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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimating_risk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Estimating risk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimating_risk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>Environmental epidemiology</b> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> concerned with determining how environmental exposures impact human health.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This field seeks to understand how various external risk factors may predispose to or protect against disease, illness, injury, developmental abnormalities, or death. These factors may be naturally occurring or may be introduced into environments where people live, work, and play. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope">Scope</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> European Centre for Environment and Health (WHO-ECEH) claims that 1.4 million deaths per year in Europe alone are due to avoidable environmental exposures.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental exposures can be broadly categorized into those that are proximate (e.g., directly leading to a health condition), including chemicals, physical agents, and <a href="/wiki/Microbiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbiological">microbiological</a> <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a>, and those that are <a href="/wiki/Distal" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal">distal</a> (e.g., indirectly leading to a health condition), such as socioeconomic conditions, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, and other broad-scale <a href="/wiki/Environmental_change" title="Environmental change">environmental changes</a>. Proximate exposures occur through air, food, water, and skin contact. Distal exposures cause adverse health conditions directly by altering proximate exposures, and indirectly through changes in ecosystems and other support systems for human health.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental epidemiology research can inform government policy change, risk management activities, and development of environmental standards. <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_index" title="Vulnerability index">Vulnerability</a> is the summation of all risk and protective factors that ultimately determine whether an individual or subpopulation experiences adverse health outcomes when an exposure to an environmental agent occurs. Sensitivity is an individual's or subpopulation's increased responsiveness, primarily for biological reasons, to that exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biological sensitivity may be related to developmental stage,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_condition" title="Pre-existing condition">pre-existing medical conditions</a>, acquired factors, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic factors</a>. Socioeconomic factors also play a critical role in altering vulnerability and sensitivity to environmentally mediated factors by increasing the likelihood of exposure to harmful agents, interacting with biological factors that mediate risk, and/or leading to differences in the ability to prepare for or cope with exposures or early phases of illness. Populations living in certain regions may be at increased risk due to location and the environmental characteristics of a region.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Acknowledgement that the environment impacts human health can be found as far back as 460 B.C. in <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>' essay <i>On Airs, Waters, and Places</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, he urges physicians to contemplate how factors such as <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> can impact the health of their patients. Another famous example of environment-health interaction is the <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a> experienced by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a>, who used lead in their water pipes and kitchen pottery.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, a Roman <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architect</a>, wrote to discourage the use of <a href="/wiki/Lead_pipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead pipe">lead pipes</a>, citing health concerns: </p> <blockquote><p>"Water conducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome than that through lead; indeed that conveyed in lead must be injurious, because from it white lead is obtained, and this is said to be injurious to the human system. Hence, if what is generated from it is pernicious, there can be no doubt that itself cannot be a wholesome body. This may be verified by observing the workers in lead, who are of a pallid colour; for in casting lead, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_fumes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lead fumes (page does not exist)">fumes</a> from it fixing on the different members, and daily burning them, destroy the vigour of the blood; water should therefore on no account be conducted in leaden pipes if we are desirous that it should be wholesome. That the flavour of that conveyed in earthen pipes is better, is shewn at our daily meals, for all those whose tables are furnished with silver vessels, nevertheless use those made of earth, from the purity of the flavour being preserved in them"<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Generally considered to be one of the founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a> conducted perhaps the first environmental epidemiology study in 1854. He showed that London residents who drank sewage-contaminated water were more likely to develop <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> than those who drank <a href="/wiki/Clean_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean water">clean water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._government_regulation">U.S. government regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: U.S. government regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the 20th century, the United States Government passed legislation and regulations to address environmental health concerns. A partial list is below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> Table of Selected U.S. Laws Relating to Environmental Health </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Law </th> <th>Year </th> <th>Brief Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Federal_Food,_Drug,_and_Cosmetic_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act">Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act</a> </td> <td>1938 </td> <td>Created the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Federal_Insecticide,_Fungicide,_and_Rodenticide_Act" title="Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act">Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act</a> </td> <td>1947 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticide</a> users and manufacturers must register with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a>; pesticides must not cause unreasonable harm </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Federal_Water_Pollution_Control_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Water Pollution Control Act">Federal Water Pollution Control Act</a> </td> <td>1948 1977 </td> <td>Also known as the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a>, set water quality standards </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a> </td> <td>1955, <p>1977 </p> </td> <td>Created <a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">National Ambient Air Quality Standards</a> (NAAQS) for environmental and public health protection </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Solid_Waste_Disposal_Act_of_1965" title="Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965">Solid Waste Disposal Act</a> </td> <td>1965 </td> <td>Specified standards for <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal</a> and industrial waste disposal </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_(United_States)" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)">Occupational Safety and Health Act</a> </td> <td>1970 </td> <td>Created worker protections standards and established the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act</a> </td> <td>1976 </td> <td>Allowed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> to regulate chemicals, including the ability to ban substances that are shown to harm humans </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Superfund" title="Superfund">Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act</a> </td> <td>1980 1986 </td> <td>Also known as <a href="/wiki/Superfund" title="Superfund">Superfund</a>, it taxes chemical and petroleum industries to fund clean-up of <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a> sites </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indoor Radon Abatement Act </td> <td>1988 </td> <td>Funded <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> clean-up and research programs </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Food_Quality_Protection_Act" title="Food Quality Protection Act">Food Quality Protection Act</a> </td> <td>1996 </td> <td>Amended the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Insecticide,_Fungicide,_and_Rodenticide_Act" title="Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act">Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act</a> to include a requirement that pesticides have reasonable certainty that they do not cause human harm </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precautionary_principle">Precautionary principle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Precautionary principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a> is a concept in the environmental sciences that if an activity is suspected to cause harm, we should not wait until sufficient evidence of that harm is collected to take action.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has its roots in German environmental policy, and was adopted in 1990 by the participants of the North-Sea Conferences in The Hague by declaration.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> began to formally adopt the precautionary principle into its laws as a Communication from the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States has resisted adoption of this principle, citing concerns that unfounded science could lead to obligations for expensive control measures, especially as related to greenhouse gas emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Investigations">Investigations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Investigations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observational_studies">Observational studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Observational studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental epidemiology studies are most frequently <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational</a> in nature,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning researchers look at people's exposures to environmental factors <i>without intervening</i> and then observe the patterns that emerge. This is due to the fact that it is often unethical or unfeasible to conduct an <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental study</a> of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_factor" title="Environmental factor">environmental factors</a> in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a researcher cannot ask some of their study subjects to smoke <a href="/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarettes</a> to see if they have poorer health outcomes than subjects who are asked not to smoke. The study types most often employed in environmental epidemiology are:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case-control studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional studies</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estimating_risk">Estimating risk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Estimating risk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epidemiologic studies that assess how an environmental exposure and a health outcome may be connected use a variety of <a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">biostatistical</a> approaches to attempt to quantify the relationship. <a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a> tries to answer questions such as "How does an individual's risk for disease A change when they are exposed to substance B?," and "How many excess cases of disease A can we prevent if exposure to substance B is lowered by X amount?."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some statistics and approaches used to estimate risk are:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">Odds ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk ratio">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_ratio" title="Hazard ratio">Hazards ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attributable_risk" class="mw-redirect" title="Attributable risk">Attributable risk</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental epidemiology studies often identify associations between pollutants in the air, water, or food and adverse health outcomes; these findings can be inconvenient for polluting industries. Environmental epidemiologists are confronted with significant ethical challenges because of the involvement of powerful stakeholders who may try to influence the results or interpretation of their studies. Epidemiologic findings can sometimes have direct effects on industry profits. Because of these concerns, environmental epidemiology maintains guidelines for ethical practice. The <a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Environmental_Epidemiology" title="International Society for Environmental Epidemiology">International Society for Environmental Epidemiology</a> (ISEE) first adopted ethics guidelines in the late 1990s. The guidelines are maintained by its Ethics and Philosophy Committee, one of the earliest, active, and enduring ethics committees in the field of epidemiology. Since its inception in 1991, the Committee has taken an active role in supporting ethical conduct and promulgating Ethics Guidelines for Environmental Epidemiologists.  The most recent Ethics Guidelines were adopted in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bradford Hill factors </p><p>To differentiate between <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">correlation and causation</a>, epidemiologists often consider a set of factors to determine the likelihood that an observed relationship between an environmental exposure and health consequence is truly causal.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1965, <a href="/wiki/Austin_Bradford_Hill" title="Austin Bradford Hill">Austin Bradford Hill</a> devised a set of postulates to help him determine if there was sufficient evidence to conclude that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bradford_Hill_criteria" title="Bradford Hill criteria">Bradford Hill criteria</a> are: </p> <ol><li>Strength of association</li> <li>Consistency of evidence</li> <li>Specificity</li> <li>Temporality</li> <li>Biological gradient</li> <li>Plausibility</li> <li>Coherence</li> <li>Experiment</li> <li>Analogy</li></ol> <p>These factors are generally considered to be a guide to scientists, and it is not necessary that all of the factors be met for a consensus to be reached.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envirome" title="Envirome">Envirome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposome" title="Exposome">Exposome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_epidemiology" title="Occupational epidemiology">Occupational epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMerrill2008" class="citation book cs1">Merrill, Ray M. (2008). <i>Environmental epidemiology : principles and methods</i>. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp. 8–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780763741525" title="Special:BookSources/9780763741525"><bdi>9780763741525</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/163589221">163589221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+epidemiology+%3A+principles+and+methods&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=8-9&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F163589221&rft.isbn=9780763741525&rft.aulast=Merrill&rft.aufirst=Ray+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+epidemiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190430210130/http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/341944/OstravaDeclaration_SIGNED.pdf?ua=1">"Ostrava Declaration on Environment and Health"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>World Health Organization</i>. 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Talbott, Evelyn O., Craun, Gunther F. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers. 1995. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0873715737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0873715737"><bdi>978-0873715737</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31970345">31970345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+environmental+epidemiology&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=Lewis+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31970345&rft.isbn=978-0873715737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+epidemiology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtzelAbbasAnastarioMustapha2023" class="citation web cs1">Etzel, Ruth A.; Abbas, Nivine H.; Anastario, Michael P.; Mustapha, Adetoun; Osuolale, Olayinka; Sarkar, Atanu; Soyiri, Ireneous N.; Whaibeh, Emil; Soskolne, Colin L. and the Ethics and Philosophy Committee (September 17, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iseepi.org/docs/ISEE_Ethics_Guidelines_Adopted_17_Sept_2023.pdf">"Ethics Guidelines for Environmental Epidemiologists"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethics+Guidelines+for+Environmental+Epidemiologists&rft.date=2023-09-17&rft.aulast=Etzel&rft.aufirst=Ruth+A.&rft.au=Abbas%2C+Nivine+H.&rft.au=Anastario%2C+Michael+P.&rft.au=Mustapha%2C+Adetoun&rft.au=Osuolale%2C+Olayinka&rft.au=Sarkar%2C+Atanu&rft.au=Soyiri%2C+Ireneous+N.&rft.au=Whaibeh%2C+Emil&rft.au=Soskolne%2C+Colin+L.+and+the+Ethics+and+Philosophy+Committee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iseepi.org%2Fdocs%2FISEE_Ethics_Guidelines_Adopted_17_Sept_2023.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+epidemiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill1965" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, Austin Bradford (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4291332">"The environment and disease: association or causation?"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine</i>. <b>108</b> (1): 32–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0141076814562718">10.1177/0141076814562718</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0141-0768">0141-0768</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4291332">4291332</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25572993">25572993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+environment+and+disease%3A+association+or+causation%3F&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-37&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4291332%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0141-0768&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25572993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0141076814562718&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Austin+Bradford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4291332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+epidemiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker,_D.Nieuwenhuijsen,_M.J.2008" class="citation book cs1">Baker, D.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J., eds. (2008). <i>Environmental Epidemiology: Study Methods and Application</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852792-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852792-3"><bdi>978-0-19-852792-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Epidemiology%3A+Study+Methods+and+Application&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852792-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+epidemiology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_epidemiology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.lww.com/environepidem/pages/default.aspx">"ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY<i></i></a><i> journal</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190417143513/http://ieaweb.org/">International Epidemiological Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iseepi.org/ethics_and_philosophy_committe.php">International Society for Environmental Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/jes/index.html"><i>Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.lww.com/epidem/pages/default.aspx">EPIDEMIOLOGY</a> journal</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov">Environmental Health Perspectives</a></i> (news and peer-reviewed research journal published by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Environmental_Health_Sciences" title="National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences">National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ehn.org">Environmental Health News</a> current events in environmental health</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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