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<li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bone_china" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bone_china"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Bone china</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bone_china-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertilizers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertilizers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Fertilizers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertilizers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal_casting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal_casting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Metal casting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal_casting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Metallurgy</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Material formed from calcination of bones</div> <p><b>Bone ash</b> is a white material produced by the <a href="/wiki/Calcination" title="Calcination">calcination</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>. Typical bone ash consists of about 55.82% <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a>, 42.39% <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_pentoxide" title="Phosphorus pentoxide">phosphorus pentoxide</a>, and 1.79% <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact composition of these compounds varies depending upon the type of bones being used, but generally the formula for bone ash is Ca<sub>5</sub>(OH)(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>. Bone ash usually has a <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> around 3.10 g/mL and a <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of 1670 °C (3038 °F). Most bones retain their cellular structure through calcination. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Burnt bones have been recovered from numerous Ancient Greek sanctuaries dating from the Late Bronze Age up to the Hellenistic period. The burnt bones are often calcined with a white or blueish color, allowing archaeologists to identify them as sacrificial remains. At the sanctuary to <a href="/wiki/Artemis" title="Artemis">Artemis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a> a round altar of fieldstones filled with soil was found, dating to the 8th century BC. The upper surface was covered with clay and animal bones were burned on top, then apparently swept off the surface with terracotta, metal objects, and pottery and trampled until the altar was eventually subsumed by the ritual debris. Some scholars have attributed these altars to <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">chthonian</a> rituals, but this is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Xenocrates_of_Aphrodisias" title="Xenocrates of Aphrodisias">Xenocrates of Aphrodisias</a> reported its use as a medicinal ingredient, although <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> was, according to <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, prohibited under the laws of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bone_china">Bone china</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bone china"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill,_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill%2C_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg/220px-Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill%2C_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill%2C_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg/330px-Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill%2C_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill%2C_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg/440px-Shirley%27s_Etruscan_bone_and_stone_mill%2C_Etruria_-_geograph.org.uk_-_637717.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="421" /></a><figcaption>Bone and stone mill built in 1857. <a href="/wiki/Etruria,_Staffordshire" title="Etruria, Staffordshire">Etruria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent" title="Stoke-on-Trent">Stoke-on-Trent</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Bone ash is a key <a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">raw material</a> for <a href="/wiki/Bone_china" title="Bone china">bone china</a>. Constituting around 50% of the body, it reacts with other raw materials in the body during firing to form, amongst other <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">phases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anorthite" title="Anorthite">anorthite</a>. </p><p>In preparation for use in bone china, bones undergo multiple processing stages, including: </p> <ul><li>Removal of any meat before being degreased.</li> <li>Calcination to around 1000 °C (1832 °F). This will remove all <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic</a>, and the bone is left <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilised</a>.</li> <li>Being ground with water to fine particle size.</li> <li>Being partially dewatered.</li></ul> <p>Since the 1990s, the use of synthetic alternatives to bone ash, which are based on <a href="/wiki/Dicalcium_phosphate" title="Dicalcium phosphate">dicalcium phosphate</a> and tricalcium phosphate, has increased. Significant amounts of bone china is produced using these synthetic alternatives rather than bone ash.<sup id="cite_ref-mussi_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mussi-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fertilizers">Fertilizers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fertilizers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bone ash can be used alone as an <a href="/wiki/Organic_fertilizer" title="Organic fertilizer">organic fertilizer</a> or it can be treated with <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> to form a "single <a href="/wiki/Superphosphate" title="Superphosphate">superphosphate</a>" fertilizer which is more <a href="/wiki/Water_soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Water soluble">water soluble</a>:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="removed citation to predatory publisher content (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Tricalcium_phosphate" title="Tricalcium phosphate">Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> + 2 <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a> + 5 H<sub>2</sub>O → 2 <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">CaSO<sub>4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O</a> + <a href="/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate" title="Monocalcium phosphate">Ca(H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a>·<a href="/wiki/Water_of_crystallization" title="Water of crystallization">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></dd></dl> <p>Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a> can be used to form <a href="/wiki/Triple_superphosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple superphosphate">triple superphosphate</a>, a more concentrated phosphorus fertilizer which excludes the <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> content found in single superphosphate:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> → 3 <a href="/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate" title="Monocalcium phosphate">Ca(H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metal_casting">Metal casting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Metal casting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Bone_ash" title="Special:EditPage/Bone ash">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Bone ash is used in <a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">foundries</a> for various purposes. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Release_agent" title="Release agent">release agents</a> and protective barriers for tools exposed to molten metal, and as a <a href="/wiki/Sealant" title="Sealant">sealant</a> for seams and cracks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Applied as a powder or water slurry,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="Applied to what? Crucible? (May 2023)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> bone ash has many unique characteristics. First of all, the powder has high <a href="/wiki/Thermal_stability" title="Thermal stability">thermal stability</a>, so it maintains its form in extremely high temperatures. The powder coating itself adheres to metal well and does not drip, run, cause much <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>, or create noticeable streaks. Using the bone ash is easy as well, as it comes in a powder form, is easy to clean up, and does not separate into smaller parts (therefore requiring no extra mixing).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Metallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bone ash is a material often used in <a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">cupellation</a>, a process by which <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metals</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>) are removed from <a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">base metals</a>. </p><p>In cupellation, base metals in an impure sample are oxidized with the help of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and are vaporized and absorbed into a porous cupellation material, typically made of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>. This leaves the precious metals which do not oxidize behind. Bone ash's extremely porous and calcareous structure as well as its high melting point makes it an ideal candidate for cupellation.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis_of_bone_ash">Analysis of bone ash</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Analysis of bone ash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The chemical analyses, determined by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence" title="X-ray fluorescence">X-ray fluorescence</a> and reported as %, of three samples of ceramic grade bone ash: </p> <table class="wikitable collapsible"> <tbody><tr> <th>Reference</th> <th><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>SiO<sub>2</sub> </th> <td>0.02</td> <td>0.90</td> <td>1.08 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> </th> <td>0.01</td> <td>1.90</td> <td>0.34 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> </th> <td><0.10</td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.19 </td></tr> <tr> <th>TiO<sub>2</sub> </th> <td><0.10</td> <td>-</td> <td>0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <th>CaO </th> <td>55.3</td> <td>50.5</td> <td>52.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th>MgO </th> <td>1.11</td> <td>1.40</td> <td>1.35 </td></tr> <tr> <th>K<sub>2</sub>O </th> <td>0.40</td> <td>1.35</td> <td>0.12 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Na<sub>2</sub>O </th> <td>1.33</td> <td>2.15</td> <td>0.51 </td></tr> <tr> <th>P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> </th> <td>41.9</td> <td>37.2</td> <td>44.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th>MnO </th> <td><0.10</td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Loss_on_ignition" title="Loss on ignition">Loss on ignition</a> </th> <td>0.0</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>- </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_culture">In culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bible">Bible</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bible"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From <a href="/wiki/Isaiah" title="Isaiah">Isaiah</a>: "And the people shall be as the burnings of lime: as thorns cut up shall they be burned in the fire" </p><p>Its use is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Amos" title="Book of Amos">Book of Amos</a> (2:1): "I will not turn away the punishment thereof, because he burned the bones of the King of Edom into <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a>." </p><p>It was used in ancient formulas for white paint and cosmetic pigments, and in the <a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">cupellation</a> process to separate <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> from <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_char" title="Bone char">Bone char</a> – chemical compound<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_meal" title="Bone meal">Bone meal</a> – Nutritional supplement and fertilizer made from ground-up bones and entrails</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics#Organically_sourced_macronutrients" title="Hydroponics">Organic hydroponic solutions</a> – Growing plants without soil using nutrients in water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremains" class="mw-redirect" title="Cremains">Cremains</a> - composed partially of human bone ash</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Review On Different Parameters And Uses Of Bone Ash' S. Sahithi, L. Manasa, G. Anusha, S.v. Krishna V. Tejeswara Rao. JETIR April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKnustMoser2017" class="citation book cs1">Knust, Jennifer; Moser, Claudia (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gf0-DwAAQBAJ"><i>Ritual Matters: Material Remains and Ancient Religion</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780472130573" title="Special:BookSources/9780472130573"><bdi>9780472130573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ritual+Matters%3A+Material+Remains+and+Ancient+Religion&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780472130573&rft.aulast=Knust&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Moser%2C+Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGf0-DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone+ash" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalby2013" class="citation book cs1">Dalby, Andrew (15 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KdR4jRJCxEsC"><i>Food in the Ancient World from A to Z</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135954222" title="Special:BookSources/9781135954222"><bdi>9781135954222</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+the+Ancient+World+from+A+to+Z&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013-04-15&rft.isbn=9781135954222&rft.aulast=Dalby&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKdR4jRJCxEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone+ash" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mussi-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mussi_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMussi" class="citation web cs1">Mussi, Susan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ceramicdictionary.com/en/b/4031/bone-ash-manufacture">"Bone ash"</a>. <i>Ceramic Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ceramic+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Bone+ash&rft.aulast=Mussi&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fceramicdictionary.com%2Fen%2Fb%2F4031%2Fbone-ash-manufacture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone+ash" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKongshaugBrentnallChaneyGregersen2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kongshaug, Gunnar; Brentnall, Bernard A.; Chaney, Keith; Gregersen, Jan-Helge; Stokka, Per; Persson, Bjørn; Kolmeijer, Nick W.; Conradsen, Arne; Legard, Torbjørn; Munk, Harald; Skauli, Øyvind; Kiiski, Harri; Solheim, Kai Roger; Legard, Torbjörn; Brentnall, Bernard A.; Rauman-Aalto, Paulina (2014). "Phosphate Fertilizers". <i><a href="/wiki/Ullmann%27s_Encyclopedia_of_Industrial_Chemistry" title="Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry">Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry</a></i>. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a19_421.pub2">10.1002/14356007.a19_421.pub2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527306732" title="Special:BookSources/978-3527306732"><bdi>978-3527306732</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phosphate+Fertilizers&rft.btitle=Ullmann%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Industrial+Chemistry&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pages=1-49&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14356007.a19_421.pub2&rft.isbn=978-3527306732&rft.aulast=Kongshaug&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Brentnall%2C+Bernard+A.&rft.au=Chaney%2C+Keith&rft.au=Gregersen%2C+Jan-Helge&rft.au=Stokka%2C+Per&rft.au=Persson%2C+Bj%C3%B8rn&rft.au=Kolmeijer%2C+Nick+W.&rft.au=Conradsen%2C+Arne&rft.au=Legard%2C+Torbj%C3%B8rn&rft.au=Munk%2C+Harald&rft.au=Skauli%2C+%C3%98yvind&rft.au=Kiiski%2C+Harri&rft.au=Solheim%2C+Kai+Roger&rft.au=Legard%2C+Torbj%C3%B6rn&rft.au=Brentnall%2C+Bernard+A.&rft.au=Rauman-Aalto%2C+Paulina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone+ash" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Cupellation." <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 29 May 2017, www.britannica.com/technology/cupellation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bayley, Justine. "Precious Metal Refining." Archeological Datasheet, no. 2, Mar. 1995, pp. 1–1., doi:10.1016/s0026-0576(03)80479-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Using Bone Ash As An Additive In Porcelain' D. Gouvêa, T. Tisse Kaneko, H. Kahn, E. de Souza Conceição, J. L. Antoniassi. Ceramics International. Volume 41, Issue 1, Part A, January 2015, Pages 487-496. Pg. 489</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Investigation Of Sintering Behaviour Of Bone China Bodies Produced By Bone China Wastes' F. Güngör. Uluslararası Muhendislik Arastirma ve Gelistirme Dergisi, 2019) 11(2), 481-488. Pg. 484</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Effect Of Wollastonite On The Physico-Mechanical And Optical Properties Of Bone-China Ceramics' L. Mathur, SK. Saddam Hossain, A. Bhardwaj, R. Pyare. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research. Volume 3, Issue 4, April 2016. Pgs. 207-208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YhvsCAAAQBAJ&dq=bone+ash+ancient+times&pg=PA3"><i>Phosphate Minerals</i></a>. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 2010. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642617362" title="Special:BookSources/9783642617362"><bdi>9783642617362</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phosphate+Minerals&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9783642617362&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYhvsCAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dbone%2Bash%2Bancient%2Btimes%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone+ash" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharvat2003" class="citation book cs1">Charvat, Petr (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NZOS7lUY8NUC"><i>Mesopotamia Before History</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134530779" title="Special:BookSources/9781134530779"><bdi>9781134530779</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia+Before+History&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781134530779&rft.aulast=Charvat&rft.aufirst=Petr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNZOS7lUY8NUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone+ash" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&oldid=1228103741">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone_ash&oldid=1228103741</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Inorganic_compounds" title="Category:Inorganic compounds">Inorganic compounds</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bone_products" title="Category:Bone products">Bone products</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Organic_fertilizers" title="Category:Organic fertilizers">Organic fertilizers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_products" title="Category:Animal products">Animal products</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_ash" title="Category:Types of ash">Types of ash</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2019" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_December_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2021">Articles needing additional references from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles needing clarification">All Wikipedia articles needing clarification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_May_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2023">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_wikidata_descriptions_as_a_fallback_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 June 2024, at 13:44<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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