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id="toc-Aims_of_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aims_of_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Aims of education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aims_of_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Epistemic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_thinking_and_indoctrination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_thinking_and_indoctrination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Critical thinking and indoctrination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_thinking_and_indoctrination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_and_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_and_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Individual and society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_and_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curriculum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curriculum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Curriculum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curriculum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Equality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Philosophical movements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_movements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical movements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Existentialist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existentialist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Existentialist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existentialist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perennialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perennialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Perennialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perennialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Classical education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Essentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Essentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_reconstructionism_and_critical_pedagogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_reconstructionism_and_critical_pedagogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Social reconstructionism and critical pedagogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_reconstructionism_and_critical_pedagogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Democratic education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democratic_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Progressivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progressivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Progressivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progressivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unschooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unschooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Unschooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unschooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemplative_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemplative_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Contemplative education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemplative_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Plato</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Aristotle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Medieval</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ibn_Sina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ibn_Sina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Ibn Sina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ibn_Sina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ibn_Tufail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ibn_Tufail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Ibn Tufail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ibn_Tufail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Michel_de_Montaigne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michel_de_Montaigne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Michel de Montaigne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michel_de_Montaigne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Locke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Locke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>John Locke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Locke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jean-Jacques_Rousseau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Jean-Jacques Rousseau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immanuel_Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immanuel_Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.4</span> <span>Immanuel Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immanuel_Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charlotte_Mason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charlotte_Mason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.5</span> <span>Charlotte Mason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charlotte_Mason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>20th and 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rudolf_Steiner_(Waldorf_education)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rudolf_Steiner_(Waldorf_education)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Rudolf Steiner (Waldorf education)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rudolf_Steiner_(Waldorf_education)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Dewey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Dewey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>John Dewey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Dewey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maria_Montessori" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maria_Montessori"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.3</span> <span>Maria Montessori</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maria_Montessori-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_Heard_Kilpatrick" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_Heard_Kilpatrick"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.4</span> <span>William Heard Kilpatrick</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_Heard_Kilpatrick-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_Chandler_Bagley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_Chandler_Bagley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.5</span> <span>William Chandler Bagley</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_Chandler_Bagley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A._S._Neill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A._S._Neill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.6</span> <span>A. S. Neill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A._S._Neill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Martin_Heidegger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martin_Heidegger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.7</span> <span>Martin Heidegger</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martin_Heidegger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jean_Piaget" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jean_Piaget"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.8</span> <span>Jean Piaget</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jean_Piaget-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mortimer_Jerome_Adler" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mortimer_Jerome_Adler"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.9</span> <span>Mortimer Jerome Adler</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mortimer_Jerome_Adler-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harry_S._Broudy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harry_S._Broudy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.10</span> <span>Harry S. Broudy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harry_S._Broudy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jerome_Bruner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jerome_Bruner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.11</span> <span>Jerome Bruner</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jerome_Bruner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paulo_Freire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paulo_Freire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.12</span> <span>Paulo Freire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paulo_Freire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Holt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Holt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.13</span> <span>John Holt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Holt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nel_Noddings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nel_Noddings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.14</span> <span>Nel Noddings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nel_Noddings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_organizations_and_associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_organizations_and_associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Professional organizations and associations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_organizations_and_associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Philosophy of education</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة التربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة التربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99hsil_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="Təhsil fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təhsil fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="শিক্ষার দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শিক্ষার দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_de_l%27educaci%C3%B3" title="Filosofia de l'educació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia de l'educació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie_v%C3%BDchovy" title="Filozofie výchovy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Filozofie výchovy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth_addysg" title="Athroniaeth addysg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Athroniaeth addysg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A6dagogisk_filosofi" title="Pædagogisk filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" 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Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה של החינוך" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Білім философиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Білім философиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa_ya_elimu" title="Falsafa ya elimu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Falsafa ya elimu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah_pendidikan" title="Falsafah pendidikan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah pendidikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_van_de_opvoeding" title="Filosofie van de opvoeding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Filosofie van de opvoeding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="教育哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="教育哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogisk_filosofi" title="Pedagogisk filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pedagogisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%27lim_falsafasi" title="Ta'lim falsafasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ta'lim falsafasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_da_educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Filosofia da educação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia da educação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_educa%C8%9Biei" title="Filozofia educației – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filozofia educației" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия образования – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Философия образования" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_e_edukimit" title="Filozofia e edukimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia e edukimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvatusfilosofia" title="Kasvatusfilosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvatusfilosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogikens_filosofi" title="Pedagogikens filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pedagogikens filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya_ng_edukasyon" title="Pilosopiya ng edukasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pilosopiya ng edukasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2" title="ปรัชญาการศึกษา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญาการศึกษา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C4%9Fitim_felsefesi" title="Eğitim felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eğitim felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#bbddff;"><a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">Educational research</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbddff;"> Disciplines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Curriculum studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">History</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Psychology</a> (<a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">school</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_education" title="International education">International education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_counselor" title="School counselor">School counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbddff;"> Curricular domains</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_education" title="Visual arts education">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_research" title="Engineering education research">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy education">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Social science education">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bbddff;"> Methods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_method" title="Case method">Case method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">Focus group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Reform</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Educational_research" title="Template:Educational research"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Educational_research" title="Template talk:Educational research"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Educational_research" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Educational research"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>philosophy of education</b> is the branch of applied <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that investigates the nature of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> as well as its aims and problems. It also examines the concepts and presuppositions of education theories. It is an interdisciplinary field that draws inspiration from various disciplines both within and outside philosophy, like <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>. Many of its theories focus specifically on education in schools but it also encompasses other forms of education. Its theories are often divided into descriptive theories, which provide a value-neutral description of what education is, and <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> theories, which investigate how education should be practiced. </p><p>A great variety of topics is discussed in the philosophy of education. Some studies provide a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a> of the fundamental concepts of education. Others center around the aims or purpose of education, like passing on <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> and the development of the abilities of good <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a>, judging, and acting. An influential discussion concerning the epistemic aims of education is whether education should focus mainly on the transmission of true <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> or rather on the abilities to reason and arrive at new knowledge. In this context, many theorists emphasize the importance of <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical thinking</a> in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">indoctrination</a>. Another debate about the aims of education is whether the primary beneficiary is the student or the <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> to which the student belongs. </p><p>Many of the more specific discussions in the philosophy of education concern the contents of the <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>. This involves the questions of whether, when, and in what detail a certain topic, like <a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">sex education</a> or <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, should be taught. Other debates focus on the specific contents and methods used in <a href="/wiki/Moral_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral education">moral</a>, art, and <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a>. Some philosophers investigate the relation between education and <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>, often specifically regarding the power used by modern states to <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">compel</a> children to attend school. A different issue is the problem of the <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a> of education and factors threatening it, like <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> and unequal <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">distribution of wealth</a>. Some philosophers of education promote a quantitative approach to <a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">educational research</a>, which follows the example of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> by using wide experimental studies. Others prefer a qualitative approach, which is closer to the methodology of the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> and tends to give more prominence to individual <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a>. </p><p>Various schools of philosophy have developed their own perspective on the main issues of education. <a href="/wiki/Existentialists" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialists">Existentialists</a> emphasize the role of <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a> while <a href="/wiki/Pragmatists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatists">pragmatists</a> give particular prominence to active learning and discovery. <a href="/wiki/Feminists" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminists">Feminists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernists" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernists">postmodernists</a> often try to uncover and challenge biases and forms of discrimination present in current educational practices. Other philosophical movements include <a href="/wiki/Perennialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennialism">perennialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_education_in_the_Western_world" title="Classical education in the Western world">classical education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">essentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">critical pedagogy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressivism</a>. The history of the philosophy of education started in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a> but only emerged as a systematic branch of philosophy in the latter half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NoddingsPOE_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NoddingsPOE-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophy of education is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that examines the nature, aims, and problems of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NoddingsPOE_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NoddingsPOE-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the philosophical study of education, it investigates its topic similar to how other discipline-specific branches of philosophy, like the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">philosophy of law</a>, study their topics.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SageHandbookWhat_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SageHandbookWhat-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A central task for the philosophy of education is to make explicit the various fundamental assumptions and disagreements at work in its field and to evaluate the arguments raised for and against the different positions.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue of education has a great many manifestations in various fields. Because of this, both the breadth and the influence of the philosophy of education are significant and wide-ranging, touching many other branches of philosophy, such as <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SageHandbookWhat_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SageHandbookWhat-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its theories are often formulated from the perspective of these other philosophical disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But due to its interdisciplinary nature, it also attracts contributions from scholars belonging to fields outside the domain of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SageHandbookWhat_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SageHandbookWhat-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While there is wide agreement on the general topics discussed in the philosophy of education, it has proven difficult to give a precise definition of it. The philosophy of education belongs mainly to applied philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some definitions, it can be characterized as an offshoot of ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But not everyone agrees with this characterization since the philosophy of education has a more theoretical side as well, which includes the examination of the fundamental concepts and theories of education as well as their philosophical implications. These two sides are sometimes referred to as the outward and the inward looking nature of the philosophy of education.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its topics can range from very general questions, like the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> worth teaching, to more specific issues, like how to teach <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> or whether public schools should implement standardized curricula and <a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">testing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problem of education was already an important topic in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a> and has remained so to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it only emerged as a distinct branch of philosophy in the latter half of the 20th century, when it became the subject of a systematic study and analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "education" can refer either to the process of educating or to the field of study investigating education as this process. This ambiguity is also reflected on the level of the philosophy of education, which encompasses the study of the philosophical presuppositions and issues both of education as a process and as a discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankena_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankena-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many works in the philosophy of education focus explicitly or implicitly on the education happening in schools. But in its widest sense, education takes place in various other fields as well, such as at home, in libraries, in museums, or in the public media.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different types of education can be distinguished, such as formal and informal education or <a href="/wiki/Private_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Private education">private</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">public education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankena_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankena-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subdivisions">Subdivisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Subdivisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different subdivisions of the philosophy of education have been suggested. One categorization distinguishes between descriptive and <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> issues.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankena_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankena-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Descriptive theories aim to describe what education is and how to understand its related concepts. This includes also <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> questions, which ask not whether a theory about education is true or false, but how one can arrive at the knowledge to answer such questions.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normative theories, on the other hand, try to give an account of how education should be practiced or what is the right form of education.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankena_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankena-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SageHandbookWhat_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SageHandbookWhat-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some normative theories are built on a wider ethical framework of what is right or good and then arrive at their educational normative theories by applying this framework to the practice of education. But the descriptive and the normative approaches are intertwined and cannot always be clearly separated since descriptive findings often directly imply various normative attitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankena_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankena-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another categorization divides topics in the philosophy of education into the nature and aims of education on the one hand, and the methods and circumstances of education on the other hand. The latter section may again be divided into concrete normative theories and the study of the conceptual and methodological presuppositions of these theories.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other classifications additionally include areas for topics such as the role of <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> as well as issues pertaining to social and political topics and the curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theories within the philosophy of education can also be subdivided based on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical movement">school of philosophy</a> they belong to. Various schools of philosophy, such as <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, have developed their own perspective on the main issues of education.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They often include normative theories about how education should or should not be practiced and are in most cases controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another approach is to simply list all topics discussed in the philosophy of education. Among them are the issues and presuppositions concerning <a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">sex education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic</a> education, <a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">religious education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moral_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral education">moral education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multicultural_education" title="Multicultural education">multicultural education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Professional_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional education">professional education</a>, theories of teaching and learning, the measurement of learning, knowledge and its value, cultivating reason, epistemic and moral aims of education, <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>, fallibilism, and <a href="/wiki/Fallibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallibility">fallibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, yet another way that philosophy of education is often tacitly divided is in terms of <i>western</i> versus non-western and “<a href="/wiki/Global_south" class="mw-redirect" title="Global south">global south</a>” perspectives. For many generations, philosophy of education has maintained a relatively <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocentric">ethnocentric</a> orientation, with little attention paid to ideas from outside Europe and North America, but this is starting to change in the 21st century due to <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> and related movements.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_topics">Main topics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Main topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fundamental_concepts_of_education">Fundamental concepts of education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fundamental concepts of education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The starting point of many philosophical inquiries into a field is the examination and clarification of the fundamental concepts used in this field, often in the form of <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a>. This approach is particularly prominent in the <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic tradition</a>. It aims to make ambiguities explicit and to uncover various implicit and potentially false assumptions associated with these terms.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theorists in this field often emphasize the importance of this form of investigation since all subsequent work on more specific issues already has to assume at least implicitly what their central terms mean to demarcate their field. For example, in order to study what constitutes good education, one has to have a notion of what the term "education" means and how to achieve, measure, and evaluate it.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson2016_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Definitions of education can be divided into thin and thick definitions. Thin definitions are neutral and descriptive. They usually emphasize the role of the transmission of knowledge and <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a> in education. Thick definitions include additional normative components, for example, by stating that the process in question has to have certain positive results to be called education.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson2016_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one thick definition, education means that the person educated has acquired knowledge and intellectual skills, values these factors, and has thus changed for the better. These characteristics can then be used to distinguish education from other closely related terms, such as "indoctrination".<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other fundamental notions in the philosophy of education include the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching">teaching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Student" title="Student">student</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Schooling">schooling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Child_rearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Child rearing">rearing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Watson2016_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aims_of_education">Aims of education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aims of education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A central question in the philosophy of education concerns the aims of education, i.e. the question of why people should be educated and what goals should be pursued in the process of education.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmitt2005_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitt2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This issue is highly relevant for evaluating educational practices and products by assessing how well they manage to realize these goals. There is a lot of disagreement and various theories have been proposed concerning the aims of education. Prominent suggestions include that education should foster knowledge, <a href="/wiki/Curiosity" title="Curiosity">curiosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, and critical thinking while also promoting the tendency to think, feel, and act morally.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The individual should thereby develop as a person, and achieve <a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">self-actualization</a> by realizing their <a href="/wiki/Potential" title="Potential">potential</a>. Some theorists emphasize the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal ideals</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Open-mindedness" title="Open-mindedness">open-mindedness</a>, while others stress the importance of docility, <a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">obedience</a> to authority, and ideological purity, sometimes also with a focus on <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">piety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious faith">religious faith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many suggestions concern the social domain, such as fostering a sense of community and solidarity and thus turning the individual into a productive member of society while protecting them from the potentially negative influences of society. The discussion of these positions and the arguments cited for and against them often include references to various disciplines in their justifications, such as <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is wide consensus concerning certain general aims of education, like that it should foster all students, help them in the development of their ability to reason, and guide them in how to judge and act. But these general characteristics are usually too vague to be of much help and there are many disagreements about the more specific suggestions of what education should aim for.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmitt2005_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitt2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some attempts have been made to provide an overarching framework of these different aims. According to one approach, education should at its core help the individual lead a good life. All the different more specific goals are aims of education to the extent that they serve this ultimate purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this view, it may be argued that fostering rationality and autonomy in the students are aims of education to the extent that increased rationality and autonomy will result in the student leading a better life.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The different theories of the aims of education are sometimes divided into <i>goods-based</i>, <i>skills-based</i>, and <i>character-based</i> accounts. <i>Goods-based</i> accounts hold that the ultimate aim of education is to produce some form of epistemic good, such as truth, knowledge, and understanding. <i>Skills-based</i> accounts, on the other hand, see the development of certain skills, like rationality as well as critical and independent <a href="/wiki/Thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinking">thinking</a> as the goal of education. For <i>character-based</i> accounts, the character traits or virtues of the learner play the central role, often with an emphasis on moral and civic traits like <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson2016_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epistemic">Epistemic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Epistemic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many theories emphasize the epistemic aims of education.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacmillanEducationEpistemological_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacmillanEducationEpistemological-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robertson2009_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the epistemic approach, the central aim of education has to do with <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, for example, to pass on knowledge accumulated in the societal effort from one generation to the next. This process may be seen both as the development of the student's <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> as well as the transmission of a valuable heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an approach is sometimes rejected by <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatists</a>, who emphasize experimentation and critical thinking over the transmission of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have argued that this constitutes a <a href="/wiki/False_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="False dichotomy">false dichotomy</a>: that the transmission of knowledge and the development of a rational and critical mind are intertwined aims of education that depend on and support each other.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, education aims also at fostering the ability to acquire new knowledge. This includes both instilling true <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> in the students as well as teaching the methods and forms of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> responsible for verifying existing beliefs and arriving at new knowledge. It promotes the epistemic autonomy of students and may help them challenge unwarranted claims by epistemic authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacmillanEducationEpistemological_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacmillanEducationEpistemological-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robertson2009_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its widest sense, the epistemic approach includes various related goals, such as imparting true beliefs or knowledge to the students as well as teaching dispositions and abilities, such as rationality, critical thinking, understanding, and other <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_virtue" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual virtue">intellectual virtues</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critical_thinking_and_indoctrination">Critical thinking and indoctrination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Critical thinking and indoctrination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> is often cited as one of the central aims of education.<sup id="cite_ref-Siegel_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siegel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no generally accepted definition of critical thinking. But there is wide agreement that it is reasonable, reflective, careful, and focused on determining what to believe or how to act.<sup id="cite_ref-Ennis_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ennis-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davies_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hitchcock_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hitchcock-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has clarity and rationality as its standards and includes a <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognitive</a> component monitoring not just the solution of the problem at hand but also ensuring that it complies with its own standards in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, education is not just about conveying many true beliefs to the students. Instead, the students' <a href="/wiki/Ability" title="Ability">ability</a> to arrive at conclusions by themselves and the disposition to question pre-existing beliefs should also be fostered, often with the goal of benefitting not just the student but society at large.<sup id="cite_ref-Siegel_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siegel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davies_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But not everyone agrees with the positive role ascribed to critical thinking in education. Objections are often based on disagreements about what it means to reason well.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some critics argue that there is no universally correct form of reasoning. According to them, education should focus more on teaching subject-specific skills and less on imparting a universal method of thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-Hitchcock_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hitchcock-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other objections focus on the allegation that critical thinking is not as neutral, universal, and presuppositionless as some of its proponents claim. On this view, it involves various implicit biases, like egocentrism or distanced objectivity, and culture-specific values arising from its roots in the philosophical movement of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">European Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hitchcock_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hitchcock-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problem of critical thinking is closely connected to that of <a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">indoctrination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many theorists hold that indoctrination is in important ways different from education and should be avoided in education.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But others contend that indoctrination should be part of education or even that there is no difference between the two. These different positions depend a lot on how "indoctrination" is to be defined. Most definitions of indoctrination agree that its goal is to get the student to accept and embrace certain beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has this in common with most forms of education but differs from it in other ways.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one definition, the belief acquisition in indoctrination happens without regard for the <a href="/wiki/Evidence#Nature_of_the_evidential_relation" title="Evidence">evidential support</a> of these beliefs, i.e. without presenting proper arguments and reasons for adopting them.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to another, the beliefs are instilled in such a way as to discourage the student to question or assess for themselves the believed contents. In this sense, the goals of indoctrination are exactly opposite to other aims of education, such as rationality and critical thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, education tries to impart not just beliefs but also make the students more <a href="/wiki/Open-minded" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-minded">open-minded</a> and conscious of human <a href="/wiki/Fallibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallibility">fallibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adler2009_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler2009-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An intimately related issue is whether the aim of education is to mold the mind of the pupil or to liberate it by strengthening its capacity for critical and independent inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important consequence of this debate concerns the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_testimony" title="Philosophy of testimony">problem of testimony</a>, i.e to what extent students should <a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">trust</a> the claims of teachers and books.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2016_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2016-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Callan2009_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Callan2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that this issue depends a lot on the age and the intellectual development of the student. In the earlier stages of education, a high level of trust on the side of the students may be necessary. But the more their intellectual capacities develop, the more they should use them when trying to assess the plausibility of claims and the reasons for and against them.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, it has been argued that, especially for young children, weaker forms of indoctrination may be necessary while they still lack the intellectual capacities to evaluate the reasons for and against certain claims and thus to critically assess them.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, one can distinguish unavoidable or acceptable forms of indoctrination from their avoidable or unacceptable counterparts. But this distinction is not always affirmed and some theorists contend that all forms of indoctrination are bad or unacceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2016_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2016-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Callan2009_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Callan2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Individual_and_society">Individual and society</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Individual and society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recurrent source of disagreement about the aims of education concerns the question of who is the primary beneficiary of education: the <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a> educated or the <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> having this individual as its member.<sup id="cite_ref-Reich2009_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reich2009-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, the interests of both are aligned. On the one hand, many new opportunities in life open to the individual through education, especially concerning their career. On the other hand, education makes it more likely that the person becomes a good, law-abiding, and productive member of society.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But this issue becomes more problematic in cases where the interests of the individual and society conflict with each other. This poses the question of whether individual <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> should take precedence over communal welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i>comprehensive liberals</i>, for example, education should emphasize the self-directedness of the students. On this view, it is up to the student to choose their own path in life. The role of education is to provide them with the necessary resources but it does not direct the student with respect to what constitutes an ethically <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a> path in life. This position is usually rejected by <a href="/wiki/Communitarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Communitarians">communitarians</a>, who stress the importance of <a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">social cohesion</a> by being part of the community and sharing a common good.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curriculum">Curriculum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Curriculum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important and controversial issue in the philosophy of education concerns the contents of the <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>, i.e. the question of what should be taught to students. This includes both the selection of subjects to be taught and the consideration of arguments for and against the inclusion of a particular topic. This issue is intimately tied to the aims of education: one may argue that a certain subject should be included in the curriculum because it serves one of the aims of education.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While many positions about what subjects to include in the curriculum are controversial, some particular issues stand out where these controversies go beyond the academic discourse to a wide public discourse, like questions about <a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">sexual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">religious education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Allison_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allison-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barnes2019_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes2019-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Arragon2015_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arragon2015-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Controversies in sex education involve both biological aspects, such as the functioning of <a href="/wiki/Sex_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex organs">sex organs</a>, and social aspects, such as <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">sexual practices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_identities" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender identities">gender identities</a>. Disagreements in this area concern which aspects are taught and in which detail as well as to which age groups these teachings should be directed.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Allison_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allison-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Debates on religious education include questions like whether <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> should be taught as a distinct subject and, if so, whether it should be compulsory. Other questions include which religion or religions should be taught and to what degree religious views should influence other topics, such as <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> or sex education.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes2019_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes2019-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Arragon2015_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arragon2015-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another prominent topic in this field concerns the subject of <a href="/wiki/Moral_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral education">moral education</a>. This field is sometimes referred to as "educational ethics". Disagreements in this field concern which moral beliefs and <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">values</a> should be taught to the students. This way, many of the disagreements in moral philosophy are reflected in the field of moral education.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some theorists in the <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantian tradition</a> emphasize the importance of <a href="/wiki/Moral_reasoning" title="Moral reasoning">moral reasoning</a> and enabling children to become morally <a href="/wiki/Autonomous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomous</a> agents who can tell right from wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theorists in the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian tradition</a>, on the other hand, focus more on moral <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> through the development of <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> that concern both perception, affect, and judgment in regard to moral situations.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related issue, heavily discussed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a>, is the extent to which <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> can be taught at all instead of just being an inborn disposition.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various discussions also concern the role of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> in public education. It has been argued that the <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a> learned in these areas can be applied to various other fields and may thereby benefit the student in various ways. It has been argued that aesthetic education also has indirect effects on various other issues, such as shaping the student's sensibilities in the fields of morality and politics as well as heightening their awareness of self and others.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers reject the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a> in general. They use this claim to argue against universal forms of education, which they see as hiding particular <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldviews</a>, beliefs, and interests under a false cover.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is sometimes utilized to advance an approach focused on more diversity, for example, by giving more prominence in education to the great variety of cultures, customs, languages, and lifestyles without giving preference to any of them.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different approaches to solving these disputes are employed. In some cases, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> can provide important general insights.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specific questions about the curriculum of a particular subject, such as <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, are often strongly influenced by the philosophy of this specific discipline, such as the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power">Power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The problem of <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> is another issue in the philosophy of education. Of specific interest on this topic is that the modern states compel children to attend school, so-called <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">compulsory education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moss2012_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss2012-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The children and their parents usually have few to no ways of opting out or changing the established curriculum. An important question in this respect is why or whether modern states are justified to use this form of power.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moss2012_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss2012-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, various liberationist movements belonging to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Deschooling" title="Deschooling">deschooling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unschooling" title="Unschooling">unschooling</a> reject this power and argue that the children's welfare is best served in the absence of compulsory schooling in general. This is sometimes based on the idea that the best form of learning does not happen while studying but instead occurs as a side-effect while doing something else.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This position is often rejected by pointing out that it is based on overly optimistic presuppositions about the children's natural and unguided development of <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some objections focus on compulsory education in general, a less radical and more common criticism concerns specific compulsory topics in the curriculum, for example, in relation to sexuality or religion. Another contemporary debate in the United States concerns the practice of standardized testing: it has been argued that this discriminates against certain racial, cultural, or religious minorities since the standardized test may implicitly assume various presuppositions not shared by these minorities.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beuchert_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beuchert-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knoester2017_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knoester2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other issues in relation to power concern the authority and responsibility teachers have towards their students.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodern</a> theorists often see established educational practices as instruments of power used by elites in society to further their own interests.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important aspects in this regard are the unequal power relation between the state and its institutions in contrast to the individual as well as the control that can thus be employed due to the close connection between <a href="/wiki/Power-knowledge" title="Power-knowledge">power and knowledge</a>, specifically the knowledge passed on through education.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equality">Equality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Equality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recurrent demand on public education is that all students should be treated equally and in a fair manner.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason for this demand is that education plays a central role for the child's path and prospects in life, which should not be limited by unfair or arbitrary external circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordEquality_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordEquality-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But there are various disagreements about how this demand is best understood and whether it is applicable in all cases. An initial problem concerns what is meant by "<a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a>". In the field of education, it is often understood as <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_opportunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality of opportunity">equality of opportunity</a>. In this sense, the demand for equality implies that education should open the same opportunities to everyone. This means, among other things, that students from higher social classes should not enjoy a competitive advantage over others.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordEquality_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordEquality-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One difficulty with this demand, when understood in a wide sense, is that there are many sources of <a href="/wiki/Educational_inequality" title="Educational inequality">educational inequality</a> and it is not always in the best interest to eliminate all of them. For example, parents who are concerned with their young children's education may read them bedtime stories early on and thereby provide them with a certain advantage over other children who do not enjoy this privilege. But disallowing such practices to level the field would have serious negative side-effects.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordEquality_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordEquality-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A weaker position on this issue does not demand full equality but holds instead that educational policies should ensure that certain factors, like <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Native language">native language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Disabilities">disabilities</a>, do not pose obstacles to the equality of opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A closely related topic is whether all students, both high and low performers, should be treated equally. According to some, more resources should be dedicated to low performers, to help them get to an average level, while others recommend a preferential treatment for high performers in order to help them fully develop their exceptional abilities and thereby benefit society at large.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar problem is the issue of specialization. It concerns the question of whether all students should follow the same curriculum or to what extent they should specialize early on in specific fields according to their interests and skills.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> critiques of the school systems in <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> societies often focus on the inequality they cause by sorting students for different economic positions. While overtly this process happens based on individual effort and desert, they argue that this just masks and reinforces the underlying influence of the preexisting <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class structure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cole2019_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole2019-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hickox1982_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickox1982-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is sometimes integrated into a wider Marxist perspective on society which holds that education in capitalist societies plays the role of upholding this inequality and thereby reproduces the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">capitalist relations of production</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickox1982_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickox1982-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cole2019_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole2019-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other criticisms of the dominant paradigms in education are often voiced by <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> and postmodern theorists.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They usually point to alleged biases and forms of discrimination present in current practices that should be eliminated. Feminists often hold that traditional education is overly man-oriented and thereby oppresses women in some form.<sup id="cite_ref-Noddings2009_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noddings2009-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bias was present to severe degrees in earlier forms of education and a lot of progress has been made towards more <a href="/wiki/Gender-equal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-equal">gender-equal</a> forms of education. Nonetheless, feminists often contend that certain problems still persist in contemporary education. Some argue, for example, that this manifests itself in the prominence given to cognitive development in education, which is said to be associated primarily with <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a> in contrast to a more <a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">feminine</a> approach based on emotion and intuition.<sup id="cite_ref-Noddings2009_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noddings2009-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related criticism holds that there is an overemphasis on abilities belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a>, in contrast to equally important characteristics belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">private sphere</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophy of education is also interested in the <i>epistemology of education</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This term is often used to talk about the epistemic aims of education, i.e. questions like whether educators should aim at transmitting justified true beliefs rather than merely true beliefs or should additionally foster other epistemic virtues like critical thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacmillanEducationEpistemological_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacmillanEducationEpistemological-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robertson2009_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robertson2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a different sense, the epistemology of education concerns the issue of how we arrive at knowledge on educational matters. This is especially relevant in the field of educational research, which is an active field of investigation with many studies being published on a regular basis. It is also quite influential in regard to educational policy and practice. Epistemological questions in this field concern the objectivity of its insights.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important methodological divide in this area, often referred to as the "paradigm wars", is between the <i>quantitative</i> or <i>statistical approach</i> in contrast to the <i>qualitative</i> or <i>ethnographical approach</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pivovarova2020_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pivovarova2020-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Galvez2019_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galvez2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gage1989_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gage1989-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quantitative approach usually focuses on wide <a href="/wiki/Experimental_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental studies">experimental studies</a> and employs <a href="/wiki/Statistical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical method">statistical methods</a> to uncover the general causal factors responsible for educational phenomena. It has been criticized based on the claim that its method, which is inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, is inappropriate for understanding the complex cultural and motivational patterns investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>. The qualitative approach, on the other hand, gives more weight to particular case studies for reaching its conclusions. Its opponents hold that this approach lacks the methodological rigor to arrive at well-warranted knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pivovarova2020_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pivovarova2020-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Galvez2019_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galvez2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gage1989_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gage1989-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>mixed-method research</i> is a recent contemporary approach in which the methods of both camps are combined. The question of the most promising approach is relevant to how funding budgets are spent on research, which in its turn has important implications for policymaking.<sup id="cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One question concerns how the learners are to be conceptualized. <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> sees the mind as a blank slate or a <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a> that passively absorbs information and is filled with contents through <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>. This view contrasts with a more <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatist</a> perspective, which in its emphasis on practice sees students not as passive absorbers but as active learners that should be encouraged to discover and learn things by themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another disputed topic is the role of <a href="/wiki/Test_(assessment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Test (assessment)">testing</a> in public education. Some theorists have argued that it is counterproductive since it puts undue pressure on the students.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But testing also plays various critical roles, such as providing feedback on the learning progress both to the student, their parents, and their teachers. Concrete discussions on the role of testing often focus less on whether it should be done at all and more on how much importance should be ascribed to the test results.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also includes questions about the form of testing, for example, whether it should be <a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">standardized</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beuchert_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beuchert-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Standardized tests present the same questions and scoring system to all students taking the test and are often motivated by a desire for objective and fair evaluations both of students and schools. Opponents have argued that this approach tends to favor certain social groups over others and severely limits the creativity and effectiveness of teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knoester2017_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knoester2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_movements">Philosophical movements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Philosophical movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Existentialist">Existentialist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Existentialist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The existentialist sees the world as one's personal subjectivity, where goodness, truth, and reality are individually defined. Reality is a world of existing, truth subjectively chosen, and goodness a matter of freedom. The subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for self-direction and self-actualization. They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perennialism">Perennialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Perennialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Educational_perennialism" title="Educational perennialism">Educational perennialism</a></div> <p>Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics. The focus is primarily on teaching reasoning and wisdom rather than facts, the liberal arts rather than vocational training. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_education">Classical education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Classical education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classical education movement</a></div> <p>The Classical education movement advocates a form of education based in the traditions of Western culture, with a particular focus on education as understood and taught in the Middle Ages. The term "classical education" has been used in English for several centuries, with each era modifying the definition and adding its own selection of topics. By the end of the 18th century, in addition to the trivium and quadrivium of the Middle Ages, the definition of a classical education embraced study of literature, poetry, drama, philosophy, history, art, and languages. In the 20th and 21st centuries it is used to refer to a broad-based study of the liberal arts and sciences, as opposed to a practical or pre-professional program. Classical Education can be described as rigorous and systematic, separating children and their learning into three rigid categories, Grammar, Dialectic, and Rhetoric. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essentialism">Essentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Essentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></div> <p>According to educational essentialism, there are certain essential facts about the world that every student needs to learn and master. It is a form of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_education" title="Traditional education">traditional education</a> that relies on long-standing and established subjects and teaching methods. Essentialists usually focus on subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, and science, usually starting with very basic skills while progressively increasing complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pugach2009_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pugach2009-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They prefer a teacher-centered approach, meaning that the teacher acts as the authority figure guiding the learning activity while students are expected to follow their lead.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pugach2009_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pugach2009-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_reconstructionism_and_critical_pedagogy">Social reconstructionism and critical pedagogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Social reconstructionism and critical pedagogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">Critical pedagogy</a></div> <p>Critical pedagogy is an "educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students develop <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action." Based in <a href="/wiki/Marxist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist theory">Marxist theory</a>, critical pedagogy draws on <a href="/wiki/Radical_democracy" title="Radical democracy">radical democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, and other movements for <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democratic_education">Democratic education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Democratic education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic education</a></div> <p>Democratic education is a theory of learning and school governance in which students and staff participate freely and equally in a school democracy. In a democratic school, there is typically shared decision-making among students and staff on matters concerning living, working, and learning together. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Progressivism">Progressivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Progressivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Educational_progressivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational progressivism">Educational progressivism</a></div> <p>Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on the principle that humans are <a href="/wiki/Social_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Social animals">social animals</a> who learn best in real-life activities with other people. <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivists</a>, like proponents of most educational theories, claim to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning. Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey's model of learning known as "the pattern of inquiry":<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1) Become aware of the problem. 2) Define the problem. 3) Propose hypotheses to solve it. 4) Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience. 5) Test the likeliest solution.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VPsXv7PhC5YC&dq=educational+progressivism&pg=PA59">[1]</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unschooling">Unschooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Unschooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unschooling" title="Unschooling">Unschooling</a></div> <p>Unschooling is a range of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">educational</a> philosophies and practices centered on allowing <a href="/wiki/Child" title="Child">children</a> to <a href="/wiki/Learn" class="mw-redirect" title="Learn">learn</a> through their natural life experiences, including child directed <a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">play</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game" title="Game">game</a> play, <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">household</a> responsibilities, work experience, and <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interaction</a>, rather than through a more traditional school curriculum. Unschooling encourages exploration of activities led by the children themselves, facilitated by the adults. Unschooling differs from conventional schooling principally in the thesis that standard <a href="/wiki/Curricula" class="mw-redirect" title="Curricula">curricula</a> and conventional <a href="/wiki/Grading_in_education" title="Grading in education">grading</a> methods, as well as other features of traditional schooling, are counterproductive to the goal of maximizing the education of each child. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemplative_education">Contemplative education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Contemplative education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative education</a> focuses on bringing introspective practices such as mindfulness and yoga into curricular and pedagogical processes for diverse aims grounded in secular, spiritual, religious and post-secular perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemplative approaches may be used in the classroom, especially in tertiary or (often in modified form) in secondary education. <a href="/wiki/Parker_Palmer" title="Parker Palmer">Parker Palmer</a> is a recent pioneer in contemplative methods. <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Center_for_Contemplative_Mind_in_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society (page does not exist)">The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society</a> founded a branch focusing on education, <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Association_for_Contemplative_Mind_in_Higher_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education (page does not exist)">The Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education</a>. </p><p>Contemplative methods may also be used by teachers in their preparation; <a href="/wiki/Waldorf_education" title="Waldorf education">Waldorf education</a> was one of the pioneers of the latter approach. In this case, inspiration for enriching the content, format, or teaching methods may be sought through various practices, such as consciously reviewing the previous day's activities; actively holding the students in consciousness; and contemplating inspiring pedagogical texts. Zigler suggested that only through focusing on their own spiritual development could teachers positively impact the spiritual development of students.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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.mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">spinning off</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Handling_trivia#Recommendations_for_handling_trivia" title="Wikipedia:Handling trivia">relocating</a> any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plato">Plato</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Plato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg/220px-Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg/330px-Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg/440px-Platon_altes_Museum2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1441" data-file-height="1797" /></a><figcaption>Inscribed <a href="/wiki/Herma" class="mw-redirect" title="Herma">herma</a> of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altes_Museum" title="Altes Museum">Altes Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s educational philosophy was grounded in a vision of an ideal <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> wherein the <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a> was best served by being subordinated to a just society due to a shift in emphasis that departed from his predecessors. The mind and body were to be considered separate entities. In the dialogues of <a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a>, written in his "middle period" (360 BCE), Plato expressed his distinctive views about the nature of knowledge, reality, and the soul:</p><blockquote><p>When the soul and body are united, then nature orders the soul to rule and govern, and the body to obey and serve. Now which of these two functions is akin to the divine? and which to the mortal? Does not the divine appear ... to be that which naturally orders and rules, and the mortal to be that which is subject and servant?<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>On this premise, Plato advocated removing children from their mothers' care and raising them as <a href="/wiki/Wards_of_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Wards of the state">wards of the state</a>, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be <a href="/wiki/Holistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistic">holistic</a>, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form of endeavor. </p><p>Plato believed that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born in any <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>. He built on this by insisting that those suitably <a href="/wiki/Gifted" class="mw-redirect" title="Gifted">gifted</a> were to be trained by the state so that they might be qualified to assume the role of a <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling class</a>. What this established was essentially a system of selective <a href="/wiki/Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">public education</a> premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population were, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy governance. </p><p>Plato's writings contain some of the following ideas: Elementary education would be confined to the guardian class till the age of 18, followed by two years of <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_military_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsory military training">compulsory military training</a> and then by <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> for those who qualified. While elementary education made the soul responsive to the environment, higher education helped the soul to search for truth which illuminated it. Both boys and girls receive the same kind of education. Elementary education consisted of music and gymnastics, designed to train and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the individual and create a harmonious person.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the age of 20, a selection was made. The best students would take an advanced course in <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and harmonics. The first course in the scheme of higher education would last for ten years. It would be for those who had a flair for science. At the age of 30 there would be another selection; those who qualified would study dialectics and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> for the next five years. After accepting junior positions in the army for 15 years, a man would have completed his theoretical and practical education by the age of 50. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg/220px-Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg/330px-Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg/440px-Busto_di_Aristotele_conservato_a_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma._Foto_di_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by <a href="/wiki/Lysippos" title="Lysippos">Lysippos</a> from 330 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>Only fragments of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s treatise <i>On Education</i> are still in existence. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature, <a href="/wiki/Habit_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habit (psychology)">habit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-arist.htm">[2]</a> Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> was dealing with adults). </p><p>Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play. </p><p>One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to produce good and <a href="/wiki/Virtuous" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtuous">virtuous</a> citizens for the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a>. <i>All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">empires</a> depends on the education of youth.</i><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Medieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ibn_Sina">Ibn Sina</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Ibn Sina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, an elementary <a href="/wiki/School" title="School">school</a> was known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">maktab</a></i>, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">madrasahs</a> (which referred to higher education), a maktab was often attached to a <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</a>. In the 11th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a> (known as <i>Avicenna</i> in the West), wrote a chapter dealing with the <i>maktab</i> entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at <i>maktab</i> schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in <a href="/wiki/Class_(education)" title="Class (education)">classes</a> instead of individual tuition from private <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutors</a>, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emulation_(observational_learning)" title="Emulation (observational learning)">emulation</a> among pupils as well as the usefulness of group <a href="/wiki/Discussion" class="mw-redirect" title="Discussion">discussions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">debates</a>. Ibn Sina described the <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a> of a <i>maktab</i> school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a <i>maktab</i> school.<sup id="cite_ref-Asimov_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a <i>maktab</i> school from the age of 6 and be taught <a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary education</a> until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Islamic metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a>, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).<sup id="cite_ref-Asimov_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asimov-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ibn Sina refers to the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary education</a> stage of <i>maktab</i> schooling as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economics in the world">trade and commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in medieval Islam">craftsmanship</a>, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future <a href="/wiki/Career" title="Career">career</a>. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> theory of '<a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>' was also developed by Ibn Sina. He argued that the "human <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intellect</a> at birth is rather like a <i>tabula rasa</i>, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "<a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "<a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogistic</a> method of <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a>; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts." He further argued that the intellect itself "possesses levels of development from the material intellect (<i>al-‘aql al-hayulani</i>), that potentiality that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (<i>al-‘aql al-fa‘il</i>), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ibn_Tufail">Ibn Tufail</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ibn Tufail"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 12th century, the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Arabian philosopher</a> and novelist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a> (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) demonstrated the <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> theory of '<a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>' as a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> through his <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic philosophical novel</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqzan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hayy ibn Yaqzan">Hayy ibn Yaqzan</a></i>, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a <a href="/wiki/Feral_child" title="Feral child">feral child</a> "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a <a href="/wiki/Desert_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert island">desert island</a>, through <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> alone. Some scholars have argued that the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> translation of his <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical novel">philosophical novel</a>, <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>, published by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Pococke" title="Edward Pococke">Edward Pococke</a> the Younger in 1671, had an influence on <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s formulation of tabula rasa in "<a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Michel_de_Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Michel de Montaigne"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Child education was among the psychological topics that <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a> wrote about.<sup id="cite_ref-King_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His essays <i>On the Education of Children</i>, <i>On Pedantry</i>, and <i>On Experience</i> explain the views he had on child education.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 61">: 61 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 62">: 62 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> Some of his views on child education are still relevant today.<sup id="cite_ref-Ediger_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ediger-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Montaigne's views on the education of children were opposed to the common educational practices of his day.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 63">: 63 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup> He found fault both with what was taught and how it was taught.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 62">: 62 </span></sup> Much of the education during Montaigne's time was focused on the reading of the classics and learning through books.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup>Montaigne disagreed with learning strictly through books. He believed it was necessary to educate children in a variety of ways. He also disagreed with the way information was being presented to students. It was being presented in a way that encouraged students to take the information that was taught to them as absolute truth. Students were denied the chance to question the information. Therefore, students could not truly learn. Montaigne believed that, to learn truly, a student had to take the information and make it their own. </p><p>At the foundation Montaigne believed that the selection of a good tutor was important for the student to become well educated.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66">: 66 </span></sup> Education by a tutor was to be conducted at the pace of the student.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup>He believed that a tutor should be in dialogue with the student, letting the student speak first. The tutor also should allow for discussions and debates to be had. Such a dialogue was intended to create an environment in which students would teach themselves. They would be able to realize their mistakes and make corrections to them as necessary. </p><p>Individualized learning was integral to his theory of child education. He argued that the student combines information already known with what is learned and forms a unique perspective on the newly learned information.<sup id="cite_ref-Worley_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worley-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 356">: 356 </span></sup> Montaigne also thought that tutors should encourage the natural curiosity of students and allow them to question things.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup>He postulated that successful students were those who were encouraged to question new information and study it for themselves, rather than simply accepting what they had heard from the authorities on any given topic. Montaigne believed that a child's curiosity could serve as an important teaching tool when the child is allowed to explore the things that the child is curious about. </p><p>Experience also was a key element to learning for Montaigne. Tutors needed to teach students through experience rather than through the mere memorization of information often practised in book learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 62">: 62 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup>He argued that students would become passive adults, blindly obeying and lacking the ability to think on their own.<sup id="cite_ref-Worley_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worley-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 354">: 354 </span></sup> Nothing of importance would be retained and no abilities would be learned.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall1997_79-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1997-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 62">: 62 </span></sup> He believed that learning through experience was superior to learning through the use of books.<sup id="cite_ref-Ediger_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ediger-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason he encouraged tutors to educate their students through practice, travel, and human interaction. In doing so, he argued that students would become active learners, who could claim knowledge for themselves. </p><p>Montaigne's views on child education continue to have an influence in the present. Variations of Montaigne's ideas on education are incorporated into modern learning in some ways. He argued against the popular way of teaching in his day, encouraging individualized learning. He believed in the importance of experience, over book learning and memorization. Ultimately, Montaigne postulated that the point of education was to teach a student how to have a successful life by practicing an active and socially interactive lifestyle.<sup id="cite_ref-Worley_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worley-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 355">: 355 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Locke">John Locke</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: John Locke"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Some_Thoughts_Concerning_Education" title="Some Thoughts Concerning Education">Some Thoughts Concerning Education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Of_the_Conduct_of_the_Understanding" title="Of the Conduct of the Understanding">Of the Conduct of the Understanding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Essay_concerning_Human_Understanding" class="mw-redirect" title="Essay concerning Human Understanding">Essay concerning Human Understanding</a></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Some_Thoughts_Concerning_Education" title="Some Thoughts Concerning Education">Some Thoughts Concerning Education</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Of_the_Conduct_of_the_Understanding" title="Of the Conduct of the Understanding">Of the Conduct of the Understanding</a></i> <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> composed an outline on how to educate this mind in order to increase its powers and activity: </p> <blockquote><p>"The business of education is not, as I think, to make them perfect in any one of the sciences, but so to open and dispose their minds as may best make them capable of any, when they shall apply themselves to it."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>"If men are for a long time accustomed only to one sort or method of thoughts, their minds grow stiff in it, and do not readily turn to another. It is therefore to give them this freedom, that I think they should be made to look into all sorts of knowledge, and exercise their understandings in so wide a variety and stock of knowledge. But I do not propose it as a variety and stock of knowledge, but a variety and freedom of thinking, as an increase of the powers and activity of the mind, not as an enlargement of its possessions."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Locke expressed the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that the "<a href="/wiki/Association_of_Ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of Ideas">associations of ideas</a>" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the <i>tabula rasa</i>. In his <i>Essay</i>, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly <a href="/wiki/Education_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Education theory">educational theory</a>, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and other new disciplines with <a href="/wiki/David_Hartley_(philosopher)" title="David Hartley (philosopher)">David Hartley</a>'s attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_Man" title="Observations on Man">Observations on Man</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/1749_in_literature" title="1749 in literature">1749</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/220px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/330px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/440px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1448" data-file-height="2016" /></a><figcaption>Jean-Jacques Rousseau by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour" title="Maurice Quentin de La Tour">Maurice Quentin de La Tour</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the decayed state of society.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke's '<a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>' in that it was an active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings. </p><p>Rousseau wrote in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Emile:_Or,_On_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile: Or, On Education">Emile</a></i> that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him through changes to his environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome. </p><p>Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation for teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion: "I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own. </p><p>He once said that a child should grow up without adult interference and that the child must be guided to suffer from the experience of the natural consequences of his own acts or behaviour. When he experiences the consequences of his own acts, he advises himself. </p><p>"Rousseau divides development into five stages (a book is devoted to each). Education in the first two stages seeks to the senses: only when Émile is about 12 does the tutor begin to work to develop his mind. Later, in Book 5, Rousseau examines the education of Sophie (whom Émile is to marry).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here he sets out what he sees as the essential differences that flow from sex. 'The man should be strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive' (Everyman edn: 322). From this difference comes a contrasting education. They are not to be brought up in ignorance and kept to housework: Nature means them to think, to will, to love to cultivate their minds as well as their persons; she puts these weapons in their hands to make up for their lack of strength and to enable them to direct the strength of men. They should learn many things, but only such things as suitable' (Everyman edn.: 327)." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rous.htmIn">Émile</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Immanuel Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> believed that education differs from training in that the former involves thinking whereas the latter does not. In addition to educating reason, of central importance to him was the development of character and teaching of moral maxims. Kant was a proponent of public education and of learning by doing.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charlotte_Mason">Charlotte Mason</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Charlotte Mason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Mason" title="Charlotte Mason">Charlotte Mason</a> was a British educator who invested her life in improving the quality of children's education. Her ideas led to a method used by some homeschoolers. Mason's philosophy of education is probably best summarized by the principles given at the beginning of each of her books. Two key mottos taken from those principles are "Education is an atmosphere, a discipline, a life" and "Education is the science of relations." She believed that children were born persons and should be respected as such; they should also be taught the Way of the Will and the Way of Reason. Her motto for students was "I am, I can, I ought, I will." Charlotte Mason believed that children should be introduced to subjects through living books, not through the use of "compendiums, abstracts, or selections." She used abridged books only when the content was deemed inappropriate for children. She preferred that parents or teachers read aloud those texts (such as Plutarch and the Old Testament), making omissions only where necessary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_and_21st_century">20th and 21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rudolf_Steiner_(Waldorf_education)"><span id="Rudolf_Steiner_.28Waldorf_education.29"></span>Rudolf Steiner (Waldorf education)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Rudolf Steiner (Waldorf education)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg/220px-Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg/330px-Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg/440px-Rudolf_Steiner._.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Rudolf Steiner</figcaption></figure> <p>Waldorf education (also known as Steiner or Steiner-Waldorf education) is a humanistic approach to pedagogy based upon the educational philosophy of the Austrian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">anthroposophy</a>. Now known as <a href="/wiki/Waldorf_education" title="Waldorf education">Waldorf or Steiner education</a>, his pedagogy emphasizes a balanced development of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affective" class="mw-redirect" title="Affective">affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Artistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic">artistic</a>, and practical skills (head, heart, and hands). Schools are normally self-administered by faculty; emphasis is placed upon giving individual teachers the freedom to develop creative methods. </p><p>Steiner's theory of child development divides education into three discrete developmental stages predating but with close similarities to the stages of development described by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a>. Early childhood education occurs through imitation; teachers provide practical activities and a healthy environment. Steiner believed that young children should meet only goodness. Elementary education is strongly arts-based, centered on the teacher's creative authority; the elementary school-age child should meet beauty. Secondary education seeks to develop the judgment, intellect, and practical idealism; the adolescent should meet truth. </p><p>Learning is interdisciplinary, integrating practical, artistic, and conceptual elements. The approach emphasizes the role of the imagination in learning, developing thinking that includes a creative as well as an analytic component. The educational philosophy's overarching goals are to provide young people the basis on which to develop into free, morally responsible and integrated individuals, and to help every child fulfill his or her unique destiny, the existence of which anthroposophy posits. Schools and teachers are given considerable freedom to define curricula within collegial structures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Dewey">John Dewey</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: John Dewey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg/220px-John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg/330px-John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg/440px-John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1001" data-file-height="1309" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> in 1902</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_Education" title="Democracy and Education">Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> stated that education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the "social continuity of life" given the "primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group". Education is therefore a necessity, for "the life of the group goes on."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dewey was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Educational_Progressivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational Progressivism">Educational Progressivism</a> and was a relentless campaigner for reform of education, pointing out that the <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a>, strict, pre-ordained knowledge approach of modern traditional education was too concerned with delivering knowledge, and not enough with understanding students' actual experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1896, Dewey opened the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago in an institutional effort to pursue together rather than apart "utility and culture, absorption and expression, theory and practice, [which] are [indispensable] elements in any educational scheme.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the unified head of the departments of Philosophy, Psychology and Pedagogy, John Dewey articulated a desire to organize an educational experience where children could be more creative than the best of progressive models of his day.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a> as a pragmatic philosophy grew out of the work he did in the Laboratory School. The two most influential works that stemmed from his research and study were <i>The Child and the Curriculum</i> (1902) and <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_Education" title="Democracy and Education">Democracy and Education</a></i> (1916).<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dewey wrote of the dualisms that plagued educational philosophy in the latter book: "Instead of seeing the educative process steadily and as a whole, we see conflicting terms. We get the case of the child vs. the curriculum; of the individual nature vs. social culture."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dewey found that the preoccupation with facts as knowledge in the educative process led students to memorize "ill-understood rules and principles" and while second-hand knowledge learned in mere words is a beginning in study, mere words can never replace the ability to organize knowledge into both useful and valuable experience.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maria_Montessori">Maria Montessori</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Maria Montessori"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg/220px-Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg/330px-Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg/440px-Maria_Montessori_%26_Samuel_Sidney_McClure_1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Maria Montessori</a> and <a href="/wiki/S._S._McClure" title="S. S. McClure">Samuel Sidney McClure</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Montessori method arose from Dr. <a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Maria Montessori</a>'s discovery of what she referred to as "the child's true normal nature" in 1907,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which happened in the process of her experimental observation of young children given freedom in an environment prepared with materials designed for their self-directed learning activity.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The method itself aims to duplicate this experimental observation of children to bring about, sustain and support their true natural way of being.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="William_Heard_Kilpatrick">William Heard Kilpatrick</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: William Heard Kilpatrick"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Heard_Kilpatrick" title="William Heard Kilpatrick">William Heard Kilpatrick</a> was a <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US American</a> philosopher of education and a colleague and a successor of <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. He was a major figure in the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">progressive education</a> movement of the early 20th century. Kilpatrick developed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Project_Method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Project Method (page does not exist)">Project Method</a> for early childhood education, which was a form of <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Education">Progressive Education</a> organized curriculum and classroom activities around a subject's central theme. He believed that the role of a teacher should be that of a "guide" as opposed to an authoritarian figure. Kilpatrick believed that children should direct their own learning according to their interests and should be allowed to explore their environment, experiencing their learning through the natural senses.<sup id="cite_ref-Gutek1_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gutek1-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of Progressive Education and the Project Method reject traditional schooling that focuses on memorization, rote learning, strictly organized classrooms (desks in rows; students always seated), and typical forms of assessment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="William_Chandler_Bagley">William Chandler Bagley</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: William Chandler Bagley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Chandler_Bagley" class="mw-redirect" title="William Chandler Bagley">William Chandler Bagley</a> taught in elementary schools before becoming a professor of education at the University of Illinois, where he served as the Director of the School of Education from 1908 until 1917. He was a professor of education at Teachers College, Columbia, from 1917 to 1940. An opponent of pragmatism and progressive education, Bagley insisted on the value of knowledge for its own sake, not merely as an instrument, and he criticized his colleagues for their failure to emphasize systematic study of academic subjects. Bagley was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">educational essentialism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="A._S._Neill">A. S. Neill</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: A. S. Neill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/A._S._Neill" title="A. S. Neill">A. S. Neill</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Summerhill_School" title="Summerhill School">Summerhill School</a>, the oldest existing <a href="/wiki/Democratic_school" title="Democratic school">democratic school</a> in Suffolk, England, in 1921. He wrote a number of books that now define much of contemporary democratic education philosophy. Neill believed that the happiness of the child should be the paramount consideration in decisions about the child's upbringing, and that this happiness grew from a sense of personal freedom. He felt that deprivation of this sense of freedom during childhood, and the consequent unhappiness experienced by the repressed child, was responsible for many of the psychological disorders of adulthood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Martin_Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Martin Heidegger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>'s philosophizing about education was primarily related to higher education. He believed that teaching and research in the university should be unified and that students should be taught "to focus on and explicitly investigate the ontological presuppositions which implicitly guide research in each domain of knowledge,” an approach he believed would "encourage revolutionary transformation in the sciences and humanities."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jean_Piaget">Jean Piaget</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Jean Piaget"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental psychologist">developmental psychologist</a> known for his <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemological</a> studies with children. His <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of cognitive development">theory of cognitive development</a> and epistemological view are together called "<a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">genetic epistemology</a>". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piaget created the International Centre for Genetic <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to <a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a>, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">constructivist theory of knowing</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jean Piaget described himself as an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologist</a>, interested in the process of the qualitative development of knowledge. As he says in the introduction of his book <i>Genetic Epistemology</i> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00596-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00596-7">978-0-393-00596-7</a>): "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mortimer_Jerome_Adler">Mortimer Jerome Adler</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Mortimer Jerome Adler"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Jerome_Adler" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer Jerome Adler">Mortimer Jerome Adler</a> was an <a href="/wiki/American_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="American philosopher">American philosopher</a>, educator, and popular author. As a philosopher he worked within the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomistic">Thomistic</a> traditions. He lived for the longest stretches in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/San_Mateo,_California" title="San Mateo, California">San Mateo, California</a>. He worked for <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, and Adler's own Institute for Philosophical Research. Adler was married twice and had four children.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Obit_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Obit-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adler was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Educational_perennialism" title="Educational perennialism">educational perennialism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Harry_S._Broudy">Harry S. Broudy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Harry S. Broudy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Harry_Broudy" title="Harry Broudy">Harry S. Broudy</a>'s philosophical views were based on the tradition of classical realism, dealing with truth, goodness, and beauty. However he was also influenced by the modern philosophy existentialism and instrumentalism. In his textbook Building a Philosophy of Education he has two major ideas that are the main points to his philosophical outlook: The first is truth and the second is universal structures to be found in humanity's struggle for education and the good life. Broudy also studied issues on society's demands on school. He thought education would be a link to unify the diverse society and urged the society to put more trust and a commitment to the schools and a good education. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jerome_Bruner">Jerome Bruner</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Jerome Bruner"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a>. His books <i>The Process of Education</i> and <i>Toward a Theory of Instruction</i> are landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Spiral" title="Spiral">spiral</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a>) curriculum which posited the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student had grasped the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulus for learning rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Discovery_learning" title="Discovery learning">discovery learning</a> which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on what they already know. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paulo_Freire">Paulo Freire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Paulo Freire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg/220px-Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg/330px-Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg/440px-Paulo_Freire_1977.jpg 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="833" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A Brazilian philosopher and educator committed to the cause of educating the impoverished peasants of his nation and <a href="/wiki/Collaboration" title="Collaboration">collaborating</a> with them in the pursuit of their liberation from what he regarded as "oppression", <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a> is best known for his attack on what he called the "banking concept of education", in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Freire also suggests that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student; he comes close to suggesting that the teacher-student dichotomy be completely abolished, instead promoting the roles of the participants in the classroom as the teacher-student (a teacher who learns) and the student-teacher (a learner who teaches). In its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been criticized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (July 2012)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority. </p><p>Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been highly influential in academic debates over "participatory development" and development more generally. Freire's emphasis on what he describes as "emancipation" through interactive participation has been used as a rationale for the participatory focus of development, as it is held that 'participation' in any form can lead to empowerment of poor or marginalised groups. Freire was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">critical pedagogy</a>. "He participated in the import of European doctrines and ideas into Brazil, assimilated them to the needs of a specific socio-economic situation, and thus expanded and refocused them in a thought-provoking way"<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/ThinkersPdf/freiree.PDF">[3]</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Holt">John Holt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: John Holt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1964 <a href="/wiki/John_Holt_(educator)" title="John Holt (educator)">John Holt</a> published his first book, <i><a href="/wiki/How_Children_Fail" title="How Children Fail">How Children Fail</a></i>, asserting that the academic failure of schoolchildren was not <i>despite</i> the efforts of the schools, but actually <i>because</i> of the schools. <i>How Children Fail</i> ignited a firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk shows, wrote book reviews for <i>Life</i> magazine, and was a guest on the <i>To Tell The Truth</i> TV game show.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his follow-up work, <i><a href="/wiki/How_Children_Learn" title="How Children Learn">How Children Learn</a></i>, published in 1967, Holt tried to elucidate the learning process of children and why he believed school short circuits that process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nel_Noddings">Nel Noddings</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Nel Noddings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nel_Noddings" title="Nel Noddings">Nel Noddings</a>' first sole-authored book <i>Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education</i> (1984) followed close on the 1982 publication of <a href="/wiki/Carol_Gilligan" title="Carol Gilligan">Carol Gilligan</a>'s ground-breaking work in the ethics of care <i><a href="/wiki/In_a_Different_Voice" title="In a Different Voice">In a Different Voice</a></i>. While her work on ethics continued, with the publication of <i>Women and Evil</i> (1989) and later works on moral education, most of her later publications have been on the philosophy of education and <a href="/wiki/Educational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational theory">educational theory</a>. Her most significant works in these areas have been <i>Educating for Intelligent Belief or Unbelief</i> (1993) and <i>Philosophy of Education</i> (1995). </p><p>Noddings' contribution to education philosophy centers around the <a href="/wiki/Ethic_of_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic of care">ethic of care</a>. Her belief was that a caring teacher-student relationship will result in the teacher designing a differentiated curriculum for each student, and that this curriculum would be based around the students' particular interests and needs. The teacher's claim to care must not be based on a one time virtuous decision but an ongoing interest in the students' welfare. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_organizations_and_associations">Professional organizations and associations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Professional organizations and associations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width:90%;"> <tbody><tr> <td>Organisation </td> <th>Nationality </th> <th>Comment </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Network_of_Philosophers_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Network of Philosophers of Education (page does not exist)">International Network of Philosophers of Education</a></td> <td>Worldwide</td> <td>INPE sponsors an international conference every other year.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_Education_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of Education Society (page does not exist)">Philosophy of Education Society</a></td> <td>US</td> <td>PES is the national society for philosophy of education in the United States. This site provides information about PES, its services, history, and publications, and links to online resources relevant to the philosophy of education.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Education_Society_of_Great_Britain" title="Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain">Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain</a></td> <td>UK</td> <td>PESGB promotes the study, teaching and application of philosophy of education. It has an international membership. The site provides: a guide to the Society's activities and details about the Journal of Philosophy of Education and IMPACT.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Society_for_the_Philosophical_Study_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Society for the Philosophical Study of Education (page does not exist)">Society for the Philosophical Study of Education</a></td> <td>US</td> <td>This Society is a professional association of philosophers of education which holds annual meetings in the Midwest region of the United States and sponsors a discussion forum and a Graduate Student Competition. Affiliate of the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Association" title="American Philosophical Association">American Philosophical Association</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Dewey_Studies" title="Center for Dewey Studies">Center for Dewey Studies</a></td> <td>US, Southern Illinois University</td> <td>The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in 1961 as the "Dewey Project". </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Philosophy_of_Music_Education" title="International Society for Philosophy of Music Education">International Society for Philosophy of Music Education</a></td> <td>Unknown</td> <td>the International Society for the Philosophy of Music Education (ISPME) is founded on both educational and professional objectives: "devoted to the specific interests of philosophy of music education in elementary through secondary schools, colleges and universities, in private studios, places of worship, and all the other places and ways in which music is taught and learned."<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/The_Spencer_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="The Spencer Foundation">The Spencer Foundation</a></td> <td>US</td> <td>The Spencer Foundation provides funding for investigations that promise to yield new knowledge about education in the United States or abroad. The Foundation funds research grants that range in size from smaller grants that can be completed within a year, to larger, multi-year endeavours. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tc.columbia.edu/arts-and-humanities/philosophy/">"Philosophy and Education"</a>. <i>Teachers College - Columbia University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517135155/http://www.tc.columbia.edu/arts-and-humanities/philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-05-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Teachers+College+-+Columbia+University&rft.atitle=Philosophy+and+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tc.columbia.edu%2Farts-and-humanities%2Fphilosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170401043711/http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/humsocsci/courses/philosophy">"Philosophy of Education - Courses - NYU Steinhardt"</a>. <i>steinhardt.nyu.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/humsocsci/courses/philosophy">the original</a> on 2017-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=steinhardt.nyu.edu&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Education+-+Courses+-+NYU+Steinhardt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsteinhardt.nyu.edu%2Fhumsocsci%2Fcourses%2Fphilosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gse.harvard.edu/doctorate/doctor-philosophy-education">"Doctor of Philosophy in Education"</a>. <i>Harvard Graduate School of Education</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170420130222/http://www.gse.harvard.edu/doctorate/doctor-philosophy-education">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-04-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Graduate+School+of+Education&rft.atitle=Doctor+of+Philosophy+in+Education&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gse.harvard.edu%2Fdoctorate%2Fdoctor-philosophy-education&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NoddingsPOE-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NoddingsPOE_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NoddingsPOE_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoddings1995" class="citation book cs1">Noddings, Nel (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyofeduc00nodd/page/1"><i>Philosophy of Education</i></a>. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyofeduc00nodd/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-8429-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-8429-X"><bdi>0-8133-8429-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Education&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8133-8429-X&rft.aulast=Noddings&rft.aufirst=Nel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophyofeduc00nodd%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-StanfordPhilosophyOfEducation_5-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegelPhillipsCallan2018" class="citation web cs1">Siegel, Harvey; Phillips, D.C.; Callan, Eamonn (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/education-philosophy/">"Philosophy of Education"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328075115/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/education-philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Education&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft.au=Phillips%2C+D.C.&rft.au=Callan%2C+Eamonn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Feducation-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RoutledgeEducation-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RoutledgeEducation_6-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurren1996" class="citation book cs1">Curren, Randall (1996). "Education, philosophy of". In Craig, Edward (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO"><i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210116111145/https://philpapers.org/rec/BEAREO">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Education%2C+philosophy+of&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Curren&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBEAREO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OxfordHandbookIntro-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordHandbookIntro_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2009" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, Harvey (30 October 2009). "Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195312881-e-001"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319214557/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195312881-e-001">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Philosophy+of+Education+and+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.date=2009-10-30&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195312881.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780195312881-e-001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-46"><sup><i><b>au</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritannicaPhilosophyOfEducation_8-47"><sup><i><b>av</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel" class="citation web cs1">Siegel, Harvey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-education">"Philosophy of education"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220324024617/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-education">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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SAGE Publications Ltd. pp. 3–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781446200872">10.4135/9781446200872</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847874672" title="Special:BookSources/9781847874672"><bdi>9781847874672</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+What+is+Philosophy+of+Education%3F&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.pages=3-20&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781446200872&rft.isbn=9781847874672&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=D.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Fhdbk_philosophyeducation%2Fn1.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frankena-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frankena_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frankena_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frankena_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frankena_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frankena_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankenaBurbulesRaybeck" class="citation book cs1">Frankena, William; Burbules, Nicholas; Raybeck, Nathan. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Education&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Noddings&rft.aufirst=Nel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FPhilosophy-of-Education%2FNoddings%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780813349725&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hebert, David G. (2023). <i>Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education</i>. 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(2006). "Philosophy Of Education, Epistemological Issues In". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-education-epistemological-issues"><i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition</i></a>. Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531092733/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-education-epistemological-issues">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The Epistemic Aims of Education". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195312881-e-002"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211228183510/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195312881-e-002">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Epistemic+Aims+of+Education&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.date=2009-10-30&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195312881.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780195312881-e-002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siegel-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Siegel_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siegel_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2006" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, Harvey (2006). "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, EPISTEMOLOGICAL ISSUES IN". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-education-epistemological-issues"><i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition</i></a>. Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531092733/https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-education-epistemological-issues">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=PHILOSOPHY+OF+EDUCATION%2C+EPISTEMOLOGICAL+ISSUES+IN&rft.btitle=Macmillan+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%2C+2nd+Edition&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhumanities%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fphilosophy-education-epistemological-issues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ennis-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ennis_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnnis2015" class="citation book cs1">Ennis, Robert H. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137378057_2">"Critical Thinking: A Streamlined Conception"</a>. <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education</i>. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 31–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137378057_2">10.1057/9781137378057_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-37805-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-37805-7"><bdi>978-1-137-37805-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230212201906/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137378057_2">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Theory+and+Practice&rft.atitle=Political+Liberalism%2C+Civic+Education%2C+and+Educational+Choice&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-74&rft.date=2007&rft.issn=0037-802X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23558510%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fsoctheorpract200733135&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft.au=Neufeld%2C+Blain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23558510&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolby1997" class="citation journal cs1">Golby, Micheal (1 July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14681369700200010">"Communitarianism and education"</a>. <i>Curriculum Studies</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 125–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14681369700200010">10.1080/14681369700200010</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0965-9757">0965-9757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Curriculum+Studies&rft.atitle=Communitarianism+and+education&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=125-138&rft.date=1997-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14681369700200010&rft.issn=0965-9757&rft.aulast=Golby&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14681369700200010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allison-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allison_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allison_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones" class="citation web cs1">Jones, Allison. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5792416/ontario-new-sex-ed-curriculum/">"Ontario government releases new sex-ed curriculum, similar to scrapped version"</a>. <i>Global News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240322232715/https://globalnews.ca/news/5792416/ontario-new-sex-ed-curriculum/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+News&rft.atitle=Ontario+government+releases+new+sex-ed+curriculum%2C+similar+to+scrapped+version&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalnews.ca%2Fnews%2F5792416%2Fontario-new-sex-ed-curriculum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnes2019-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barnes2019_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barnes2019_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2019" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, L. Philip (5 December 2019). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EfvADwAAQBAJ"><i>Crisis, Controversy and the Future of Religious Education</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-73002-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-73002-9"><bdi>978-1-000-73002-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102231841/https://books.google.com/books?id=EfvADwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Crisis%2C+Controversy+and+the+Future+of+Religious+Education&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019-12-05&rft.isbn=978-1-000-73002-9&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=L.+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEfvADwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arragon2015-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arragon2015_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arragon2015_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArragonBeaman2015" class="citation book cs1">Arragon, Leo Van; Beaman, Lori G. (1 January 2015). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/9789004289819/B9789004289819-s002.xml"><i>Issues in Religion and Education</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28981-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28981-9"><bdi>978-90-04-28981-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220616032249/https://brill.com/view/book/9789004289819/B9789004289819-s002.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Metaphysics&rft.atitle=Knowledge+and+Virtue%3A+Paradox+in+Plato%27s+%22Meno%22&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=261-281&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20128314%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0034-6632&rft.aulast=Desjardins&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20128314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon" class="citation web cs1">Gordon, John-Stewart. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/modern-morality-ancient-ethics/">"Modern Morality and Ancient Ethics"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220325130203/https://iep.utm.edu/modern-morality-ancient-ethics/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Modern+Morality+and+Ancient+Ethics&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=John-Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fmodern-morality-ancient-ethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeybach2020" class="citation journal cs1">Heybach, Jessica A. (27 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-413">"Aesthetics and Education"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190264093.013.413">10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.413</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-026409-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-026409-3"><bdi>978-0-19-026409-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220930162756/https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-413">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Education&rft.atitle=Aesthetics+and+Education&rft.date=2020-08-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190264093.013.413&rft.isbn=978-0-19-026409-3&rft.aulast=Heybach&rft.aufirst=Jessica+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Feducation%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190264093.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190264093-e-413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1969" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Ralph A. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3331533">"The Relations of Philosophy of Education to Aesthetic Education"</a>. <i>Journal of Aesthetic Education</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 161–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3331533">10.2307/3331533</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8510">0021-8510</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3331533">3331533</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102183418/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3331533">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Aesthetic+Education&rft.atitle=The+Relations+of+Philosophy+of+Education+to+Aesthetic+Education&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-164&rft.date=1969&rft.issn=0021-8510&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3331533%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3331533&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3331533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgden1913" class="citation journal cs1">Ogden, Robert Morris (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037/h0072120">"The relation of psychology to philosophy and education"</a>. <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 179–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0072120">10.1037/h0072120</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-295X">0033-295X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531092737/https://psycnet.apa.org/api/request/browsePA.getJournals">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=The+relation+of+psychology+to+philosophy+and+education.&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=179-193&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0072120&rft.issn=0033-295X&rft.aulast=Ogden&rft.aufirst=Robert+Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1037%2Fh0072120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnestSkovsmosevan_BendegemBicudo2016" class="citation book cs1">Ernest, Paul; Skovsmose, Ole; van Bendegem, Jean Paul; Bicudo, Maria; Miarka, Roger; Kvasz, Ladislav; Moeller, Regina (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-40569-8_1"><i>The Philosophy of Mathematics Education</i></a>. ICME-13 Topical Surveys. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-40569-8_1">10.1007/978-3-319-40569-8_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-40569-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-40569-8"><bdi>978-3-319-40569-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231209174341/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-40569-8_1">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-12-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Mathematics+Education&rft.series=ICME-13+Topical+Surveys&rft.pages=1-26&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-40569-8_1&rft.isbn=978-3-319-40569-8&rft.aulast=Ernest&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Skovsmose%2C+Ole&rft.au=van+Bendegem%2C+Jean+Paul&rft.au=Bicudo%2C+Maria&rft.au=Miarka%2C+Roger&rft.au=Kvasz%2C+Ladislav&rft.au=Moeller%2C+Regina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-40569-8_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moss2012-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moss2012_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moss2012_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoss2012" class="citation book cs1">Moss, Peter (27 November 2012). "1. The relationshipt between early childhood and compulsory education". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-kYg1Uyxm1UC"><i>Early Childhood and Compulsory Education: Reconceptualising the relationship</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-16933-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-16933-5"><bdi>978-1-136-16933-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102183412/https://books.google.com/books?id=-kYg1Uyxm1UC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+The+relationshipt+between+early+childhood+and+compulsory+education&rft.btitle=Early+Childhood+and+Compulsory+Education%3A+Reconceptualising+the+relationship&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-11-27&rft.isbn=978-1-136-16933-5&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-kYg1Uyxm1UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickerson2019" class="citation book cs1">Dickerson, Adam (17 May 2019). "1. Only the Experts Shall Speak or Be Heard". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FQiZDwAAQBAJ"><i>John Holt: The Philosophy of Unschooling</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-18726-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-18726-2"><bdi>978-3-030-18726-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Only+the+Experts+Shall+Speak+or+Be+Heard&rft.btitle=John+Holt%3A+The+Philosophy+of+Unschooling&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019-05-17&rft.isbn=978-3-030-18726-2&rft.aulast=Dickerson&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFQiZDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith2010" class="citation book cs1">Griffith, Mary (5 May 2010). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qVFmz38KA8cC"><i>The Unschooling Handbook: How to Use the Whole World As Your Child's Classroom</i></a>. Crown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-48970-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-48970-8"><bdi>978-0-307-48970-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102183412/https://books.google.com/books?id=qVFmz38KA8cC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Unschooling+Handbook%3A+How+to+Use+the+Whole+World+As+Your+Child%27s+Classroom&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=2010-05-05&rft.isbn=978-0-307-48970-8&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqVFmz38KA8cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beuchert-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beuchert_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beuchert_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeuchertEriksenKrægpøth2020" class="citation journal cs1">Beuchert, Louise; Eriksen, Tine Louise Mundbjerg; Krægpøth, Morten Visby (1 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272775719307642">"The impact of standardized test feedback in math: Exploiting a natural experiment in 3rd grade"</a>. <i>Economics of Education Review</i>. <b>77</b>: 102017. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.econedurev.2020.102017">10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.102017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0272-7757">0272-7757</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225349085">225349085</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102183806/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272775719307642">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economics+of+Education+Review&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+standardized+test+feedback+in+math%3A+Exploiting+a+natural+experiment+in+3rd+grade&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=102017&rft.date=2020-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225349085%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0272-7757&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.econedurev.2020.102017&rft.aulast=Beuchert&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft.au=Eriksen%2C+Tine+Louise+Mundbjerg&rft.au=Kr%C3%A6gp%C3%B8th%2C+Morten+Visby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0272775719307642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knoester2017-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knoester2017_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knoester2017_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnoesterAu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Knoester, Matthew; Au, Wayne (2 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13613324.2015.1121474">"Standardized testing and school segregation: like tinder for fire?"</a>. <i>Race Ethnicity and Education</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13613324.2015.1121474">10.1080/13613324.2015.1121474</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1361-3324">1361-3324</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146223396">146223396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Race+Ethnicity+and+Education&rft.atitle=Standardized+testing+and+school+segregation%3A+like+tinder+for+fire%3F&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=2017-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146223396%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1361-3324&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13613324.2015.1121474&rft.aulast=Knoester&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Au%2C+Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F13613324.2015.1121474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard1994" class="citation journal cs1">Leonard, Peter (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41669550">"KNOWLEDGE/POWER AND POSTMODERNISM: Implications for the Practice of a Critical Social Work Education"</a>. <i>Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 11–26. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0820-909X">0820-909X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41669550">41669550</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102183417/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41669550">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Social+Work+Review+%2F+Revue+canadienne+de+service+social&rft.atitle=KNOWLEDGE%2FPOWER+AND+POSTMODERNISM%3A+Implications+for+the+Practice+of+a+Critical+Social+Work+Education&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11-26&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41669550%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0820-909X&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41669550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRØMER2011" class="citation journal cs1">RØMER, THOMAS AASTRUP (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00566.x">"Postmodern Education and the Concept of Power"</a>. <i>Educational Philosophy and Theory</i>. <b>43</b> (7): 755–772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-5812.2009.00566.x">10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00566.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-1857">0013-1857</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219541268">219541268</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231102183412/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00566.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.philosophybasics.com&rft.atitle=Existentialism+-+By+Branch+%2F+Doctrine+-+The+Basics+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophybasics.com%2Fbranch_existentialism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahu2002" class="citation book cs1">Sahu, Bhagirathi (2002). <i>New Educational Philosophy</i>. 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Retrieved 6/12/07.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewey1904" class="citation journal cs1">Dewey, John (1904). "Significance of the School of Education". <i>The Elementary School Teacher</i>. <b>4</b> (7): 441–453. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F453348">10.1086/453348</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/992709">992709</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144078592">144078592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Elementary+School+Teacher&rft.atitle=Significance+of+the+School+of+Education&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=441-453&rft.date=1904&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144078592%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F992709%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F453348&rft.aulast=Dewey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/deweyschoolthela008095mbp/deweyschoolthela008095mbp_djvu.txt">"Full text of "The Dewey School The Laboratory School Of The University Of Chicago 1896-1903"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.archive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archive.org&rft.atitle=Full+text+of+%22The+Dewey+School+The+Laboratory+School+Of+The+University+Of+Chicago+1896-1903%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fdeweyschoolthela008095mbp%2Fdeweyschoolthela008095mbp_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2015" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Trevor J. (2015-11-22). Tibbels, Kirkland; Patterson, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Transactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook/dp/B018EOAAPI/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1450113935&sr=1-1&keywords=transactionalism"><i>Transactionalism: An Historical and Interpretive Study</i></a> (2 ed.). Influence Ecology. p. 166. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531092734/https://www.amazon.com/Transactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook/dp/B018EOAAPI/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1450113935&sr=1-1&keywords=transactionalism">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transactionalism%3A+An+Historical+and+Interpretive+Study&rft.pages=166&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Influence+Ecology&rft.date=2015-11-22&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Trevor+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FTransactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook%2Fdp%2FB018EOAAPI%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fs%3Dbooks%26ie%3DUTF8%26qid%3D1450113935%26sr%3D1-1%26keywords%3Dtransactionalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2015" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Trevor J. (2015-11-22). Tibbels, Kirkland; Patterson, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Transactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook/dp/B018EOAAPI/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1450113935&sr=1-1&keywords=transactionalism"><i>Transactionalism: An Historical and Interpretive Study</i></a> (2 ed.). Influence Ecology. p. 167. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531092734/https://www.amazon.com/Transactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook/dp/B018EOAAPI/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1450113935&sr=1-1&keywords=transactionalism">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transactionalism%3A+An+Historical+and+Interpretive+Study&rft.pages=167&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Influence+Ecology&rft.date=2015-11-22&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Trevor+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FTransactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook%2Fdp%2FB018EOAAPI%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fs%3Dbooks%26ie%3DUTF8%26qid%3D1450113935%26sr%3D1-1%26keywords%3Dtransactionalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2015" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Trevor J. (2015-11-22). Tibbels, Kirkland; Patterson, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Transactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook/dp/B018EOAAPI/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1450113935&sr=1-1&keywords=transactionalism"><i>Transactionalism: An Historical and Interpretive Study</i></a> (2 ed.). Influence Ecology. pp. 171–2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531092734/https://www.amazon.com/Transactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook/dp/B018EOAAPI/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1450113935&sr=1-1&keywords=transactionalism">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transactionalism%3A+An+Historical+and+Interpretive+Study&rft.pages=171-2&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Influence+Ecology&rft.date=2015-11-22&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Trevor+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FTransactionalism-Historical-Interpretive-Trevor-Phillips-ebook%2Fdp%2FB018EOAAPI%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fs%3Dbooks%26ie%3DUTF8%26qid%3D1450113935%26sr%3D1-1%26keywords%3Dtransactionalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Maria Montessori: Her Life And Work</i>, E.M. Standing, p. 174, Publ. Plume, 1998, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.penguinputnam.com">http://www.penguinputnam.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200926161737/https://www.penguin.com//">Archived</a> 2020-09-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Montessori Method</i>, Maria Montessori, pp. 79–81, Publ. Random House, 1988, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.randomhouse.com">http://www.randomhouse.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200513042830/http://www.randomhouse.com/">Archived</a> 2020-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Discovery of the Child</i>, Maria Montessori, p.46, Publ. Ballantine Books, 1972, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.randomhouse.com">http://www.randomhouse.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200513042830/http://www.randomhouse.com/">Archived</a> 2020-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gutek1-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gutek1_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutek2009" class="citation book cs1">Gutek, Gerald L. (2009). <i>New Perspectives on Philosophy and Education</i>. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-59433-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-59433-7"><bdi>978-0-205-59433-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Philosophy+and+Education&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-205-59433-7&rft.aulast=Gutek&rft.aufirst=Gerald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Iain (2002). "Heidegger on Ontological Education"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". In Peters, Michael A. (ed.). <i>Heidegger, Education, and Modernity</i>. New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. 141–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-0887-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-0887-0"><bdi>0-7425-0887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Heidegger+on+Ontological+Education%22&rft.btitle=Heidegger%2C+Education%2C+and+Modernity&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=141-142&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7425-0887-0&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Iain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"International Bureau of Education - Directors" <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9059885">http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9059885</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082318/https://academic.eb.com/">Archived</a> 2021-08-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunari1994" class="citation journal cs1">Munari, Alberto (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/ThinkersPdf/piagete.pdf">"Jean Piaget"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education</i>. <b>XXIV</b> (1/2): 311–327. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02199023">10.1007/bf02199023</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144657103">144657103</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180614044346/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Publications/thinkerspdf/piagete.PDF">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2018-06-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prospects%3A+The+Quarterly+Review+of+Comparative+Education&rft.atitle=Jean+Piaget&rft.volume=XXIV&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=311-327&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02199023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144657103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Munari&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibe.unesco.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_upload%2Farchive%2Fpublications%2FThinkersPdf%2Fpiagete.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(in <i>An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like it Radical</i>, 1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT_Obit-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT_Obit_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimes2001" class="citation news cs1">Grimes, William (29 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E6D71739F93AA15755C0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">"William Grimes, "Mortimer Adler, 98, Dies; Helped Create Study of Classics," New York Times, June 29, 2001"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240531093737/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/29/nyregion/mortimer-adler-98-dies-helped-create-study-of-classics.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=William+Grimes%2C+%22Mortimer+Adler%2C+98%2C+Dies%3B+Helped+Create+Study+of+Classics%2C%22+New+York+Times%2C+June+29%2C+2001&rft.date=2001-06-29&rft.aulast=Grimes&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9C07E6D71739F93AA15755C0A9679C8B63%26sec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97">http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110816105128/http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97">Archived</a> 2011-08-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.siba.fi/ispme_symposium/index.php?id=1&la=fi">"ISPME Home"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091027031617/http://www2.siba.fi/ispme_symposium/index.php?id=1&la=fi">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISPME+Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.siba.fi%2Fispme_symposium%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D1%26la%3Dfi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Classic and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Education</i>, by Steven M. Cahn, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-009619-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-009619-6">978-0-07-009619-6</a>.</li> <li><i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Education</i> (Blackwell Companions to Philosophy), ed. by Randall Curren, Paperback edition, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-4051-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-4051-8">1-4051-4051-8</a>.</li> <li><i>The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education</i>, ed. by Nigel Blake, Paul Smeyers, Richard Smith, and Paul Standish, Paperback edition, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22119-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22119-0">0-631-22119-0</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHebert2023" class="citation book cs1">Hebert, David G. (February 11, 2023). Hebert, David G. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-99-0139-5"><i>Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education</i></a>. Springer Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-99-0139-5">10.1007/978-981-99-0139-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-99-0138-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-99-0138-8"><bdi>978-981-99-0138-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257585276">257585276</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+and+Decolonial+Studies+in+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.pub=Springer+Press&rft.date=2023-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257585276%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-99-0139-5&rft.isbn=978-981-99-0138-8&rft.aulast=Hebert&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-981-99-0139-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHytten2022" class="citation book cs1">Hytten, Kathy (June 23, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780190919726.001.0001/acref-9780190919726"><i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-091972-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-091972-6"><bdi>978-0-19-091972-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022-06-23&rft.isbn=978-0-19-091972-6&rft.aulast=Hytten&rft.aufirst=Kathy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780190919726.001.0001%2Facref-9780190919726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+education" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Philosophy of Education</i> (Westview Press, Dimension of Philosophy Series), by Nel Noddings, Paperback edition, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-8430-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-8430-3">0-8133-8430-3</a>.</li> <li>Andre Kraak, Michael <i>Young Education in Retrospect: Policy And Implementation Since 1990</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VPsXv7PhC5YC&dq=educational+progressivism&pg=PA59">[4]</a></li> <li>Daan Thoomes, <i>The necessity of education</i>. In: <i>The History of education and childhood</i>. Radboud University, Nijmegen, 2000 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/33639">[5]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Philosophy of education</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=philosophy+of+education">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=philosophy+of+education&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/education-philosophy/">"Philosophy of Education". In <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/education/page/philosophy-ed">Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/document/thinkers-education">Thinkers of Education. UNESCO-International Bureau of Education website</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart" title="Johann Friedrich Herbart">Herbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Montessori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Pestalozzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_education" title="Category:Philosophers of education">more...</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centred_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Student-centred learning">Student-centred learning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">What to teach</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">Critical pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Educational existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_perennialism" title="Educational perennialism">Educational perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_progressivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational progressivism">Progressive education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social reconstructionism">Social reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">How and whom to teach</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">Compulsory education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of education)">Constructivism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_schooling" title="Criticism of schooling">Criticism of schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_education" title="Humanistic education">Humanism (philosophy of education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montessori_education" title="Montessori education">Montessori education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unschooling" title="Unschooling">Unschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldorf_education" title="Waldorf education">Waldorf education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_education" title="Category:Philosophy of education">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_education_terms" title="Glossary of education terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_education_articles" title="Index of education articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By perspective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_aims_and_objectives" title="Educational aims and objectives">Aims and objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_anthropology" title="Educational anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Course_evaluation" title="Course evaluation">Course evaluation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standards-based_assessment" title="Standards-based assessment">Standards-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_quality_assessment" title="Teacher quality assessment">Teacher quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_spending_on_education_as_percentage_of_GDP" title="List of countries by spending on education as percentage of GDP">Spending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuition_payments" title="Tuition payments">Tuition payments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(education)" title="Inclusion (education)">Inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_leadership" title="Educational leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy" title="Education policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_education" title="Politics in education">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_education_by_subject" title="List of education by subject">By subject</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_education" title="Agricultural education">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Art education">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_education" title="Design education">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_education" title="Economics education">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_education" title="Alternative education">Alternative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">Adult education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Education reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">Cognitive load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_arrangement" title="Class arrangement">Class arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">Curriculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_theory" title="Curriculum theory">Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogical_pattern" title="Pedagogical pattern">Pedagogical pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_look" title="Teacher look">Teacher look</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_retention" title="Teacher retention">Teacher retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blended_learning" title="Blended learning">Blended learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstration_(teaching)" title="Demonstration (teaching)">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_instruction" title="Peer instruction">Peer instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalized learning">Personalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenon-based_learning" title="Phenomenon-based learning">Phenomenon-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project-based_learning" title="Project-based learning">Project-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_philosophy" title="Teaching philosophy">Teaching philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wikimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Education" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Education">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/education" class="extiw" title="wikt:education">Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Education" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Education">Images</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="v:Education">Learning resources</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Education" class="extiw" title="n:Portal:Education">News</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="q:Education">Quotes</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="s:Education">Texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Stages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Educational_stage" title="Educational stage">Stages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary education</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Preschool" title="Preschool">Preschool</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergarten</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">Primary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Infant<br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Junior<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">Secondary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">Middle school</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">High school<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:40%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a><br /> </td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">Further</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a><br /> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Education_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Angola" title="Education in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Benin" title="Education in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Botswana" title="Education in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Education in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burundi" title="Education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cameroon" title="Education in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cape_Verde" title="Education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Education in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chad" title="Education in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Comoros" title="Education in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Djibouti" title="Education in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eritrea" title="Education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eswatini" title="Education in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ethiopia" title="Education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gabon" title="Education in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Gambia" title="Education in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ghana" title="Education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea" title="Education in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Education in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Education in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kenya" title="Education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lesotho" title="Education in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liberia" title="Education in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Libya" title="Education in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malawi" title="Education in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mali" title="Education in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritania" title="Education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritius" title="Education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Morocco" title="Education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mozambique" title="Education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Namibia" title="Education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niger" title="Education in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Senegal" title="Education in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Seychelles" title="Education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Sudan" title="Education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sudan" title="Education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tanzania" title="Education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Togo" title="Education in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tunisia" title="Education in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uganda" title="Education in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zambia" title="Education in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zimbabwe" title="Education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somaliland" title="Education in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Asia" title="Education in Asia">Education in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bahrain" title="Education in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bangladesh" title="Education in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bhutan" title="Education in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brunei" title="Education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cambodia" title="Education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jordan" title="Education in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Korea" title="Education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Korea" title="Education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kuwait" title="Education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Education in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Laos" title="Education in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Maldives" title="Education in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mongolia" title="Education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nepal" title="Education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Oman" title="Education in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Philippines" title="Education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Qatar" title="Education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Education in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Singapore" title="Education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tajikistan" title="Education in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Thailand" title="Education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkmenistan" title="Education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Education in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uzbekistan" title="Education in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Yemen" title="Education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Education in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong" title="Education in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Macau" title="Education in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Europe">Education in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Albania" title="Education in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bulgaria" title="Education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Croatia" title="Education in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Education in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Denmark" title="Education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Estonia" title="Education in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Finland" title="Education in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greece" title="Education in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hungary" title="Education in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iceland" title="Education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Latvia" title="Education in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liechtenstein" title="Education in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malta" title="Education in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Moldova" title="Education in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montenegro" title="Education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Macedonia" title="Education in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Portugal" title="Education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_San_Marino" title="Education in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Serbia" title="Education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovakia" title="Education in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovenia" title="Education in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sweden" title="Education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kosovo" title="Education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_%C3%85land" title="Education in Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Education in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gibraltar" title="Education in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guernsey" title="Education in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Education in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jersey" title="Education in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Education in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Bahamas" title="Education in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Barbados" title="Education in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belize" title="Education in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Costa_Rica" title="Education in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cuba" title="Education in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Dominica" title="Education in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_El_Salvador" title="Education in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Grenada" title="Education in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guatemala" title="Education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Haiti" title="Education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Honduras" title="Education in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jamaica" title="Education in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Panama" title="Education in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Education in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Education in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Education in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Education in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Anguilla" title="Education in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bermuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Education in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Education in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greenland" title="Education in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montserrat" title="Education in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Education in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Fiji" title="Education in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kiribati" title="Education in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nauru" title="Education in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_New_Zealand" title="Education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Education in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tonga" title="Education in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Education in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niue" title="Education in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Education in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tokelau" title="Education in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bolivia" title="Education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brazil" title="Education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chile" title="Education in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Colombia" title="Education in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ecuador" title="Education in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guyana" title="Education in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Paraguay" title="Education in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Peru" title="Education in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Suriname" title="Education in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uruguay" title="Education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Venezuela" title="Education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Education in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/16px-School.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/24px-School.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/32px-School.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Schools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Education" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Education">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" 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