&rft.aufirst=Adolf+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boulares1990-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Boulares1990_136-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoularesCox1990" class="citation cs2">Boulares, Ahmed; Cox, Donald P. (December 1990), "Galactic hydrostatic equilibrium with magnetic tension and cosmic-ray diffusion", Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 365: 544–558, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ApJ...365..544B">1990ApJ...365..544B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F169509">10.1086/169509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal%2C+Part+1&rft.atitle=Galactic+hydrostatic+equilibrium+with+magnetic+tension+and+cosmic-ray+diffusion&rft.volume=365&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E544-%3C%2Fspan%3E558&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F169509&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990ApJ...365..544B&rft.aulast=Boulares&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rft.au=Cox%2C+Donald+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERauchfuss200872–81-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERauchfuss200872–81_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRauchfuss2008">Rauchfuss 2008</a>, pp. 72–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-PNAS103_33_12232-138"><a href="#cite_ref-PNAS103_33_12232_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlemperer2006" class="citation cs2">Klemperer, William (August 15, 2006), "Interstellar chemistry", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103 (33): 12232–12234, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..10312232K">2006PNAS..10312232K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0605352103">10.1073/pnas.0605352103</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1567863">1567863</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16894148">16894148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Interstellar+chemistry&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=33&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12232-%3C%2Fspan%3E12234&rft.date=2006-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1567863%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16894148&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0605352103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PNAS..10312232K&rft.aulast=Klemperer&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-redfield2006-139"><a href="#cite_ref-redfield2006_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedfield2006" class="citation cs2">Redfield, S. (September 2006), "The Local Interstellar Medium", New Horizons in Astronomy; Proceedings of the Conference Held 16–18 October 2005 at The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA, Frank N. Bash Symposium ASP Conference Series, vol. 352, p. 79, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601117">astro-ph/0601117</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ASPC..352...79R">2006ASPC..352...79R</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Local+Interstellar+Medium&rft.btitle=New+Horizons+in+Astronomy%3B+Proceedings+of+the+Conference+Held+16%E2%80%9318+October+2005+at+The+University+of+Texas%2C+Austin%2C+Texas%2C+USA&rft.series=Frank+N.+Bash+Symposium+ASP+Conference+Series&rft.pages=79&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0601117&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006ASPC..352...79R&rft.aulast=Redfield&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bow_science-140"><a href="#cite_ref-bow_science_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcComasAlexashovBzowskiFahr2012" class="citation cs2">McComas, D. J.; et al. (2012), "The Heliosphere's Interstellar Interaction: No Bow Shock", Science, 336 (6086): 1291–3, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Sci...336.1291M">2012Sci...336.1291M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1221054">10.1126/science.1221054</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22582011">22582011</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206540880">206540880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Heliosphere%27s+Interstellar+Interaction%3A+No+Bow+Shock&rft.volume=336&rft.issue=6086&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1291-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1221054&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206540880%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22582011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Sci...336.1291M&rft.aulast=McComas&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft.au=Alexashov%2C+D.&rft.au=Bzowski%2C+M.&rft.au=Fahr%2C+H.&rft.au=Heerikhuisen%2C+J.&rft.au=Izmodenov%2C+V.&rft.au=Lee%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Mobius%2C+E.&rft.au=Pogorelov%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bow-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bow_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bow_141-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox2012" class="citation cs2">Fox, Karen C. (May 10, 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/nobowshock.html">NASA – IBEX Reveals a Missing Boundary at the Edge of the Solar System</a>, NASA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512235338/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/nobowshock.html">archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2012, retrieved 2012-05-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=NASA+%E2%80%93+IBEX+Reveals+a+Missing+Boundary+at+the+Edge+of+the+Solar+System&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2012-05-10&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Karen+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2Fibex%2Fnews%2Fnobowshock.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWszolek201367-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWszolek201367_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWszolek2013">Wszolek 2013</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-jafelice_opher1992-143"><a href="#cite_ref-jafelice_opher1992_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJafeliceOpher1992" class="citation cs2">Jafelice, Luiz C.; Opher, Reuven (July 1992), "The origin of intergalactic magnetic fields due to extragalactic jets", <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>, 257 (1): 135–151, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992MNRAS.257..135J">1992MNRAS.257..135J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F257.1.135">10.1093/mnras/257.1.135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+intergalactic+magnetic+fields+due+to+extragalactic+jets&rft.volume=257&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.date=1992-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F257.1.135&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992MNRAS.257..135J&rft.aulast=Jafelice&rft.aufirst=Luiz+C.&rft.au=Opher%2C+Reuven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wadsley2002-144"><a href="#cite_ref-wadsley2002_144-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWadsleyRuetaloBondContaldi2002" class="citation cs2">Wadsley, James W.; et al. (August 20, 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020820.html">"The Universe in Hot Gas"</a>, Astronomy Picture of the Day, NASA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090609150938/http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020820.html">archived</a> from the original on June 9, 2009, retrieved 2009-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+Picture+of+the+Day&rft.atitle=The+Universe+in+Hot+Gas&rft.date=2002-08-20&rft.aulast=Wadsley&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft.au=Ruetalo%2C+Marcelo+I.&rft.au=Bond%2C+J.+Richard&rft.au=Contaldi%2C+Carlo+R.&rft.au=Couchman%2C+Hugh+M.+P.&rft.au=Stadel%2C+Joachim&rft.au=Quinn%2C+Thomas+R.&rft.au=Gladders%2C+Michael+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fapod%2Fap020820.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvard_&_Smithsonian_2022_k265-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_&_Smithsonian_2022_k265_145-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/research/topic/intergalactic-medium">"Intergalactic medium"</a>, Harvard & Smithsonian, 2022-06-16, retrieved 2024-04-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+%26+Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Intergalactic+medium&rft.date=2022-06-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cfa.harvard.edu%2Fresearch%2Ftopic%2Fintergalactic-medium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-apj_714_1715-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-apj_714_1715_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-apj_714_1715_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFangBuoteHumphreyCanizares2010" class="citation cs2">Fang, T.; et al. (2010), "Confirmation of X-Ray Absorption by Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium in the Sculptor Wall", The Astrophysical Journal, 714 (2): 1715, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.3692">1001.3692</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ApJ...714.1715F">2010ApJ...714.1715F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F714%2F2%2F1715">10.1088/0004-637X/714/2/1715</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17524108">17524108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Confirmation+of+X-Ray+Absorption+by+Warm-Hot+Intergalactic+Medium+in+the+Sculptor+Wall&rft.volume=714&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1715&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1001.3692&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17524108%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F714%2F2%2F1715&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010ApJ...714.1715F&rft.aulast=Fang&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=Buote%2C+D.+A.&rft.au=Humphrey%2C+P.+J.&rft.au=Canizares%2C+C.+R.&rft.au=Zappacosta%2C+L.&rft.au=Maiolino%2C+R.&rft.au=Tagliaferri%2C+G.&rft.au=Gastaldello%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppenheimer_Davé_2006-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_Davé_2006_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppenheimerDavé2006" class="citation cs2">Oppenheimer, Benjamin D.; Davé, Romeel (December 2006), "Cosmological simulations of intergalactic medium enrichment from galactic outflows", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 373 (4): 1265–1292, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0605651">astro-ph/0605651</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MNRAS.373.1265O">2006MNRAS.373.1265O</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2006.10989.x">10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10989.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Cosmological+simulations+of+intergalactic+medium+enrichment+from+galactic+outflows&rft.volume=373&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1265-%3C%2Fspan%3E1292&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0605651&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2006.10989.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006MNRAS.373.1265O&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+D.&rft.au=Dav%C3%A9%2C+Romeel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ssr134_1_141-148"><a href="#cite_ref-ssr134_1_141_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBykovPaerelsPetrosian2008" class="citation cs2">Bykov, A. M.; et al. (February 2008), "Equilibration Processes in the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium", Space Science Reviews, 134 (1–4): 141–153, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0801.1008">0801.1008</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SSRv..134..141B">2008SSRv..134..141B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11214-008-9309-4">10.1007/s11214-008-9309-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17801881">17801881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Equilibration+Processes+in+the+Warm-Hot+Intergalactic+Medium&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E153&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0801.1008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17801881%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11214-008-9309-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008SSRv..134..141B&rft.aulast=Bykov&rft.aufirst=A.+M.&rft.au=Paerels%2C+F.+B.+S.&rft.au=Petrosian%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-apjs_182_378-149"><a href="#cite_ref-apjs_182_378_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakkerSavage2009" class="citation cs2">Wakker, B. P.; Savage, B. D. (2009), "The Relationship Between Intergalactic H I/O VI and Nearby (z<0.017) Galaxies", The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 182 (1): 378, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.2259">0903.2259</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApJS..182..378W">2009ApJS..182..378W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F182%2F1%2F378">10.1088/0067-0049/182/1/378</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119247429">119247429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Supplement+Series&rft.atitle=The+Relationship+Between+Intergalactic+H+I%2FO+VI+and+Nearby+%28z%3C0.017%29+Galaxies&rft.volume=182&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=378&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0903.2259&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119247429%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0067-0049%2F182%2F1%2F378&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009ApJS..182..378W&rft.aulast=Wakker&rft.aufirst=B.+P.&rft.au=Savage%2C+B.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-apj546_100-150"><a href="#cite_ref-apj546_100_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathiesenEvrard2001" class="citation cs2">Mathiesen, B. F.; Evrard, A. E. (2001), "Four Measures of the Intracluster Medium Temperature and Their Relation to a Cluster's Dynamical State", The Astrophysical Journal, 546 (1): 100, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004309">astro-ph/0004309</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ApJ...546..100M">2001ApJ...546..100M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F318249">10.1086/318249</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17196808">17196808</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Four+Measures+of+the+Intracluster+Medium+Temperature+and+Their+Relation+to+a+Cluster%27s+Dynamical+State&rft.volume=546&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=100&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0004309&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17196808%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F318249&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001ApJ...546..100M&rft.aulast=Mathiesen&rft.aufirst=B.+F.&rft.au=Evrard%2C+A.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant198110-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant198110_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrant1981">Grant 1981</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorterParkDaston200627-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorterParkDaston200627_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorterParkDaston2006">Porter, Park & Daston 2006</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckert20065-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEckert20065_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckert2006">Eckert 2006</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamRonan198582–87-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamRonan198582–87_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedhamRonan1985">Needham & Ronan 1985</a>, pp. 82–87. </li> <li id="cite_note-West_2013-155"><a href="#cite_ref-West_2013_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2013" class="citation cs2">West, John B. (March 2013), "Torricelli and the Ocean of Air: The First Measurement of Barometric Pressure", Physiology (Bethesda), 28 (2): 66–73, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysiol.00053.2012">10.1152/physiol.00053.2012</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3768090">3768090</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23455767">23455767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiology+%28Bethesda%29&rft.atitle=Torricelli+and+the+Ocean+of+Air%3A+The+First+Measurement+of+Barometric+Pressure&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E66-%3C%2Fspan%3E73&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3768090%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23455767&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysiol.00053.2012&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltonBrush2001267–268-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoltonBrush2001267–268_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoltonBrush2001">Holton & Brush 2001</a>, pp. 267–268. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECajori191764–66-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECajori191764–66_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCajori1917">Cajori 1917</a>, pp. 64–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenz2001127–128-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGenz2001127–128_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGenz2001">Genz 2001</a>, pp. 127–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETassoulTassoul200422-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETassoulTassoul200422_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTassoulTassoul2004">Tassoul & Tassoul 2004</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGatti200299–104-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGatti200299–104_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGatti2002">Gatti 2002</a>, pp. 99–104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly196597–107-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly196597–107_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly1965">Kelly 1965</a>, pp. 97–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlenickApostolGoodstein1986356-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlenickApostolGoodstein1986356_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlenickApostolGoodstein1986">Olenick, Apostol & Goodstein 1986</a>, p. 356. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHariharan20032-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHariharan20032_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHariharan2003">Hariharan 2003</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlenickApostolGoodstein1986357–365-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlenickApostolGoodstein1986357–365_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlenickApostolGoodstein1986">Olenick, Apostol & Goodstein 1986</a>, pp. 357–365. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1992206–209-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1992206–209_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThagard1992">Thagard 1992</a>, pp. 206–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaor1991195-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaor1991195_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaor1991">Maor 1991</a>, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb199971–73-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebb199971–73_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWebb1999">Webb 1999</a>, pp. 71–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtis1988-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Curtis1988_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis1988" class="citation cs2">Curtis, Heber D. (January 1988), "Novae in Spiral Nebulae and the Island Universe Theory", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 100: 6–7, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PASP..100....6C">1988PASP..100....6C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F132128">10.1086/132128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Astronomical+Society+of+the+Pacific&rft.atitle=Novae+in+Spiral+Nebulae+and+the+Island+Universe+Theory&rft.volume=100&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=1988-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F132128&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988PASP..100....6C&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Heber+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-csiro_20041025-169"><a href="#cite_ref-csiro_20041025_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/variable_cepheids.html">Cepheid Variable Stars & Distance Determination</a>, CSIRO Australia, October 25, 2004, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110830013526/http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/variable_cepheids.html">archived</a> from the original on August 30, 2011, retrieved 2011-09-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cepheid+Variable+Stars+%26+Distance+Determination&rft.pub=CSIRO+Australia&rft.date=2004-10-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foutreach.atnf.csiro.au%2Feducation%2Fsenior%2Fastrophysics%2Fvariable_cepheids.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETysonGoldsmith2004114–115-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETysonGoldsmith2004114–115_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTysonGoldsmith2004">Tyson & Goldsmith 2004</a>, pp. 114–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-p537-171"><a href="#cite_ref-p537_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/programs/cosmictimes/educators/guide/age_size.html">"Cosmic Times"</a>, Imagine the Universe!, December 8, 2017, retrieved October 31, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imagine+the+Universe%21&rft.atitle=Cosmic+Times&rft.date=2017-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Feducators%2Fprograms%2Fcosmictimes%2Feducators%2Fguide%2Fage_size.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nature127_3210_706-172"><a href="#cite_ref-nature127_3210_706_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaître1931" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître, G.</a> (May 1931), "The Beginning of the World from the Point of View of Quantum Theory", Nature, 127 (3210): 706, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931Natur.127..706L">1931Natur.127..706L</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F127706b0">10.1038/127706b0</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4089233">4089233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Beginning+of+the+World+from+the+Point+of+View+of+Quantum+Theory&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=3210&rft.pages=706&rft.date=1931-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4089233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F127706b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931Natur.127..706L&rft.aulast=Lema%C3%AEtre&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Big_Bang-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Big_Bang_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/bb_theory.html">Big Bang Cosmology</a>, NASA, retrieved 2024-04-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Bang+Cosmology&rft.pub=NASA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmap.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Funiverse%2Fbb_theory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Apeiron2_3_79_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Apeiron2_3_79_174-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssisPauloNeves1995" class="citation cs2">Assis, A. K. T.; et al. (July 1995), "History of the 2.7 K Temperature Prior to Penzias and Wilson", Apeiron, 2 (3): 79–87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Apeiron&rft.atitle=History+of+the+2.7+K+Temperature+Prior+to+Penzias+and+Wilson&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=1995-07&rft.aulast=Assis&rft.aufirst=A.+K.+T.&rft.au=Paulo%2C+S%C3%A3o&rft.au=Neves%2C+M.+C.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Apollo8FlightJournalDay1-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Apollo8FlightJournalDay1_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodsO'Brien2006" class="citation cs2">Woods, W. David; O'Brien, Frank (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080923012425/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm">"Day 1: The Green Team and Separation"</a>, Apollo 8 Flight Journal, NASA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm">the original</a> on September 23, 2008, retrieved October 29, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Apollo+8+Flight+Journal&rft.atitle=Day+1%3A+The+Green+Team+and+Separation&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=W.+David&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2Fap08fj%2F03day1_green_sep.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> TIMETAG 003:42:55. </li> <li id="cite_note-ssr13_2_199-176"><a href="#cite_ref-ssr13_2_199_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfotzer1972" class="citation cs2">Pfotzer, G. (June 1972), "History of the Use of Balloons in Scientific Experiments", Space Science Reviews, 13 (2): 199–242, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972SSRv...13..199P">1972SSRv...13..199P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00175313">10.1007/BF00175313</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120710485">120710485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Use+of+Balloons+in+Scientific+Experiments&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E242&rft.date=1972-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120710485%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00175313&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972SSRv...13..199P&rft.aulast=Pfotzer&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2009209–224-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2009209–224_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Leary2009">O'Leary 2009</a>, pp. 209–224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison200260–63-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison200260–63_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarrison2002">Harrison 2002</a>, pp. 60–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrloff2001-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrloff2001_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOrloff2001">Orloff 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardestyEismanKrushchev200889–90-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardestyEismanKrushchev200889–90_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardestyEismanKrushchev2008">Hardesty, Eisman & Krushchev 2008</a>, pp. 89–90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins200786-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins200786_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins2007">Collins 2007</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20087,_68–69-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris20087,_68–69_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2008">Harris 2008</a>, pp. 7, 68–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-mike_wall-183"><a href="#cite_ref-mike_wall_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall2013" class="citation cs2">Wall, Mike (September 12, 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m.space.com/22729-voyager-1-spacecraft-interstellar-space.html">"Voyager 1 Has Left Solar System"</a>, Web, Space.com, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130914044506/http://m.space.com/22729-voyager-1-spacecraft-interstellar-space.html">archived</a> from the original on 14 September 2013, retrieved 13 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Web&rft.atitle=Voyager+1+Has+Left+Solar+System&rft.date=2013-09-12&rft.aulast=Wall&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fm.space.com%2F22729-voyager-1-spacecraft-interstellar-space.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERazani201297–99-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERazani201297–99_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRazani2012">Razani 2012</a>, pp. 97–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-Space_Foundation_2023_k582-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Space_Foundation_2023_k582_185-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spacefoundation.org/2023/07/25/the-space-report-2023-q2/">"Space Foundation Releases The Space Report 2023 Q2, Showing Annual Growth of Global Space Economy to $546B"</a>, Space Foundation, 2023-07-25, retrieved 2024-04-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+Foundation&rft.atitle=Space+Foundation+Releases+The+Space+Report+2023+Q2%2C+Showing+Annual+Growth+of+Global+Space+Economy+to+%24546B&rft.date=2023-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spacefoundation.org%2F2023%2F07%2F25%2Fthe-space-report-2023-q2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bisset_2023_s159-186"><a href="#cite_ref-Bisset_2023_s159_186-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisset2023" class="citation cs2">Bisset, Victoria (2023-02-04), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2023/02/04/china-spy-balloon-montana-why/">"In a world of drones and satellites, why use a spy balloon anyway?"</a>, Washington Post, retrieved 2024-04-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=In+a+world+of+drones+and+satellites%2C+why+use+a+spy+balloon+anyway%3F&rft.date=2023-02-04&rft.aulast=Bisset&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnational-security%2F2023%2F02%2F04%2Fchina-spy-balloon-montana-why%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hubblesite_cosmicdawn-187"><a href="#cite_ref-hubblesite_cosmicdawn_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarringtonVillardWeaver2012" class="citation cs2">Harrington, J. D.; et al. (12 December 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/survey/hubble-ultra-deep-field/2012/48/">NASA's Hubble Provides First Census of Galaxies Near Cosmic Dawn</a>, NASA, 12-428, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150322081210/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/survey/hubble-ultra-deep-field/2012/48/">archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=NASA%27s+Hubble+Provides+First+Census+of+Galaxies+Near+Cosmic+Dawn&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2012-12-12&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Villard%2C+Ray&rft.au=Weaver%2C+Donna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhubblesite.org%2Fnewscenter%2Farchive%2Freleases%2Fsurvey%2Fhubble-ultra-deep-field%2F2012%2F48%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-esa105-188"><a href="#cite_ref-esa105_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandgrafJehnFluryFridlund2001" class="citation cs2">Landgraf, M.; et al. (February 2001), "IRSI/Darwin: peering through the interplanetary dust cloud", ESA Bulletin, 105 (105): 60–63, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0103288">astro-ph/0103288</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ESABu.105...60L">2001ESABu.105...60L</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ESA+Bulletin&rft.atitle=IRSI%2FDarwin%3A+peering+through+the+interplanetary+dust+cloud&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=105&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2001-02&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0103288&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001ESABu.105...60L&rft.aulast=Landgraf&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Jehn%2C+R.&rft.au=Flury%2C+W.&rft.au=Fridlund%2C+M.&rft.au=Karlsson%2C+A.&rft.au=L%C3%A9ger%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-maccone2001-189"><a href="#cite_ref-maccone2001_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaccone2001" class="citation cs2">Maccone, Claudio (August 2001), "Searching for bioastronomical signals from the farside of the Moon", in Ehrenfreund, P.; Angerer, O.; Battrick, B. (eds.), Exo-/astro-biology. Proceedings of the First European Workshop, vol. 496, Noordwijk: ESA Publications Division, pp. 277–280, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ESASP.496..277M">2001ESASP.496..277M</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9092-806-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9092-806-5"><bdi>978-92-9092-806-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Searching+for+bioastronomical+signals+from+the+farside+of+the+Moon&rft.btitle=Exo-%2Fastro-biology.+Proceedings+of+the+First+European+Workshop&rft.place=Noordwijk&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E280&rft.pub=ESA+Publications+Division&rft.date=2001-08&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001ESASP.496..277M&rft.isbn=978-92-9092-806-5&rft.aulast=Maccone&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC_2020-190"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_2020_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughesSoldini2020" class="citation cs2">Hughes, Amanda Jane; Soldini, Stefania (November 26, 2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201126-the-solar-discs-that-could-beam-power-from-space">The solar discs that could power Earth</a>, BBC, retrieved 2024-05-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+solar+discs+that+could+power+Earth&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2020-11-26&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Amanda+Jane&rft.au=Soldini%2C+Stefania&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ffuture%2Farticle%2F20201126-the-solar-discs-that-could-beam-power-from-space&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chapman1991-191"><a href="#cite_ref-chapman1991_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapmann1991" class="citation cs2">Chapmann, Glenn (May 22–27, 1991), "Space: the Ideal Place to Manufacture Microchips", in Blackledge, R.; Radfield, C.; Seida, S. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706202903/http://deneb.ensc.sfu.ca/papers/sdc-91w.pdf">Proceedings of the 10th International Space Development Conference</a> (PDF), San Antonio, Texas, pp. 25–33, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deneb.ensc.sfu.ca/papers/sdc-91w.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-07-06, retrieved 2010-01-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Space%3A+the+Ideal+Place+to+Manufacture+Microchips&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+10th+International+Space+Development+Conference&rft.place=San+Antonio%2C+Texas&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1991-05-22%2F1991-05-27&rft.aulast=Chapmann&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeneb.ensc.sfu.ca%2Fpapers%2Fsdc-91w.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-IJA10_307-192"><a href="#cite_ref-IJA10_307_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForganElvis2011" class="citation cs2">Forgan, Duncan H.; Elvis, Martin (October 2011), "Extrasolar asteroid mining as forensic evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence", International Journal of Astrobiology, 10 (4): 307–313, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1103.5369">1103.5369</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011IJAsB..10..307F">2011IJAsB..10..307F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1473550411000127">10.1017/S1473550411000127</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119111392">119111392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Astrobiology&rft.atitle=Extrasolar+asteroid+mining+as+forensic+evidence+for+extraterrestrial+intelligence&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E307-%3C%2Fspan%3E313&rft.date=2011-10&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1103.5369&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119111392%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1473550411000127&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011IJAsB..10..307F&rft.aulast=Forgan&rft.aufirst=Duncan+H.&rft.au=Elvis%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jsr43_3_696-193"><a href="#cite_ref-jsr43_3_696_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurtonBrownJacobi2005" class="citation cs2">Burton, Rodney; et al. (May 2005), "Low-Cost Launch of Payloads to Low Earth Orbit", Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 43 (3): 696–698, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JSpRo..43..696B">2006JSpRo..43..696B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2514%2F1.16244">10.2514/1.16244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Spacecraft+and+Rockets&rft.atitle=Low-Cost+Launch+of+Payloads+to+Low+Earth+Orbit&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E696-%3C%2Fspan%3E698&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F1.16244&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JSpRo..43..696B&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft.au=Brown%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Jacobi%2C+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolonkin2010xv-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolonkin2010xv_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolonkin2010">Bolonkin 2010</a>, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-Crawford1990-195"><a href="#cite_ref-Crawford1990_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford1990" class="citation cs2">Crawford, I. A. (September 1990), "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers", Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 31: 377–400, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990QJRAS..31..377C">1990QJRAS..31..377C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Interstellar+Travel%3A+A+Review+for+Astronomers&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E377-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.date=1990-09&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990QJRAS..31..377C&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=I.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yu_et_al_2022-196"><a href="#cite_ref-Yu_et_al_2022_196-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuYaoHuangXu2022" class="citation cs2">Yu, Xinxian; et al. (July 2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148122007418">"Enhanced radiative cooling paint with broken glass bubbles"</a>, Renewable Energy, 194: 129–136, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022REne..194..129Y">2022REne..194..129Y</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.renene.2022.05.094">10.1016/j.renene.2022.05.094</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248972097">248972097</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct, <q>Radiative cooling does not consume external energy but rather harvests coldness from outer space as a new renewable energy source.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+Energy&rft.atitle=Enhanced+radiative+cooling+paint+with+broken+glass+bubbles&rft.volume=194&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E136&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248972097%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.renene.2022.05.094&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022REne..194..129Y&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Xinxian&rft.au=Yao%2C+Fengju&rft.au=Huang%2C+Wenjie&rft.au=Xu%2C+Dongyan&rft.au=Chen%2C+Chun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0960148122007418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ma_2021-197"><a href="#cite_ref-Ma_2021_197-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMa2021" class="citation cs2">Ma, Hongchen (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acsami.1c02145">"Flexible Daytime Radiative Cooling Enhanced by Enabling Three-Phase Composites with Scattering Interfaces between Silica Microspheres and Hierarchical Porous Coatings"</a>, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 13 (16): 19282–19290, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.03902">2103.03902</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsami.1c02145">10.1021/acsami.1c02145</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33866783">33866783</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232147880">232147880</a> – via ACS Publications, <q>Daytime radiative cooling has attracted considerable attention recently due to its tremendous potential for passively exploiting the coldness of the universe as clean and renewable energy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Applied+Materials+%26+Interfaces&rft.atitle=Flexible+Daytime+Radiative+Cooling+Enhanced+by+Enabling+Three-Phase+Composites+with+Scattering+Interfaces+between+Silica+Microspheres+and+Hierarchical+Porous+Coatings&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19282-%3C%2Fspan%3E19290&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2103.03902&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232147880%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33866783&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facsami.1c02145&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Hongchen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1021%2Facsami.1c02145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zevenhovena-2018-198"><a href="#cite_ref-Zevenhovena-2018_198-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZevenhovenaFält2018" class="citation cs2">Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544218304936">"Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach"</a>, Energy, 152: 27, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Ene...152...27Z">2018Ene...152...27Z</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2018.03.084">10.1016/j.energy.2018.03.084</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct, <q>An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy&rft.atitle=Radiative+cooling+through+the+atmospheric+window%3A+A+third%2C+less+intrusive+geoengineering+approach&rft.volume=152&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.energy.2018.03.084&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Ene...152...27Z&rft.aulast=Zevenhovena&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft.au=F%C3%A4lt%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0360544218304936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang-2021-199"><a href="#cite_ref-Wang-2021_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021" class="citation cs2">Wang, Tong; et al. (2021), "A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling", Nature Communications, 12 (365): 365, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7">10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809060">7809060</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446648">33446648</a>, <q>One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window (λ ~ 8–13 μm).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+structural+polymer+for+highly+efficient+all-day+passive+radiative+cooling&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=365&rft.pages=365&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7809060%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33446648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-20646-7&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Tong&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Shi%2C+Lan&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Chen%2C+Min&rft.au=Wu%2C+Limin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heo-2022-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Heo-2022_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeoJu_LeeSong2022" class="citation cs2">Heo, Se-Yeon; et al. (June 2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/tc/d2tc00318j">"Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential"</a>, Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 10 (27): 9915–9937, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FD2TC00318J">10.1039/D2TC00318J</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249695930">249695930</a> – via Royal Society of Chemistry.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Materials+Chemistry+C&rft.atitle=Heat-shedding+with+photonic+structures%3A+radiative+cooling+and+its+potential&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9915-%3C%2Fspan%3E9937&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FD2TC00318J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249695930%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Heo&rft.aufirst=Se-Yeon&rft.au=Ju+Lee%2C+Gil&rft.au=Song%2C+Young+Min&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.rsc.org%2Fen%2Fcontent%2Farticlelanding%2F2022%2Ftc%2Fd2tc00318j&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbieri2006" class="citation cs2">Barbieri, C. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JhU6V1yDRCgC&pg=PA253">Fundamentals of Astronomy</a>, CRC Press, p. 253, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0886-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0886-1"><bdi>978-0-7503-0886-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Astronomy&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0886-1&rft.aulast=Barbieri&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJhU6V1yDRCgC%26pg%3DPA253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillings1973" class="citation cs2">Billings, Charles E. (1973), "Barometric Pressure", in Parker, James F.; West, Vita R. (eds.), Bioastronautics Data Book, vol. 3006 (2nd ed.), <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973NASSP3006.....P">1973NASSP3006.....P</a>, NASA SP-3006</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Barometric+Pressure&rft.btitle=Bioastronautics+Data+Book&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973NASSP3006.....P&rft.aulast=Billings&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolonkin2010" class="citation cs2">Bolonkin, Alexander (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u-UqR8zIDEAC">Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight</a>, Elsevier, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045875-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045875-5"><bdi>978-0-08-045875-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Non-Rocket+Space+Launch+and+Flight&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-08-045875-5&rft.aulast=Bolonkin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du-UqR8zIDEAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorowitzBeiser1971" class="citation cs2">Borowitz, Sidney; Beiser, Arthur (1971), Essentials of physics: a text for students of science and engineering, Addison-Wesley series in physics (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley Publishing Company</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+physics%3A+a+text+for+students+of+science+and+engineering&rft.series=Addison-Wesley+series+in+physics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Borowitz&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rft.au=Beiser%2C+Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> Note: this source gives a value of 2.7 × 1025 molecules per cubic meter.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCajori1917" class="citation cs2">Cajori, Florian (1917), A history of physics in its elementary branches: including the evolution of physical laboratories, New York: The Macmillan Company</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+physics+in+its+elementary+branches%3A+including+the+evolution+of+physical+laboratories&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Cajori&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain1978" class="citation cs2">Chamberlain, Joseph Wyan (1978), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lt07vGeHkdMC&pg=PA2">Theory of planetary atmospheres: an introduction to their physics and chemistry</a>, International geophysics series, vol. 22, Academic Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-167250-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-167250-8"><bdi>978-0-12-167250-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+planetary+atmospheres%3A+an+introduction+to+their+physics+and+chemistry&rft.series=International+geophysics+series&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-12-167250-8&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wyan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlt07vGeHkdMC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2007" class="citation cs2">Collins, Martin J. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rZ53HRR5lUQC&pg=PA86">"Mariner 2 Mock-up"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aftersputnik50ye00coll">After Sputnik: 50 years of the Space Age</a>, HarperCollins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-089781-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-089781-9"><bdi>978-0-06-089781-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mariner+2+Mock-up&rft.btitle=After+Sputnik%3A+50+years+of+the+Space+Age&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-06-089781-9&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrZ53HRR5lUQC%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1977" class="citation cs2">Davies, P. C. W. (1977), The physics of time asymmetry, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03247-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03247-7"><bdi>978-0-520-03247-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+physics+of+time+asymmetry&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03247-7&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=P.+C.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"> Note: a light year is about 1013 km.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisJohnsonStepanek2008" class="citation cs2">Davis, Jeffrey R.; Johnson, Robert; Stepanek, Jan (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_6hymYAgC6MC&pg=PA270">Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine</a> (4th ed.), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-7466-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-7466-6"><bdi>978-0-7817-7466-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Aerospace+Medicine&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-7466-6&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+R.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Robert&rft.au=Stepanek%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_6hymYAgC6MC%26pg%3DPA270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickson2010" class="citation cs2">Dickson, Paul (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=afKBvKlg0-EC&pg=PA57">A Dictionary of the Space Age</a>, New Series in NASA History, JHU Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9504-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9504-3"><bdi>978-0-8018-9504-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+the+Space+Age&rft.series=New+Series+in+NASA+History&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-9504-3&rft.aulast=Dickson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DafKBvKlg0-EC%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckert2006" class="citation cs2">Eckert, Michael (2006), The dawn of fluid dynamics: a discipline between science and technology, Wiley-VCH, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40513-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40513-8"><bdi>978-3-527-40513-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dawn+of+fluid+dynamics%3A+a+discipline+between+science+and+technology&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-527-40513-8&rft.aulast=Eckert&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllery2000" class="citation cs2">Ellery, Alex (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl8LggLa5R0C&pg=PA68">An introduction to space robotics</a>, Springer-Praxis books in astronomy and space sciences, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-164-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-164-1"><bdi>978-1-85233-164-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+space+robotics&rft.series=Springer-Praxis+books+in+astronomy+and+space+sciences&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85233-164-1&rft.aulast=Ellery&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSl8LggLa5R0C%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFichtnerLiu2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-location-test">Fichtner, Horst; Liu, W. William (2011), "Advances in Coordinated Sun-Earth System Science Through Interdisciplinary Initiatives and International Programs", written at Sopron, Hungary, in Miralles, M.P.; Almeida, J. Sánchez (eds.), The Sun, the Solar Wind, and the Heliosphere, IAGA Special Sopron Book Series, vol. 4, Berlin: Springer, pp. 341–345, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011sswh.book..341F">2011sswh.book..341F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-9787-3_24">10.1007/978-90-481-9787-3_24</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9786-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9786-6"><bdi>978-90-481-9786-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Advances+in+Coordinated+Sun-Earth+System+Science+Through+Interdisciplinary+Initiatives+and+International+Programs&rft.btitle=The+Sun%2C+the+Solar+Wind%2C+and+the+Heliosphere&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=IAGA+Special+Sopron+Book+Series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E341-%3C%2Fspan%3E345&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-90-481-9787-3_24&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011sswh.book..341F&rft.isbn=978-90-481-9786-6&rft.aulast=Fichtner&rft.aufirst=Horst&rft.au=Liu%2C+W.+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedmanKaufmann2005" class="citation cs2">Freedman, Roger A.; Kaufmann, William J. (2005), Universe (7th ed.), New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-8694-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-8694-8"><bdi>978-0-7167-8694-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Universe&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=New+York%3A+W.+H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-8694-8&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=Roger+A.&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrischMüllerZankLopate2002" class="citation cs2">Frisch, Priscilla C.; Müller, Hans R.; Zank, Gary P.; Lopate, C. (May 6–9, 2002), "Galactic environment of the Sun and stars: interstellar and interplanetary material", in Livio, Mario; Reid, I. Neill; Sparks, William B. (eds.), Astrophysics of life. Proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium, Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series, vol. 16, Baltimore, MD, US: Cambridge University Press, p. 21, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005asli.symp...21F">2005asli.symp...21F</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82490-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82490-3"><bdi>978-0-521-82490-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galactic+environment+of+the+Sun+and+stars%3A+interstellar+and+interplanetary+material&rft.btitle=Astrophysics+of+life.+Proceedings+of+the+Space+Telescope+Science+Institute+Symposium&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+MD%2C+US&rft.series=Space+Telescope+Science+Institute+symposium+series&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-05-06%2F2002-05-09&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005asli.symp...21F&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82490-3&rft.aulast=Frisch&rft.aufirst=Priscilla+C.&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Hans+R.&rft.au=Zank%2C+Gary+P.&rft.au=Lopate%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatti2002" class="citation cs2">Gatti, Hilary (2002), Giordano Bruno and Renaissance science, Cornell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8785-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8785-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-8785-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giordano+Bruno+and+Renaissance+science&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8785-9&rft.aulast=Gatti&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGenz2001" class="citation cs2">Genz, Henning (2001), Nothingness: the science of empty space, Da Capo Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0610-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0610-3"><bdi>978-0-7382-0610-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothingness%3A+the+science+of+empty+space&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0610-3&rft.aulast=Genz&rft.aufirst=Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2000" class="citation cs2">Ghosh, S. N. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d6Azu3sfPAgC&pg=PA48">Atmospheric Science and Environment</a>, Allied Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7764-043-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7764-043-4"><bdi>978-81-7764-043-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atmospheric+Science+and+Environment&rft.pub=Allied+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-7764-043-4&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=S.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd6Azu3sfPAgC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2006" class="citation cs2">Goodman, John M. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4465qvHUZusC&pg=PA244">Space Weather & Telecommunications</a>, Springer Science & Business Media, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23671-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23671-1"><bdi>978-0-387-23671-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+Weather+%26+Telecommunications&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-387-23671-1&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4465qvHUZusC%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1981" class="citation cs2">Grant, Edward (1981), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SidBQyFmgpsC&pg=PA10">Much ado about nothing: theories of space and vacuum from the Middle Ages to the scientific revolution</a>, The Cambridge history of science series, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22983-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22983-8"><bdi>978-0-521-22983-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Much+ado+about+nothing%3A+theories+of+space+and+vacuum+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+the+scientific+revolution&rft.series=The+Cambridge+history+of+science+series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22983-8&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSidBQyFmgpsC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardestyEismanKrushchev2008" class="citation cs2">Hardesty, Von; Eisman, Gene; Krushchev, Sergei (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kMQjbH8KAo0C&pg=PA90">Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race</a>, National Geographic Books, pp. 89–90, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0321-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0321-3"><bdi>978-1-4262-0321-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epic+Rivalry%3A+The+Inside+Story+of+the+Soviet+and+American+Space+Race&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4262-0321-3&rft.aulast=Hardesty&rft.aufirst=Von&rft.au=Eisman%2C+Gene&rft.au=Krushchev%2C+Sergei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkMQjbH8KAo0C%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHariharan2003" class="citation cs2">Hariharan, P. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EGdMO3rfVj4C">Optical interferometry</a> (2nd ed.), Academic Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-311630-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-311630-7"><bdi>978-0-12-311630-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optical+interferometry&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-311630-7&rft.aulast=Hariharan&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEGdMO3rfVj4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2008" class="citation cs2">Harris, Philip Robert (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b9RlRq_DP0UC&pg=PA68">Space enterprise: living and working offworld in the 21st century</a>, Springer Praxis Books / Space Exploration Series, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-77639-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-77639-2"><bdi>978-0-387-77639-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+enterprise%3A+living+and+working+offworld+in+the+21st+century&rft.series=Springer+Praxis+Books+%2F+Space+Exploration+Series&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-387-77639-2&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Philip+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db9RlRq_DP0UC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2002" class="citation cs2">Harrison, Albert A. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vaFEIZMqLWgC&pg=PA60">Spacefaring: The Human Dimension</a>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23677-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23677-6"><bdi>978-0-520-23677-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spacefaring%3A+The+Human+Dimension&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23677-6&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Albert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvaFEIZMqLWgC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltonBrush2001" class="citation cs2">Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=czaGZzR0XOUC&pg=PA268">"Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond"</a>, Physics Today, 54 (10) (3rd ed.), Rutgers University Press: 69, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PhT....54j..69H">2001PhT....54j..69H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1420555">10.1063/1.1420555</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2908-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2908-0"><bdi>978-0-8135-2908-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Physics%2C+the+human+adventure%3A+from+Copernicus+to+Einstein+and+beyond&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=69&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1420555&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PhT....54j..69H&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-2908-0&rft.aulast=Holton&rft.aufirst=Gerald+James&rft.au=Brush%2C+Stephen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DczaGZzR0XOUC%26pg%3DPA268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanasManzey2008" class="citation cs2">Kanas, Nick; Manzey, Dietrich (2008), "Basic Issues of Human Adaptation to Space Flight", Space Psychology and Psychiatry, Space Technology Library, vol. 22, pp. 15–48, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008spp..book.....K">2008spp..book.....K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6770-9_2">10.1007/978-1-4020-6770-9_2</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6769-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6769-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-6769-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Basic+Issues+of+Human+Adaptation+to+Space+Flight&rft.btitle=Space+Psychology+and+Psychiatry&rft.series=Space+Technology+Library&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6770-9_2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008spp..book.....K&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-6769-3&rft.aulast=Kanas&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Manzey%2C+Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1965" class="citation cs2">Kelly, Suzanne (1965), The de muno of William Gilbert, Amsterdam: Menno Hertzberger & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+de+muno+of+William+Gilbert&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Menno+Hertzberger+%26+Co.&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoskinen2010" class="citation cs2">Koskinen, Hannu (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cO0nwfhXVjUC&pg=PA32">Physics of Space Storms: From the Surface of the Sun to the Earth</a>, Environmental Sciences Series, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00310-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00310-3"><bdi>978-3-642-00310-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+of+Space+Storms%3A+From+the+Surface+of+the+Sun+to+the+Earth&rft.series=Environmental+Sciences+Series&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-642-00310-3&rft.aulast=Koskinen&rft.aufirst=Hannu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcO0nwfhXVjUC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang1999" class="citation cs2">Lang, Kenneth R. (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HlGIXqzVEAgC&pg=PA462">Astrophysical formulae: Radiation, gas processes, and high energy astrophysics</a>, Astronomy and astrophysics library (3rd ed.), Birkhäuser, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-29692-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-29692-8"><bdi>978-3-540-29692-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrophysical+formulae%3A+Radiation%2C+gas+processes%2C+and+high+energy+astrophysics&rft.series=Astronomy+and+astrophysics+library&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-540-29692-8&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHlGIXqzVEAgC%26pg%3DPA462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddle2015" class="citation cs2">Liddle, Andrew (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4lPWBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33">An Introduction to Modern Cosmology</a>, John Wiley, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-50214-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-50214-3"><bdi>978-1-118-50214-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Modern+Cosmology&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-118-50214-3&rft.aulast=Liddle&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4lPWBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLide1993" class="citation cs2">Lide, David R. (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q2qJId5TKOkC&pg=SA11-PA217">CRC handbook of chemistry and physics</a> (74th ed.), CRC Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0595-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0595-5"><bdi>978-0-8493-0595-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CRC+handbook+of+chemistry+and+physics&rft.edition=74th&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-0595-5&rft.aulast=Lide&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq2qJId5TKOkC%26pg%3DSA11-PA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaor1991" class="citation cs2">Maor, Eli (1991), To infinity and beyond: a cultural history of the infinite, Princeton paperbacks, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02511-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02511-7"><bdi>978-0-691-02511-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+infinity+and+beyond%3A+a+cultural+history+of+the+infinite&rft.pub=Princeton+paperbacks&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02511-7&rft.aulast=Maor&rft.aufirst=Eli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendillo2000" class="citation cs2">Mendillo, Michael (November 8–10, 2000), "The atmosphere of the moon", in Barbieri, Cesare; Rampazzi, Francesca (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpVg1hGlVDUC&pg=PA275">Earth-Moon Relationships</a>, Padova, Italy at the Accademia Galileiana Di Scienze Lettere Ed Arti: Springer, p. 275, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-7089-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-7089-5"><bdi>978-0-7923-7089-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+atmosphere+of+the+moon&rft.btitle=Earth-Moon+Relationships&rft.place=Padova%2C+Italy+at+the+Accademia+Galileiana+Di+Scienze+Lettere+Ed+Arti&rft.pages=275&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000-11-08%2F2000-11-10&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-7089-5&rft.aulast=Mendillo&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvpVg1hGlVDUC%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamRonan1985" class="citation cs2">Needham, Joseph; Ronan, Colin (1985), The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31536-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31536-4"><bdi>978-0-521-31536-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31536-4&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Ronan%2C+Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary2009" class="citation cs2">O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009), Darrin, Ann Garrison (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dTwIDun4MroC&pg=PA84">Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and heritage</a>, Advances in engineering, CRC Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8431-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8431-3"><bdi>978-1-4200-8431-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+space+engineering%2C+archaeology%2C+and+heritage&rft.series=Advances+in+engineering&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-8431-3&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=Beth+Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdTwIDun4MroC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlenickApostolGoodstein1986" class="citation cs2">Olenick, Richard P.; Apostol, Tom M.; Goodstein, David L. (1986), Beyond the mechanical universe: from electricity to modern physics, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30430-6"><bdi>978-0-521-30430-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+mechanical+universe%3A+from+electricity+to+modern+physics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-30430-6&rft.aulast=Olenick&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft.au=Apostol%2C+Tom+M.&rft.au=Goodstein%2C+David+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrloff2001" class="citation cs2">Orloff, Richard W. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm">Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference</a>, NASA, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4"><bdi>978-0-16-050631-4</bdi></a>, retrieved 2008-01-28</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apollo+by+the+Numbers%3A+A+Statistical+Reference&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-16-050631-4&rft.aulast=Orloff&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4029%2FApollo_08a_Summary.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapagiannis1972" class="citation cs2">Papagiannis, Michael D. (1972), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spacephysicsspac00mich">Space Physics and Space Astronomy</a>, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-677-04000-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-677-04000-4"><bdi>978-0-677-04000-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+Physics+and+Space+Astronomy&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-677-04000-4&rft.aulast=Papagiannis&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspacephysicsspac00mich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiantadosi2003" class="citation cs2">Piantadosi, Claude A. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aeAg1X7afOoC&pg=PA63">The Biology of Human Survival: Life and Death in Extreme Environments</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974807-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974807-5"><bdi>978-0-19-974807-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biology+of+Human+Survival%3A+Life+and+Death+in+Extreme+Environments&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974807-5&rft.aulast=Piantadosi&rft.aufirst=Claude+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaeAg1X7afOoC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorterParkDaston2006" class="citation cs2">Porter, Roy; Park, Katharine; Daston, Lorraine (2006), "The Cambridge History of Science: Early modern science", Early Modern Science, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, p. 27, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57244-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57244-6"><bdi>978-0-521-57244-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+Modern+Science&rft.atitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Science%3A+Early+modern+science&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57244-6&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft.au=Park%2C+Katharine&rft.au=Daston%2C+Lorraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrialnik2000" class="citation cs2">Prialnik, Dina (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC&pg=PA195">An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65937-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65937-6"><bdi>978-0-521-65937-6</bdi></a>, retrieved 2015-03-26</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Stellar+Structure+and+Evolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65937-6&rft.aulast=Prialnik&rft.aufirst=Dina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTGyzlVbgkiMC%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRauchfuss2008" class="citation cs2">Rauchfuss, Horst (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aRkvNoDYtvEC&pg=PA72">Chemical Evolution and the Origin of Life</a>, Translated by T. N. Mitchell, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-78822-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-78822-5"><bdi>978-3-540-78822-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+Evolution+and+the+Origin+of+Life&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-540-78822-5&rft.aulast=Rauchfuss&rft.aufirst=Horst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaRkvNoDYtvEC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRazani2012" class="citation cs2">Razani, Mohammad (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXZhGOKL7GIC&pg=PA98">Information Communication and Space Technology</a>, CRC Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-4163-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-4163-1"><bdi>978-1-4398-4163-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Communication+and+Space+Technology&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-4163-1&rft.aulast=Razani&rft.aufirst=Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXZhGOKL7GIC%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijverSiscoe2010" class="citation cs2">Schrijver, Carolus J.; <a href="/wiki/George_Siscoe" title="George Siscoe">Siscoe, George L.</a> (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC&pg=PA363">Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11294-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11294-9"><bdi>978-0-521-11294-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heliophysics%3A+Evolving+Solar+Activity+and+the+Climates+of+Space+and+Earth&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-11294-9&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Carolus+J.&rft.au=Siscoe%2C+George+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM8NwTYEl0ngC%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilk2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Silk" title="Joseph Silk">Silk, Joseph</a> (2000), The Big Bang (3rd ed.), Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7256-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7256-3"><bdi>978-0-8050-7256-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Big+Bang&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7256-3&rft.aulast=Silk&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparkeGallagher2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Sparke" title="Linda Sparke">Sparke, Linda S.</a>; Gallagher, John S. (2007), Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007gitu.book.....S">2007gitu.book.....S</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85593-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85593-8"><bdi>978-0-521-85593-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galaxies+in+the+Universe%3A+An+Introduction&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007gitu.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85593-8&rft.aulast=Sparke&rft.aufirst=Linda+S.&rft.au=Gallagher%2C+John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpitzer1978" class="citation cs2">Spitzer, Lyman Jr. (1978), Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium, Wiley Classics Library, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-29335-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-29335-4"><bdi>978-0-471-29335-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Processes+in+the+Interstellar+Medium&rft.pub=Wiley+Classics+Library&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-471-29335-4&rft.aulast=Spitzer&rft.aufirst=Lyman+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart_Wortley1841" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Charlotte_Elizabeth_Stuart-Wortley" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmeline Charlotte Elizabeth Stuart-Wortley">Stuart Wortley, Emmeline Charlotte E.</a> (1841), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=chadwyck_ep/uvaGenText/tei/chep_3.0980.xml">The maiden of Moscow, a poem</a>, How and Parsons, Canto X, section XIV, lines 14–15, <q>All Earth in madness moved,—o'erthrown, / To outer space—driven—racked—undone!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+maiden+of+Moscow%2C+a+poem&rft.pages=Canto+X%2C+section+XIV%2C+lines+14-15&rft.pub=How+and+Parsons&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Stuart+Wortley&rft.aufirst=Emmeline+Charlotte+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxtf.lib.virginia.edu%2Fxtf%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dchadwyck_ep%2FuvaGenText%2Ftei%2Fchep_3.0980.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTassoulTassoul2004" class="citation cs2">Tassoul, Jean Louis; Tassoul, Monique (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nRtUait0qTgC&pg=PA22">A concise history of solar and stellar physics</a>, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11711-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11711-9"><bdi>978-0-691-11711-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+concise+history+of+solar+and+stellar+physics&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11711-9&rft.aulast=Tassoul&rft.aufirst=Jean+Louis&rft.au=Tassoul%2C+Monique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnRtUait0qTgC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThagard1992" class="citation cs2">Thagard, Paul (1992), Conceptual revolutions, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02490-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02490-5"><bdi>978-0-691-02490-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conceptual+revolutions&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02490-5&rft.aulast=Thagard&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTysonGoldsmith2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson" title="Neil deGrasse Tyson">Tyson, Neil deGrasse</a>; Goldsmith, Donald (2004), Origins: fourteen billion years of cosmic evolution, W. W. Norton & Company, pp. 114–115, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05992-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05992-2"><bdi>978-0-393-05992-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins%3A+fourteen+billion+years+of+cosmic+evolution&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05992-2&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Neil+deGrasse&rft.au=Goldsmith%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States2016" class="citation cs2">United States (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2U1qJioS68cC&pg=PA536">United States Code 2006 Edition Supplement V</a>, Washington D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, p. 536</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=United+States+Code+2006+Edition+Supplement+V&rft.place=Washington+D.+C.&rft.pages=536&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2016&rft.au=United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2U1qJioS68cC%26pg%3DPA536&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Humboldt1845" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Von Humboldt, Alexander</a> (1845), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KjZRAAAAYAAJ&q=outer+space&pg=PA39">Cosmos: a survey of the general physical history of the Universe</a>, New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fnyp.33433071596906">2027/nyp.33433071596906</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmos%3A+a+survey+of+the+general+physical+history+of+the+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers+Publishers&rft.date=1845&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fnyp.33433071596906&rft.aulast=Von+Humboldt&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKjZRAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Douter%2Bspace%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebb1999" class="citation cs2">Webb, Stephen (1999), Measuring the universe: the cosmological distance ladder, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-106-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-106-1"><bdi>978-1-85233-106-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measuring+the+universe%3A+the+cosmological+distance+ladder&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85233-106-1&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson2006" class="citation cs2">Williamson, Mark (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=npI5NsFG8ngC&pg=PA97">Spacecraft Technology: The Early Years</a>, History and Management of Technology Series, vol. 33, IET, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-553-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-553-1"><bdi>978-0-86341-553-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spacecraft+Technology%3A+The+Early+Years&rft.series=History+and+Management+of+Technology+Series&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-553-1&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnpI5NsFG8ngC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWongFergusson2010" class="citation cs2">Wong, Wilson; Fergusson, James Gordon (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GFg5CqCojqQC&pg=PA16">Military space power: a guide to the issues</a>, Contemporary military, strategic, and security issues, ABC-CLIO, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35680-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35680-3"><bdi>978-0-313-35680-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+space+power%3A+a+guide+to+the+issues&rft.series=Contemporary+military%2C+strategic%2C+and+security+issues&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35680-3&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Wilson&rft.au=Fergusson%2C+James+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGFg5CqCojqQC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWszolek2013" class="citation cs2">Wszolek, Bogdan (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JCMDCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">"Is there Matter in Voids?"</a>, in Arp, H. C.; Keys, C. R.; Rudnicki, K. (eds.), Progress in New Cosmologies: Beyond the Big Bang, Springer Science & Business Media, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4899-1225-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4899-1225-1"><bdi>978-1-4899-1225-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+there+Matter+in+Voids%3F&rft.btitle=Progress+in+New+Cosmologies%3A+Beyond+the+Big+Bang&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4899-1225-1&rft.aulast=Wszolek&rft.aufirst=Bogdan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJCMDCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOuter+space" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Outer space at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Outer_space" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Outer space">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Outer_space" class="extiw" title="c:Outer space">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Space" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Space">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Space" class="extiw" title="q:Space">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Astronomy" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Astronomy">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category:Subject:Astronomy" class="extiw" title="b:Category:Subject:Astronomy">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category:Astronomy" class="extiw" title="v:Category:Astronomy">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Space" class="extiw" title="voy:Space">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4169" class="extiw" title="d:Q4169">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="..._in_space255" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;;background:"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:In_space" title="Template:In space"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:In_space" title="Template talk:In space"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:In_space" title="Special:EditPage/Template:In space"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="..._in_space255" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_presence_in_space" title="Human presence in space">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">The human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locomotion_in_space" title="Locomotion in space">Locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_in_space" title="Neuroscience in space">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_space" title="Sex in space">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licette" title="Félicette">Cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_(cockroach)" title="Nadezhda (cockroach)">Cockroaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbiting_Frog_Otolith" title="Orbiting Frog Otolith">Frogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_flies_in_space" title="Fruit flies in space">Fruit flies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Mice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrades_in_space" title="Tardigrades in space">Tardigrades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zond_5" title="Zond 5">Tortoises</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Extraterrestrial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">Microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plants_in_space" title="Plants in space">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="STS-39 in Earth orbit"><img alt="STS-39 in Earth orbit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/140px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/210px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/280px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1173" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_in_space" title="Corrosion in space">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Weather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Weathering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_advertising" title="Space advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_spaceflight" title="Alcohol and spaceflight">Alcohol</a></li> <li>Archaeology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_archaeology" title="Space archaeology">of items in space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_art#Art_in_space" title="Space art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_burial" title="Space burial">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_economy" title="Space-based economy">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_trade" title="Space trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_ethics" title="Space ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_space" title="Music in space">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_space" title="Religion in space">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_on_the_International_Space_Station" title="Christmas on the International Space Station">Christmas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">Selfies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_space" title="Voting in space">Voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_farming" title="Space farming">Farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Cola_Wars" title="Space Cola Wars">Carbonated drinks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_in_space" title="Writing in space">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_logistics" title="Space logistics">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_manufacturing" title="Space manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Mining</a></li> <li>Power <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batteries_in_space" title="Batteries in space">Batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_space" title="Nuclear power in space">Nuclear</a></li> <li>Solar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">for Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">for spacecraft</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_radar" title="Space-based radar">Radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Telescopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/48px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/64px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Molecules_detected_in_outer_space800" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Molecules_detected_in_outer_space" title="Template:Molecules detected in outer space"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Molecules_detected_in_outer_space" title="Template talk:Molecules detected in outer space"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Molecules_detected_in_outer_space" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Molecules detected in outer space"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Molecules_detected_in_outer_space800" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Molecules detected in outer space</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diatomic_molecule" title="Diatomic molecule">Diatomic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_monochloride" title="Aluminium monochloride">Aluminium monochloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_monofluoride" title="Aluminium monofluoride">Aluminium monofluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium(II)_oxide" title="Aluminium(II) oxide">Aluminium(II) oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argonium" title="Argonium">Argonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon cation">Carbon cation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monophosphide" title="Carbon monophosphide">Carbon monophosphide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monosulfide" title="Carbon monosulfide">Carbon monosulfide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyano_radical" title="Cyano radical">Cyano radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatomic_carbon" title="Diatomic carbon">Diatomic carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fluoromethylidynium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fluoromethylidynium (page does not exist)">Fluoromethylidynium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_hydride_ion" title="Helium hydride ion">Helium hydride ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">Hydrogen chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">Hydrogen fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> (molecular)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">Hydroxyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imidogen" title="Imidogen">Imidogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide" title="Iron(II) oxide">Iron(II) oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_monohydride" title="Magnesium monohydride">Magnesium monohydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylidyne_radical" title="Methylidyne radical">Methylidyne radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> (molecular)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> (molecular)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_monoxide" title="Phosphorus monoxide">Phosphorus monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_mononitride" title="Phosphorus mononitride">Phosphorus mononitride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">Potassium chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">Silicon carbide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_monoxide" title="Silicon monoxide">Silicon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_monosulfide" title="Silicon monosulfide">Silicon monosulfide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Sodium chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_iodide" title="Sodium iodide">Sodium iodide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfanyl" title="Sulfanyl">Sulfanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mononitride" title="Sulfur mononitride">Sulfur mononitride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_monoxide" title="Sulfur monoxide">Sulfur monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanium(II)_oxide" title="Titanium(II) oxide">Titanium(II) oxide</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png/60px-Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png/90px-Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png/120px-Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="441" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png/60px-Ethanol-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png/90px-Ethanol-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png/120px-Ethanol-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="754" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png/60px-Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png/90px-Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png/120px-Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="1100" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Triatomic_molecule" title="Triatomic molecule">Triatomic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium(I)_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminium(I) hydroxide">Aluminium(I) hydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aluminium_isocyanide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aluminium isocyanide (page does not exist)">Aluminium isocyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_radical" title="Amino radical">Amino radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_sulfide" title="Carbonyl sulfide">Carbonyl sulfide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CCP_radical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CCP radical (page does not exist)">CCP radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halonium_ion" title="Halonium ion">Chloronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazenylium" title="Diazenylium">Diazenylium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicarbon_monoxide" title="Dicarbon monoxide">Dicarbon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disilicon_carbide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disilicon carbide (page does not exist)">Disilicon carbide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethynyl_radical" title="Ethynyl radical">Ethynyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formyl_radical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Formyl radical (page does not exist)">Formyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">Hydrogen cyanide</a> (HCN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_isocyanide" title="Hydrogen isocyanide">Hydrogen isocyanide</a> (HNC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroperoxyl" title="Hydroperoxyl">Hydroperoxyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_cyanide" title="Iron(II) cyanide">Iron cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isoformyl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isoformyl (page does not exist)">Isoformyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_cyanide" title="Magnesium cyanide">Magnesium cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Magnesium_isocyanide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magnesium isocyanide (page does not exist)">Magnesium isocyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylene_(compound)" title="Methylene (compound)">Methylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylidynephosphane" title="Methylidynephosphane">Methylidynephosphane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazenylium" title="Diazenylium">N2H+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitroxyl" title="Nitroxyl">Nitroxyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_cyanide" title="Potassium cyanide">Potassium cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyanide" title="Sodium cyanide">Sodium cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">Sodium hydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silicon_carbonitride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silicon carbonitride (page does not exist)">Silicon carbonitride</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=C-Silicon_dicarbide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C-Silicon dicarbide (page does not exist)">c-Silicon dicarbide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SiNC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SiNC (page does not exist)">SiNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thioformyl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thioformyl (page does not exist)">Thioformyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thioxoethenylidene" title="Thioxoethenylidene">Thioxoethenylidene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">Titanium dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricarbon" title="Tricarbon">Tricarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trihydrogen_cation" title="Trihydrogen cation">Trihydrogen cation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Four atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetylene" title="Acetylene">Acetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Cyanoethynyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_formaldehyde" title="Interstellar formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulminic_acid" title="Fulminic acid">Fulminic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HCCN&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HCCN (page does not exist)">HCCN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">Hydrogen peroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydromagnesium_isocyanide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydromagnesium isocyanide (page does not exist)">Hydromagnesium isocyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocyanic_acid" title="Isocyanic acid">Isocyanic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiocyanic_acid" title="Thiocyanic acid">Isothiocyanic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketenyl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ketenyl (page does not exist)">Ketenyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Methyl cation">Methyl cation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_radical" title="Methyl radical">Methyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Methylene_amidogen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Methylene amidogen (page does not exist)">Methylene amidogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propynylidyne" title="Propynylidyne">Propynylidyne</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protonated_carbon_dioxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protonated carbon dioxide (page does not exist)">Protonated carbon dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonated_hydrogen_cyanide" title="Protonated hydrogen cyanide">Protonated hydrogen cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silicon_tricarbide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silicon tricarbide (page does not exist)">Silicon tricarbide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiocyanic_acid" title="Thiocyanic acid">Thiocyanic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thioformaldehyde" title="Thioformaldehyde">Thioformaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricarbon_monosulfide" title="Tricarbon monosulfide">Tricarbon monosulfide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricarbon_monoxide" title="Tricarbon monoxide">Tricarbon monoxide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Five atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">Ammonium</a> ion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Butadiynyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbodiimide" title="Carbodiimide">Carbodiimide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanamide" title="Cyanamide">Cyanamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanoacetylene" title="Cyanoacetylene">Cyanoacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanoformaldehyde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanoformaldehyde (page does not exist)">Cyanoformaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanomethyl" title="Cyanomethyl">Cyanomethyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopropenylidene" title="Cyclopropenylidene">Cyclopropenylidene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">Formic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isocyanoacetylene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isocyanoacetylene (page does not exist)">Isocyanoacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketene" title="Ketene">Ketene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Methoxy">Methoxy radical</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Methylenimine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Methylenimine (page does not exist)">Methylenimine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Propadienylidene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Propadienylidene (page does not exist)">Propadienylidene</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protonated_formaldehyde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protonated formaldehyde (page does not exist)">Protonated formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silane" title="Silane">Silane</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silicon-carbide_cluster&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silicon-carbide cluster (page does not exist)">Silicon-carbide cluster</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Six atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetonitrile" title="Acetonitrile">Acetonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanobutadiynyl_radical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanobutadiynyl radical (page does not exist)">Cyanobutadiynyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopropenone" title="Cyclopropenone">Cyclopropenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diacetylene" title="Diacetylene">Diacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=E-Cyanomethanimine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E-Cyanomethanimine (page does not exist)">E-Cyanomethanimine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">Ethylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">Formamide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HC4N&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HC4N (page does not exist)">HC4N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketenimine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketenimine">Ketenimine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanethiol" title="Methanethiol">Methanethiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">Methanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_isocyanide" title="Methyl isocyanide">Methyl isocyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Pentynylidyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propynal" class="mw-redirect" title="Propynal">Propynal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protonated_cyanoacetylene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protonated cyanoacetylene (page does not exist)">Protonated cyanoacetylene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Seven atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">Acetaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile" title="Acrylonitrile">Acrylonitrile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_cyanide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinyl cyanide">Vinyl cyanide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanopolyyne" title="Cyanopolyyne">Cyanodiacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene_oxide" title="Ethylene oxide">Ethylene oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycolonitrile" title="Glycolonitrile">Glycolonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexatriynyl_radical" title="Hexatriynyl radical">Hexatriynyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_isocyanate" title="Methyl isocyanate">Methyl isocyanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylamine" title="Methylamine">Methylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propyne" title="Propyne">Propyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinyl_alcohol" title="Vinyl alcohol">Vinyl alcohol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Eight atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">Acetic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrolein" title="Acrolein">Acrolein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aminoacetonitrile" title="Aminoacetonitrile">Aminoacetonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanoallene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanoallene (page does not exist)">Cyanoallene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanimine" title="Ethanimine">Ethanimine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycolaldehyde" title="Glycolaldehyde">Glycolaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Hexapentaenylidene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_formate" title="Methyl formate">Methyl formate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Methylcyanoacetylene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Nine atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetamide" title="Acetamide">Acetamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanopolyyne" title="Cyanopolyyne">Cyanohexatriyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_ether" title="Dimethyl ether">Dimethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanethiol" title="Ethanethiol">Ethanethiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">Ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Methyldiacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methylformamide" title="N-Methylformamide">N-Methylformamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octatetraynyl_radical" title="Octatetraynyl radical">Octatetraynyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propene">Propene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propionitrile" title="Propionitrile">Propionitrile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Ten atoms or more</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">Acetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzonitrile" title="Benzonitrile">Benzonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene">Buckminsterfullerene</a> (C60, C60+, fullerene, buckyball)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butyronitrile" title="Butyronitrile">Butyronitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C70_fullerene" title="C70 fullerene">C70 fullerene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanopolyyne" title="Cyanopolyyne">Cyanodecapentayne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_formate" title="Ethyl formate">Ethyl formate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">Ethylene glycol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heptatrienyl_radical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heptatrienyl radical (page does not exist)">Heptatrienyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_acetate" title="Methyl acetate">Methyl acetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanopolyyne" title="Cyanopolyyne">Methyl-cyano-diacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyyne" title="Polyyne">Methyltriacetylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propionaldehyde" title="Propionaldehyde">Propionaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">Pyrimidine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterated</a> molecules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">Ammonium</a> ion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_formaldehyde#Interstellar_reactions" title="Interstellar formaldehyde">Formyl radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">Heavy water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">Hydrogen cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_deuteride" title="Hydrogen deuteride">Hydrogen deuteride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_isocyanide" title="Hydrogen isocyanide">Hydrogen isocyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazenylium" title="Diazenylium">N2D+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propyne" title="Propyne">Propyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trihydrogen_cation" title="Trihydrogen cation">Trihydrogen cation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#Molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Unconfirmed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthracene" title="Anthracene">Anthracene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroxyacetone" title="Dihydroxyacetone">Dihydroxyacetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=H2NCO%2B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H2NCO+ (page does not exist)">H2NCO+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemolithin" title="Hemolithin">Hemolithin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Linear C5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxyethane" title="Methoxyethane">Methoxyethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">Naphthalene cation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">Phosphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrene" title="Pyrene">Pyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silylidyne" title="Silylidyne">Silylidyne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules#See_also" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_and_molecular_astrophysics" title="Atomic and molecular astrophysics">Atomic and molecular astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_dust" title="Circumstellar dust">Circumstellar dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_interstellar_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffuse interstellar band">Diffuse interstellar band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">Extraterrestrial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_mechanism" title="Forbidden mechanism">Forbidden mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homochirality" title="Homochirality">Homochirality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_dust" title="Intergalactic dust">Intergalactic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_world_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron–sulfur world theory">Iron–sulfur world theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">Kerogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecules_in_stars" title="Molecules in stars">Molecules in stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_for_Exoplanet_System_Science" title="Nexus for Exoplanet System Science">Nexus for Exoplanet System Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compound</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAH_world_hypothesis" title="PAH world hypothesis">PAH world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodissociation_region" title="Photodissociation region">Photodissociation region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</a> (PAH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-panspermia" title="Pseudo-panspermia">Pseudo-panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA world hypothesis">RNA world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholin" title="Tholin">Tholin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Astrochemistry" title="Category:Astrochemistry">Category:Astrochemistry</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/16px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/24px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/16px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/24px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/32px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/16px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/24px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/32px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4169#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata625" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4169#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata625" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4169#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1243437/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/area/38f17a6f-ee34-48d9-b284-d53d98164d60">MusicBrainz area</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10642752">NARA</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/29px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/38px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&oldid=1277586481">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&oldid=1277586481</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Outer_space" title="Category:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Space_plasmas" title="Category:Space plasmas">Space plasmas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environments" title="Category:Environments">Environments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vacuum" title="Category:Vacuum">Vacuum</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Kinyarwanda-language_sources_(rw)" title="Category:CS1 Kinyarwanda-language sources (rw)">CS1 Kinyarwanda-language sources (rw)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_location_test" title="Category:CS1 location test">CS1 location test</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_hidden_wikidata" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata">Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_default_search" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with default search">Pages using Sister project links with default search</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 February 2025, at 15:00 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outer_space&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Outer space</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 121 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-955f5c9b8-9lnxx","wgBackendResponseTime":145,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.475","walltime":"2.714","ppvisitednodes":{"value":18956,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":501045,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10212,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":49,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":719494,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2256.507 1 -total"," 47.60% 1074.181 192 Template:Citation"," 42.64% 962.168 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.28% 299.724 64 Template:Sfn"," 5.73% 129.377 5 Template:Navbox"," 4.81% 108.640 1 Template:Inspace"," 3.43% 77.493 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.09% 69.643 1 Template:Sister_project_links"," 2.34% 52.821 70 Template:Main_other"," 2.26% 51.061 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.612","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":11439169,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbby_Cessna2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssisPauloNeves1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakerEricksonFennellFoster2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbieri2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattistiHaftelMurphy-Lavoie2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBetz2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillings1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBisset2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBolonkin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorowitzBeiser1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoularesCox1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrady2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurtonBrownJacobi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBusby1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBykovPaerelsPetrosian2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCajori1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamberlain1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapmann1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiaki2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChuss2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtis1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtisLetaw1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisJohnsonStepanek2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDimotakisGarwinKatzVesecky1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurrani2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllery2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFangBuoteHumphreyCanizares2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerrière2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFichtnerLiu2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzpatrick2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFixsen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynnKellerJacobsenWirick2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForganElvis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreedmanKaufmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrischMüllerZankLopate2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGangale2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGatti2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGenz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhosh2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGranvikVaubaillonJedicke2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrush2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuptaGaleazziUrsino2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardestyEismanKrushchev2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardingMills1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHariharan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarringtonVillardWeaver2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeoJu_LeeSong2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHitchens2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodkinson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltonBrush2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHones1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughesSoldini2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJafeliceOpher1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJia-Rui_Cook2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanasManzey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennewellMcDonald2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKintnerGMDT_Committee_and_Staff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlemperer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohler2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoskinen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebsPilmanis1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrummBrosch1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandgrafJehnFluryFridlund2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeinertGrun1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaître1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLetessier-SelvonStanev2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddle2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLide1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLizzie_Schiffman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMa2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaccone2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaor1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathiesenEvrard2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcComasAlexashovBzowskiFahr2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDowell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendillo2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNASA2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamRonan1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Leary2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlenickApostolGoodstein1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOppenheimerDavé2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrloff2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapagiannis1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeeblesRatra2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetty2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfotzer1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiantadosi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlanck_Collaboration2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorterParkDaston2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPortreeLoftus1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrialnik2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaggioPintadoAscasoDe_La_Torre2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRauchfuss2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRazani2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedfield2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRepresentatives_of_the_States_traversed_by_the_Equator1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSangalliKnudsenLarsenZhan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchrijverSiscoe2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSetlow2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShiner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilk2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolanki2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSparkeGallagher2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpitzer1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpitzer1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSquire2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrickland2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStuart_Wortley1841\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTadokoro1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarverVolnerCooper2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTassoulTassoul2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTepferZalarLeach2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThagard1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrimble1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTysonGoldsmith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVon_Humboldt1845\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWadsleyRuetaloBondContaldi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakkerSavage2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangWuShiHu2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWassmannMoellerRabbowPanitz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebb1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebb1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWielebinskiBeck2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsKuipersMukaiThirsk2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWithbroe1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWollack2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWongFergusson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsO\u0026#039;Brien2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWszolek2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoder1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuYaoHuangXu2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZevenhovenaFält2018\"] = 1,\n [\"Cislunar_space\"] = 1,\n [\"Deep_space\"] = 1,\n [\"Geospace\"] = 1,\n [\"cislunar_space\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Also\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 4,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 192,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Convert\"] = 38,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Outer Space\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Hatnote group\"] = 1,\n [\"Hyphen\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 2,\n [\"Inspace\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 11,\n [\"Molecules detected in outer space\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 4,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 64,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 2,\n [\"Visible anchor\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","320","18.8"],["?","220","12.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","9.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","8.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","7.1"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","100","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.4"],["[others]","360","21.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-955f5c9b8-p975p","timestamp":"20250225171719","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Outer space","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outer_space","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4169","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4169","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-02-01T20:29:19Z","dateModified":"2025-02-25T15:00:16Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bf\/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field.jpg","headline":"void between celestial bodies"}</script> </body> </html>