Aleppo | History, Map, Citadel, Civil War, Population, & Facts

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class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleppo">Aleppo</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Aleppo">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref310316"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Aleppo#ref310316">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref310317"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Aleppo/The-contemporary-city">The contemporary city</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleppo/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Aleppo">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleppo/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/85/161985-050-4DC6ED7E/city-Aleppo-background-Syria-citadel.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180948" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/85/161985-004-1546C619/city-Aleppo-background-Syria-citadel.jpg" alt="Aleppo, Syria" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/137674-004-447E6DFB/Aleppo-Syria-World-Heritage-site-1986.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/147293" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/137674-004-447E6DFB/Aleppo-Syria-World-Heritage-site-1986.jpg" alt="Aleppo, Syria" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/121353-050-1C692042/facade-martyrium-Qalat-al-Siman-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/123377" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/121353-004-CE342682/facade-martyrium-Qalat-al-Siman-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" alt="Aleppo, Syria: Qalʿat al-Simʿān" height="50" /> </a> <a href="/video/overview-citadel-Syria-Aleppo/226648" data-href="/media/1/13837/226648" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <div class="position-relative --aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/195226-138-8ED0CE8F/overview-citadel-Syria-Aleppo.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="When was the ancient citadel of Aleppo built?" class="col-100" /> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; left:50%; transform: translate(-50%, -50%)"> <em class="material-icons font-14" data-icon="play_arrow" > </em> </div> </div> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/161983-050-55F434D9/Gate-citadel-Aleppo-Syria.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180949" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/161983-004-214FE9EF/Gate-citadel-Aleppo-Syria.jpg" alt="Aleppo, Syria: citadel gate" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/161987-050-3A45EC09/ceiling-Throne-Room-Aleppo-citadel-rule-Syria.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180951" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/161987-004-FE831469/ceiling-Throne-Room-Aleppo-citadel-rule-Syria.jpg" alt="Aleppo, Syria: citadel's Throne Room" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/64886-050-49479F82/Ottoman-Empire-extent.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180950" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/64886-004-2114C87F/Ottoman-Empire-extent.jpg" alt="Ottoman Empire" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/163769-050-485B01F7/son-killed-Syrian-Army-Aleppo-October-2012.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180952" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/163769-004-6EF48953/son-killed-Syrian-Army-Aleppo-October-2012.jpg" alt="Syrian Civil War: Aleppo" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/145799-050-549652D5/Baghdad-Railway-Haradara-Bridge-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/150199" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/145799-004-5D199C3D/Baghdad-Railway-Haradara-Bridge-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" alt="Baghdad Railway" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/161986-050-BC0A5B5F/Great-Mosque-of-Aleppo-Syria-2007.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/181471" 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/58568032/The_Centrality_of_Aleppo_and_its_environs" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - The Centrality of Aleppo and its environs (PDF)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18957096" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">BBC - Aleppo, Syria's second city</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/aleppo" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Jewish Virtual Library - Aleppo, Syria</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1115-aleppo" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">JewishEncyclopedia.com - Aleppo</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">UNESO World Heritage Convention - Ancient City of Aleppo</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.getty.edu/publications/cultural-heritage-mass-atrocities/part-2/10-bandarin/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Getty - The Destruction of Aleppo: The impact of the Syrian war on a world heritage city</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Aleppo/626420" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Aleppo - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Aleppo/272795" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Aleppo - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 d-none mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10 px-sm-5 px-md-10 js-header-ai-ask-button"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Ḥalab, Halep</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written and fact-checked by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-03-01T00:00:00CST" >Mar 1, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleppo/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 module-spacing js-inline-ai-ask-button p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Arabic: </dt> <dd>حلب (Ḥalab)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Turkish: </dt> <dd>Halep</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://www.academia.edu/58568032/The_Centrality_of_Aleppo_and_its_environs" target="_blank">Academia - The Centrality of Aleppo and its environs (PDF)</a> (Mar. 01, 2025)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Aleppo"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="147293" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/137674-004-447E6DFB/Aleppo-Syria-World-Heritage-site-1986.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/13837/147293"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/137674-004-447E6DFB/Aleppo-Syria-World-Heritage-site-1986.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/137674-004-447E6DFB/Aleppo-Syria-World-Heritage-site-1986.jpg?w=300" alt="Aleppo, Syria" data-width="501" data-height="391" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/74/137674-004-447E6DFB/Aleppo-Syria-World-Heritage-site-1986.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/147293">Aleppo, Syria</a><span>Aleppo, Syria, designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref108069"></span>Aleppo</strong>, principal city of northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Syria</a>. It is situated in the northwestern part of the country, about 30 miles (50 km) south of the Turkish border. Aleppo is located at the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="crossroads" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/crossroads" data-type="EB">crossroads</a> of great commercial routes and lies some 60 miles (100 km) from both the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mediterranean-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mediterranean Sea</a> (west) and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Euphrates-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Euphrates River</a> (east). Aleppo was a focal point of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Syrian-Civil-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Syrian Civil War</a> from 2012 until 2016 when opposition fighters there surrendered the city to government forces. Although hostilities in the civil war died down in 2020, Aleppo was retaken by opposition fighters in November 2024 in a sudden renewal in fighting. Pop. (2004) 2,132,100.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref310316"> <h2 class="h1">History</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The exact age of Aleppo is unknown, although it is thought to be among the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities. The first settlers are believed to have built homes on the hill at the center of the modern city, taking advantage of the area’s natural defensive advantages, fertile agricultural land, and proximity to a water source, the Quwayq River. However, the continuous occupation of the site to the present day has made the search for archaeological evidence of the site’s earliest history difficult.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The city’s Arabic name, Ḥalab, is of ancient Semitic origin. It is first mentioned in the archives of the ancient city of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ebla" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ebla</a> at the end of the 3rd millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> as the site of an important temple dedicated to the Near Eastern storm god <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hadad" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hadad</a>. In the late 20th century archaeologists discovered the buried remains of this temple at the site of Aleppo’s <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="medieval" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval" data-type="MW">medieval</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/citadel-architecture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">citadel</a>, atop the hill at the city’s center. The oldest parts of the temple date to the 3rd millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>, and the building was renovated several times over the succeeding millennia. The thickness of its ruined walls indicates that the temple was a tall tower that would have been visible for long distances.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the 18th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> Ḥalab was the capital of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amorite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Amorite</a> kingdom of Yamkhad. It subsequently came under <span id="ref108070"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hittite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hittite</a>, <span id="ref108071"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egyptian</a>, <span id="ref108072"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mitanni" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mitannian</a>, and again Hittite rule during the 17th to the 14th century. In succeeding centuries it achieved some independence as a Hittite principality. It was conquered by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Assyria" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Assyrians</a> in the 8th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> and then was controlled by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Achaemenian-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Achaemenian</a> Persians from the 6th to the 4th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="dearth" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/dearth" data-type="EB">dearth</a> of historical records concerning Ḥalab during the periods of Assyrian and Achaemenian rule suggests that the city had declined in importance. In the early 3rd century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> the city fell into the hands of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Seleucid-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Seleucids</a>, who founded a Macedonian colony on the site and named it <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Veroia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Beroea</a>, after the ancient Macedonian city that may have been the original home of many of the arriving settlers. It became an important city of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Hellenistic-Age" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hellenistic period</a> and a great commercial entrepôt between the Mediterranean region and the lands farther east. The city was absorbed into the Roman <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/province-ancient-Roman-government" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">province</a> of Syria in the 1st century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. Jewish settlement in the area is likely to have begun during this period, and a Christian <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> was also established. Beroea prospered as a hub for caravan traffic under <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Byzantine</a> rule but was pillaged and burned by the Persian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sasanian-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sasanian</a> king <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Khosrow-I" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Khosrow I</a> in 540 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="123377" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/121353-050-1C692042/facade-martyrium-Qalat-al-Siman-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/13837/123377"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/121353-050-1C692042/facade-martyrium-Qalat-al-Siman-Syria-Aleppo.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/121353-050-1C692042/facade-martyrium-Qalat-al-Siman-Syria-Aleppo.jpg?w=300" alt="Aleppo, Syria: Qalʿat al-Simʿān" data-width="1600" data-height="1067" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/121353-050-1C692042/facade-martyrium-Qalat-al-Siman-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/123377">Aleppo, Syria: Qalʿat al-Simʿān</a><span>South facade of the martyrium at Qalʿat al-Simʿān near Aleppo, Syria. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In 637 the city was conquered by the Arabs, under whom it reverted to its old name, Ḥalab. In the 10th century the <span id="ref108073"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamdanid-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hamdanid dynasty</a> established itself in Aleppo as an independent principality. The city had a brilliant cultural life under its rule: the court of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sayf-al-Dawlah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sayf al-Dawlah</a>, who was the founder of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dynasty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dynasty" data-type="MW">dynasty</a> in Aleppo, included such luminaries as the poet <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Mutanabbi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">al-Mutanabbī</a> and the philosopher <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Farabi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">al-Fārābī</a>. The city was besieged and pillaged by the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Byzantine" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Byzantine" data-type="MW">Byzantine</a> army of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicephorus-II-Phocas" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nicephorus II Phocas</a> in 962. A period of war and disorder followed, fueled by local power struggles and by Byzantine, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fatimid-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fatimid</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Seljuq" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Seljuq</a> efforts to gain control of northern Syria.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="226648" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="video" video-id="195226"><a data-id="195226" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/overview-citadel-Syria-Aleppo/-226648"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/195226-138-8ED0CE8F/overview-citadel-Syria-Aleppo.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="When was the ancient citadel of Aleppo built?" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/AUw5Cnit.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/26/195226-138-8ED0CE8F/overview-citadel-Syria-Aleppo.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/tGXhhyAQ", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/JRNh3olg.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="195226">When was the ancient citadel of Aleppo built?</span><span>An overview of the ancient citadel of Aleppo, Syria.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/place/Aleppo/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In the 12th century Aleppo became a center of Muslim resistance to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Crusaders</a>, who besieged it unsuccessfully in 1124–25. The Crusader threat was repelled by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zangi-Iraqi-ruler" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿImād al-Dīn Zangī</a>, who took control of Aleppo in 1129, and by his son <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nur-al-Din" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nūr al-Dīn</a>. After Nūr al-Dīn’s death, the city passed into the control of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ayyubid-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ayyubid</a> dynasty, founded by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saladin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saladin</a> (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn). Under the Ayyubid rulers, Aleppo experienced a period of exceptional <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="prosperity" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/prosperity" data-type="EB">prosperity</a>. Treaties were established with the Venetians, thus restoring Aleppo’s role as an entrepôt for trade between Europe and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>. The citadel was rebuilt, and the markets and suburbs of the city were expanded. The Ayyubid rulers also constructed a number of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/madrasah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">madrasahs</a> to promote the reestablishment of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sunni</a> Islam in Aleppo, which had become a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shiʿi</a> stronghold under the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamdanid-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hamdanids</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="180949" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/161983-050-55F434D9/Gate-citadel-Aleppo-Syria.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/13837/180949"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/161983-050-55F434D9/Gate-citadel-Aleppo-Syria.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/161983-050-55F434D9/Gate-citadel-Aleppo-Syria.jpg?w=300" alt="Aleppo, Syria: citadel gate" data-width="1081" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/83/161983-050-55F434D9/Gate-citadel-Aleppo-Syria.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180949">Aleppo, Syria: citadel gate</a><span>Gate of the medieval citadel of Aleppo, Syria.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="180951" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/161987-050-3A45EC09/ceiling-Throne-Room-Aleppo-citadel-rule-Syria.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/13837/180951"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/161987-050-3A45EC09/ceiling-Throne-Room-Aleppo-citadel-rule-Syria.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/161987-050-3A45EC09/ceiling-Throne-Room-Aleppo-citadel-rule-Syria.jpg?w=300" alt="Aleppo, Syria: citadel's Throne Room" data-width="1067" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/161987-050-3A45EC09/ceiling-Throne-Room-Aleppo-citadel-rule-Syria.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180951">Aleppo, Syria: citadel's Throne Room </a><span>The restored ceiling of the Aleppo citadel's Throne Room, initially constructed during Mamluk rule, in Syria.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Ayyubid rule came to an abrupt end in 1260 when Aleppo was taken by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mongol" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mongols</a>, who massacred its inhabitants. The Mongols were soon ejected from Syria by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mamluk-soldier" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mamluks</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Egypt</a>, but the city continued to suffer, enduring an outbreak of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/plague" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">plague</a> in 1348 and a devastating attack by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Timur" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Timur</a> in 1400. A commercial revival in the 15th century was made possible by the decline of northern trade routes through <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Anatolia</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Black-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Black Sea</a>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="180950" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/64886-050-49479F82/Ottoman-Empire-extent.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/13837/180950"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/64886-050-49479F82/Ottoman-Empire-extent.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/64886-050-49479F82/Ottoman-Empire-extent.jpg?w=300" alt="Ottoman Empire" data-width="2000" data-height="1347" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/86/64886-050-49479F82/Ottoman-Empire-extent.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180950">Ottoman Empire</a><span>The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1516 the city was incorporated into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ottoman Empire</a>, and it was soon made the capital of a province <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="comprising" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/comprising" data-type="MW">comprising</a> northern Syria and parts of southern Anatolia. The commercial revival continued, spurring the rebuilding and expansion of Aleppo’s souk (market) and the construction of new khans (rest houses for traveling merchants). The city’s main imports included Persian silk and Indian pepper. In the 16th and 17th centuries Aleppo was the third largest city in the Ottoman Empire, after Constantinople (now <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Istanbul" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Istanbul</a>) and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cairo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cairo</a>, and hosted Venetian, British, Dutch, and French consulates and trading offices. The presence of a large European merchant community was especially profitable for Christians in Aleppo, who often served as commercial agents and translators.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Prosperity continued until the middle of the 18th century, when trade declined because of a fall in the production of Persian silk that accompanied the collapse of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Safavid-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Safavid</a> dynasty. The development of economical sail and steamship transport also transferred much international commercial traffic to the Mediterranean coastal cities, at the expense of inland caravan hubs such as Aleppo. The late 18th century saw a weakening of the Ottoman government’s control in Aleppo and a corresponding increase in factional conflict between powerful trade guilds and associations. Ottoman reforms <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="provoked" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/provoked" data-type="EB">provoked</a> an episode of rioting and protest accompanied by violence and looting directed against Aleppo’s Christian community in 1850; Ottoman control, however, was soon restored.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The boundaries of modern Syria drawn by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">France</a> at the end of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War I</a> had the effect of cutting Aleppo off from territories that had been essential to its function as a center hub of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/international-trade" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">international trade</a>, including <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iraq</a> and southeastern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Turkey</a>, especially the port city of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iskenderun-Turkey" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">İskenderun</a>. However, Aleppo’s manufacturing sector continued to develop, and the city soon became an industrial center rivaling <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Damascus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Damascus</a>. The city experienced a massive population expansion in the 20th century caused by migration from rural areas, and large residential developments were constructed to keep up with the demand for housing.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The rise in the mid-20th century of a new political structure dominated by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alawite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿAlawite</a> (Shiʿi minority sect) military officers at the expense of the traditional Sunni urban elite led occasionally to outbreaks of violence. In 1979 a simmering insurgency against the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="regime" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/regime" data-type="EB">regime</a> of Pres. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hafiz-al-Assad" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hafez al-Assad</a> took a brutal turn when militants massacred approximately 50 cadets, most of them ʿAlawites, at a military academy in Aleppo. The government responded with a massive military deployment to Aleppo in 1980, and several hundred people were killed by special forces hunting militants in the city.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="180952" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/163769-050-485B01F7/son-killed-Syrian-Army-Aleppo-October-2012.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/13837/180952"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/163769-050-485B01F7/son-killed-Syrian-Army-Aleppo-October-2012.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/163769-050-485B01F7/son-killed-Syrian-Army-Aleppo-October-2012.jpg?w=300" alt="Syrian Civil War: Aleppo" data-width="1600" data-height="1067" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/163769-050-485B01F7/son-killed-Syrian-Army-Aleppo-October-2012.jpg" data-href="/media/1/13837/180952">Syrian Civil War: Aleppo</a><span>A man holds the body of his son, who was killed in a suicide bombing in October 2012, in Aleppo, Syria, during the Syrian Civil War.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Aleppo initially remained quiet when demonstrations broke out against the regime of Pres. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bashar-al-Assad" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bashar al-Assad</a> in early 2011 and was thus spared the brutal reprisals by Syrian security forces. However, as the crisis evolved into a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Syrian-Civil-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">civil war</a>, Aleppo became a center of armed opposition activity, and full-fledged combat embroiled the city beginning in the summer of 2012. Fighting continued until December 2016, when opposition fighters <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="surrendered" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/surrendered" data-type="EB">surrendered</a> the city to Syrian forces in exchange for their safe passage out of the city. Aleppo suffered far more destruction than any other city during the civil war, amounting to more than $7.5 billion worth of damage—most of it housing.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In November 2024 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hayat-Tahrir-al-Sham" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hayʾat Taḥrīr al-Shām</a> (HTS), the dominant opposition force since 2019, broke a four-year stalemate in the civil war with a sudden offensive that took control of Aleppo. The takeover was swift and within three days government forces, which were unprepared for the fight, withdrew from the city. Russian air strikes hit the city the following day.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":2,"pageId":13837,"pageLength":1482,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.48"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.48' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true,"hasAiTopQuestions":false,"hasSimplifyButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Aleppo | History, Map, Citadel, Civil War, Population, & Facts | Britannica