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Toggle Development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baltimore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltimore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Baltimore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltimore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chicago" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chicago"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Chicago </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chicago-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detroit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detroit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Detroit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detroit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Los_Angeles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Los_Angeles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Los Angeles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Los_Angeles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York_City" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York_City"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 New York City </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_City-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philadelphia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philadelphia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Philadelphia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philadelphia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jamaica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jamaica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Jamaica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jamaica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doo-wop_and_racial_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doo-wop_and_racial_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Doo-wop and racial relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doo-wop_and_racial_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_influence_in_doo-wop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_influence_in_doo-wop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Jewish influence in doo-wop </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_influence_in_doo-wop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doo-wop_influence_on_punk_and_proto-punk_rockers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doo-wop_influence_on_punk_and_proto-punk_rockers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Doo-wop influence on punk and proto-punk rockers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doo-wop_influence_on_punk_and_proto-punk_rockers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popularity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popularity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Popularity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popularity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doo-wop's_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doo-wop's_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Doo-wop's influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doo-wop's_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revivals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revivals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Revivals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revivals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Doo-wop</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" > 36 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="دو واب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دو واب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_wop" title="Doo wop – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Doo wop" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83-%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BF" title="Ду-уап – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ду-уап" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_Wop" title="Doo Wop – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Doo Wop" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_wop" title="Doo wop – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Doo wop" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_wop" title="Doo wop – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Doo wop" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%91%90%EC%99%91" title="두왑 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="두왑" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_wop" title="Doo wop – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Doo wop" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%95-%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A4" title="דו-וופ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דו-וופ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doowop" title="Doowop – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Doowop" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doowop" title="Doowop – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Doowop" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%89%E3%82%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AF%E3%83%83%E3%83%97" title="ドゥーワップ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ドゥーワップ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_wop" title="Doo wop – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Doo wop" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83-%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Ду-воп – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ду-воп" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo_wop" title="Doo wop – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Doo wop" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9B" title="ดูวอป – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดูวอป" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop" title="Doo-wop – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doo-wop" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83-%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Ду-воп – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ду-воп" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Style of rhythm and blues music</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Doo_Wop_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Doo Wop (disambiguation)">Doo Wop (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Doo-wop</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg/220px-Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg/330px-Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg/440px-Frankie_Lymon_and_the_Teenagers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="1252" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/The_Teenagers" title="The Teenagers">The Teenagers</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Stylistic origins</th><td class="infobox-data hlist"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">Rhythm and blues</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultural origins</th><td class="infobox-data hlist">1940s–1950s, <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> communities across some major cities on the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Derivative forms</th><td class="infobox-data hlist"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_music" title="Beach music">Beach music</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Beat_music" title="Beat music">beat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Brill_Building_(genre)" title="Brill Building (genre)">Brill Building</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pop_rock" title="Pop rock">pop rock</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Power_pop" title="Power pop">power pop</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Soul_music" title="Soul music">soul</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_surf" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal surf">vocal surf</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Regional scenes</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data hlist"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Other topics</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data hlist"><a href="/wiki/%2750s_progression" title="'50s progression">'50s chord progression</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Doo-wop (also spelled doowop and doo wop) is a <a href="/wiki/Music_genre#definitions" title="Music genre">subgenre</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">rhythm and blues</a> music that originated in <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> communities during the 1940s,<a href="#cite_note-PriceKernodle2011-2">[2]</a> mainly in the large cities of the United States, including New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Baltimore, Newark, Detroit, Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles.<a href="#cite_note-Goosman2013-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pitilli2016-4">[4]</a> It features vocal group <a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a> that carries an engaging melodic line to a simple beat with little or <a href="/wiki/A_cappella" title="A cappella">no instrumentation</a>. Lyrics are simple, usually about love, sung by a lead vocal over background vocals, and often featuring, in the <a href="/wiki/Bridge_(music)" title="Bridge (music)">bridge</a>, a melodramatically heartfelt <a href="/wiki/Recitative" title="Recitative">recitative</a> addressed to the beloved. Harmonic singing of nonsense syllables (such as "doo-wop") is a common characteristic of these songs.<a href="#cite_note-Goldblatt2013-5">[5]</a> Gaining popularity in the 1950s, doo-wop was "artistically and commercially viable" until the early 1960s and continued to influence performers in other genres. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> Doo-wop has complex musical, social, and commercial origins. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Musical_precedents">Musical precedents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Musical precedents">edit</a>]</div> Doo-wop's style is a mixture of precedents in composition, orchestration, and vocals that figured in American popular music created by songwriters and vocal groups, both black and white, from the 1930s to the 1940s.<div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:347px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:345px;"> <div class="mw-ext-score noresize" data-midi="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/k/6/k6wh7xqyie0f45g78qte9z8q60adfyd/k6wh7xqy.midi"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/k/6/k6wh7xqyie0f45g78qte9z8q60adfyd/k6wh7xqy.png" width="337" height="82" alt=" {
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" /><div style="margin-top: 3px;"><audio controls=""><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/k/6/k6wh7xqyie0f45g78qte9z8q60adfyd/k6wh7xqy.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" /><div>Audio playback is not supported in your browser. You can <a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/score/k/6/k6wh7xqyie0f45g78qte9z8q60adfyd/k6wh7xqy.mp3">download the audio file</a>.</div></audio></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">A typical <a href="/wiki/50s_progression" class="mw-redirect" title="50s progression">doo-wop chord progression</a> in C major<a href="#cite_note-Goosman2013193-6">[6]</a></div></div></div> Such composers as <a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hart" title="Rodgers and Hart">Rodgers and Hart</a> (in their 1934 song "<a href="/wiki/Blue_Moon_(1934_song)" title="Blue Moon (1934 song)">Blue Moon</a>"), and <a href="/wiki/Hoagy_Carmichael" title="Hoagy Carmichael">Hoagy Carmichael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Loesser" title="Frank Loesser">Frank Loesser</a> (in their 1938 "<a href="/wiki/Heart_and_Soul_(1938_song)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart and Soul (1938 song)">Heart and Soul</a>") used a <a href="/wiki/I%E2%80%93vi%E2%80%93ii%E2%80%93V" class="mw-redirect" title="I–vi–ii–V">I–vi–ii–V</a>-loop <a href="/wiki/Chord_progression" title="Chord progression">chord progression</a> in those <a href="/wiki/Hit_song" title="Hit song">hit songs</a>; composers of doo-wop songs varied this slightly but significantly to the chord progression I–vi–IV–V, so influential that it is sometimes referred to as the '<a href="/wiki/50s_progression" class="mw-redirect" title="50s progression">50s progression</a>. This characteristic harmonic layout was combined with the AABA chorus form typical for <a href="/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley" title="Tin Pan Alley">Tin Pan Alley</a> songs.<a href="#cite_note-Modleski1986-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-AppenFrei-Hauenschild2015-8">[8]</a> Hit songs by black groups such as <a href="/wiki/The_Ink_Spots" title="The Ink Spots">the Ink Spots</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> ("<a href="/wiki/If_I_Didn%27t_Care" title="If I Didn't Care">If I Didn't Care</a>", one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_best-selling_singles" title="List of best-selling singles">best selling singles</a> worldwide of all time,<a href="#cite_note-Pitilli201618-10">[10]</a> and "Address Unknown") and <a href="/wiki/The_Mills_Brothers" title="The Mills Brothers">the Mills Brothers</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Paper_Doll_(The_Mills_Brothers_song)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper Doll (The Mills Brothers song)">Paper Doll</a>", "<a href="/wiki/You_Always_Hurt_the_One_You_Love" title="You Always Hurt the One You Love">You Always Hurt the One You Love</a>" and "Glow Worm")<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> were generally slow songs in <a href="/wiki/Swing_time" title="Swing time">swing time</a> with simple instrumentation. Doo-wop street singers generally performed without instrumentation, but made their musical style distinctive, whether using fast or slow <a href="/wiki/Tempo" title="Tempo">tempos</a>, by keeping time with a swing-like <a href="/wiki/On-beat_and_off-beat" class="mw-redirect" title="On-beat and off-beat">off-beat</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Cosby2016-12">[12]</a> while using the "doo-wop" syllables as a substitute for drums and a bass vocalist as a substitute for a bass instrument.<a href="#cite_note-Goosman2013193-6">[6]</a> Doo-wop's characteristic vocal style was influenced by groups such as the Mills Brothers,<a href="#cite_note-Shepherd2003-13">[13]</a> whose close <a href="/wiki/Four-part_harmony" title="Four-part harmony">four-part harmony</a> derived from the vocal harmonies of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Barbershop_music" title="Barbershop music">barbershop quartet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Averill2003-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Knights" title="The Four Knights">The Four Knights</a>' "Take Me Right Back to the Track" (1945), the <a href="/wiki/Cats_and_the_Fiddle" title="Cats and the Fiddle">Cats and the Fiddle</a>'s song "I Miss You So" (1939),<a href="#cite_note-Birnbaum2013-15">[15]</a> and the Triangle Quartette's even earlier record "Doodlin' Back" (1929) prefigured doo-wop's rhythm and blues sound long before doo-wop became popular. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elements_of_doo-wop_vocal_style">Elements of doo-wop vocal style</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Elements of doo-wop vocal style">edit</a>]</div> In The Complete Book of Doo-Wop, co-authors Gribin and Schiff (who also wrote Doo-Wop, the Forgotten Third of Rock 'n' Roll), identify five features of doo-wop music: <ol><li>it is vocal music made by groups;</li> <li>it features a wide range of vocal parts, "usually from bass to falsetto";</li> <li>it includes <a href="/wiki/Pseudoword#Nonsense_syllables" title="Pseudoword">nonsense syllables</a>;</li> <li>there is a simple beat and low key instrumentals; and</li> <li>it has simple words and music.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></li></ol> While these features provide a helpful guide, they need not all be present in a given song for aficionados to consider it doo-wop, and the list does not include the aforementioned typical doo-wop chord progressions. <a href="/wiki/Bill_Kenny_(singer)" title="Bill Kenny (singer)">Bill Kenny</a>, lead singer of the Ink Spots, is often credited with introducing the "top and bottom" vocal arrangement featuring a <a href="/wiki/Tenor" title="Tenor">high tenor</a> singing the intro and a <a href="/wiki/Bass_(vocal_range)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bass (vocal range)">bass</a> spoken chorus.<a href="#cite_note-Abjorensen2017-17">[17]</a> The Mills Brothers, who were famous in part because in their vocals they sometimes mimicked instruments,<a href="#cite_note-Warner2006-18">[18]</a> were an additional influence on street vocal harmony groups, who, singing <a href="/wiki/A_cappella" title="A cappella">a cappella</a> arrangements, used wordless <a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">onomatopoeia</a> to mimic musical instruments.<a href="#cite_note-Pitilli201629-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Merrill2017-20">[20]</a> For instance, "<a href="/wiki/Count_Every_Star" title="Count Every Star">Count Every Star</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Ravens" title="The Ravens">the Ravens</a> (1950) includes vocalizations imitating the "doomph, doomph" plucking of a <a href="/wiki/Double_bass" title="Double bass">double bass</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Orioles" title="The Orioles">The Orioles</a> helped develop the doo-wop sound with their hits "<a href="/wiki/It%27s_Too_Soon_to_Know" title="It's Too Soon to Know">It's Too Soon to Know</a>" (1948) and "<a href="/wiki/Crying_in_the_Chapel" title="Crying in the Chapel">Crying in the Chapel</a>" (1953). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_the_name">Origin of the name</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Origin of the name">edit</a>]</div> Although the musical style originated in the late 1940s and was very popular in the 1950s, the term "doo-wop" itself did not appear in print until 1961, when it was used in reference to <a href="/wiki/The_Marcels" title="The Marcels">the Marcels</a>' song, "Blue Moon", in <a href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Defender" title="The Chicago Defender">The Chicago Defender</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pruter1996-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weinstein2015-22">[22]</a> just as the style's vogue was nearing its end. Though the name was attributed to radio disc jockey Gus Gossert, he did not accept credit, stating that "doo-wop" was already in use in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> to categorize the music.<a href="#cite_note-Electric2007-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pitilli201628-24">[24]</a> "Doo-wop" is itself a nonsense expression. In <a href="/wiki/The_Delta_Rhythm_Boys" title="The Delta Rhythm Boys">the Delta Rhythm Boys</a>' 1945 recording, "Just A-Sittin' And A-Rockin", it is heard in the <a href="/wiki/Backing_vocal" class="mw-redirect" title="Backing vocal">backing vocal</a>. It is heard later in <a href="/wiki/The_Clovers" title="The Clovers">the Clovers</a>' 1953 release "Good Lovin'" (Atlantic Records 1000), and in the chorus of Carlyle Dundee & the Dundees' 1954 song "Never" (Space Records 201). The first hit record with "doo-wop" being harmonized in the refrain was <a href="/wiki/The_Turbans" title="The Turbans">the Turbans</a>' 1955 hit, "When You Dance" (Herald Records H-458).<a href="#cite_note-Electric2007-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pitilli201627-25">[25]</a> The Rainbows embellished the phrase as "do wop de wadda" in their 1955 "Mary Lee" (on <a href="/wiki/Red_Robin_Records" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Robin Records">Red Robin Records</a>; also a Washington, D.C. regional hit on Pilgrim 703); and in their 1956 national hit, "<a href="/wiki/In_the_Still_of_the_Night_(1956_song)" class="mw-redirect" title="In the Still of the Night (1956 song)">In the Still of the Night</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Satins" title="The Five Satins">the Five Satins</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> sang across the bridge with a plaintive "doo-wop, doo-wah".<a href="#cite_note-Gregory2019-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Moonglows_1956.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_Moonglows_1956.jpg/220px-The_Moonglows_1956.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_Moonglows_1956.jpg/330px-The_Moonglows_1956.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_Moonglows_1956.jpg/440px-The_Moonglows_1956.jpg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>The Moonglows, 1956</figcaption></figure> The vocal harmony group tradition that developed in the United States post-World War II was the most popular form of rhythm and blues music among black teenagers, especially those living in the large urban centers of the eastern coast, in Chicago, and in Detroit. Among the first groups to perform songs in the vocal harmony group tradition were <a href="/wiki/The_Orioles" title="The Orioles">the Orioles</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Keys" title="The Five Keys">the Five Keys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Spaniels" title="The Spaniels">the Spaniels</a>; they specialized in romantic ballads that appealed to the sexual fantasies of teenagers in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The nonsense string of syllables, "doo doo doo doo-wop", from which the name of the genre was later derived, is used repeatedly in the song "Just A Sittin' And A Rockin", recorded by the <a href="/wiki/Delta_Rhythm_Boys" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta Rhythm Boys">Delta Rhythm Boys</a> in December 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Warner200624-28">[28]</a> By the mid-1950s, vocal harmony groups had transformed the smooth delivery of ballads into a performance style incorporating the nonsense phrase<a href="#cite_note-GribinSchiff2000-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weinstein2015-22">[22]</a> as vocalized by the bass singers, who provided rhythmic movement for a cappella songs.<a href="#cite_note-PalmerCulture2006-30">[30]</a> Soon, other doo-wop groups entered the pop <a href="/wiki/Record_chart" title="Record chart">charts</a>, particularly in 1955, which saw such cross-over doo-wop hits as "<a href="/wiki/Sincerely_(song)" title="Sincerely (song)">Sincerely</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Moonglows" title="The Moonglows">the Moonglows</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pc11-31">[31]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Earth_Angel" title="Earth Angel">Earth Angel</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Penguins" title="The Penguins">the Penguins</a>, the Cadillacs' "Gloria", the Heartbeats' "A Thousand Miles Away", Shep & the Limelites' "<a href="/wiki/Daddy%27s_Home_(song)" title="Daddy's Home (song)">Daddy's Home</a>",<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Flamingos" title="The Flamingos">the Flamingos</a>' "I Only Have Eyes for You", and <a href="/wiki/The_Jive_Five" title="The Jive Five">the Jive Five</a> "<a href="/wiki/My_True_Story" title="My True Story">My True Story</a>".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Teenagers who could not afford musical instruments formed groups that sang songs a cappella, performing at high school dances and other social occasions. They rehearsed on street corners and apartment stoops,<a href="#cite_note-PalmerCulture2006-30">[30]</a> as well as under bridges, in high school washrooms, and in hallways and other places with echoes:<a href="#cite_note-Cosby2016-12">[12]</a> these were the only spaces with suitable acoustics available to them. Thus they developed a form of group harmony based in the harmonies and emotive phrasing of black spirituals and gospel music. Doo-wop music allowed these youths not only a means of entertaining themselves and others, but also a way of expressing their values and worldviews in a repressive white-dominated society, often through the use of innuendo and hidden messages in the lyrics.<a href="#cite_note-Rabaka2016-34">[34]</a> Particularly productive doo-wop groups were formed by young <a href="/wiki/Italian-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian-American">Italian-American</a> men who, like their black counterparts, lived in rough neighborhoods (e.g., the Bronx and Brooklyn), learned their basic musical craft singing in church, and would gain experience in the new style by singing on street corners. New York was the capital of Italian doo-wop, and all its boroughs were home to groups that made successful records.<a href="#cite_note-Cinotto2014-35">[35]</a> By the late 1950s and early 1960s, many Italian-American groups had national hits: <a href="/wiki/Dion_and_the_Belmonts" title="Dion and the Belmonts">Dion and the Belmonts</a> scored with "<a href="/wiki/I_Wonder_Why" title="I Wonder Why">I Wonder Why</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Teenager_in_Love" class="mw-redirect" title="Teenager in Love">Teenager in Love</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Where_or_When" title="Where or When">Where or When</a>";<a href="#cite_note-Helander2001-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Capris" title="The Capris">the Capris</a> made their name in 1960 with "<a href="/wiki/There%27s_a_Moon_Out_Tonight" title="There's a Moon Out Tonight">There's a Moon Out Tonight</a>"; <a href="/wiki/Randy_%26_the_Rainbows" title="Randy & the Rainbows">Randy & the Rainbows</a>, who charted with their Top 10 1963 single <a href="/wiki/Denise_(song)" title="Denise (song)">"Denise"</a>. Other Italian-American doo-wop groups were <a href="/wiki/The_Earls" title="The Earls">the Earls</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Chimes_(US_band)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chimes (US band)">the Chimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Elegants" title="The Elegants">the Elegants</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Mystics" title="The Mystics">the Mystics</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Duprees" title="The Duprees">the Duprees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Maestro" title="Johnny Maestro">Johnny Maestro</a> & <a href="/wiki/The_Crests" title="The Crests">the Crests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Regents_(doo-wop_band)" title="The Regents (doo-wop band)">the Regents</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herman_Santiago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Herman_Santiago.jpg/220px-Herman_Santiago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Herman_Santiago.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Herman Santiago, original lead singer of the Teenagers</figcaption></figure> Some doo-wop groups were racially mixed.<a href="#cite_note-Pitilli201647-37">[37]</a> Puerto Rican <a href="/wiki/Herman_Santiago" title="Herman Santiago">Herman Santiago</a>, originally slated to be the lead singer of <a href="/wiki/The_Teenagers" title="The Teenagers">the Teenagers</a>, wrote the lyrics and the music for a song to be called "Why Do Birds Sing So Gay?", but whether because he was ill or because producer <a href="/wiki/George_Goldner" title="George Goldner">George Goldner</a> thought that newcomer <a href="/wiki/Frankie_Lymon" title="Frankie Lymon">Frankie Lymon</a>'s voice would be better in the lead,<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan2013-38">[38]</a> Santiago's original version was not recorded. To suit his tenor voice Lymon made a few alterations to the melody, and consequently the Teenagers recorded the song known as "<a href="/wiki/Why_Do_Fools_Fall_in_Love_(song)" title="Why Do Fools Fall in Love (song)">Why Do Fools Fall in Love?</a>". Racially integrated groups with both black and white performers included <a href="/wiki/The_Del-Vikings" title="The Del-Vikings">the Del-Vikings</a>, who had major hits in 1957 with "<a href="/wiki/Come_Go_With_Me" class="mw-redirect" title="Come Go With Me">Come Go With Me</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Whispering_Bells_(song)" title="Whispering Bells (song)">Whispering Bells</a>", the Crests, whose "<a href="/wiki/16_Candles_(song)" title="16 Candles (song)">16 Candles</a>" appeared in 1958, and <a href="/wiki/The_Impalas" title="The Impalas">the Impalas</a>, whose "<a href="/wiki/Sorry_(I_Ran_All_the_Way_Home)" title="Sorry (I Ran All the Way Home)">Sorry (I Ran All the Way Home)</a>" was a hit in 1959.<a href="#cite_note-HendersonStacey2014-39">[39]</a> Chico Torres was a member of the Crests, whose lead singer, Johhny Mastrangelo, would later gain fame under the name Johnny Maestro.<a href="#cite_note-Cinotto2014207-40">[40]</a> Female doo-wop singers were much less common than males in the early days of doo-wop. <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Leach" title="Lillian Leach">Lillian Leach</a>, lead singer of the Mellows from 1953 to 1958, helped pave the way for other women in doo-wop, soul and <a href="/wiki/R%26B" class="mw-redirect" title="R&B">R&B</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hinckley-41">[41]</a> Margo Sylvia was the lead singer for <a href="/wiki/The_Tune_Weavers" title="The Tune Weavers">the Tune Weavers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RubinMelnick2001-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baltimore">Baltimore</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Baltimore">edit</a>]</div> Like other urban centers in the US during the late 1940s and early 1950s, Baltimore developed its own vocal group tradition. The city produced rhythm and blues innovators such as <a href="/wiki/The_Cardinals" title="The Cardinals">the Cardinals</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Orioles" title="The Orioles">the Orioles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Swallows" title="The Swallows">the Swallows</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sasfy1984-43">[43]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Theatre_(Baltimore)" title="Royal Theatre (Baltimore)">Royal Theatre</a> in Baltimore and the <a href="/wiki/Howard_Theatre" title="Howard Theatre">Howard</a> in Washington, D.C. were among the most prestigious venues for black performers on the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Chitlin_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitlin Circuit">Chitlin Circuit</a>",<a href="#cite_note-NYT1985-44">[44]</a> which served as a school of the <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">performing arts</a> for blacks who had <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">migrated</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">deep South</a>, and even more so for their offspring. In the late 1940s, the Orioles rose from the streets and made a profound impression on young chitlin' circuit audiences in Baltimore. The group, formed in 1947, sang simple ballads in rhythm and blues harmony, with the standard arrangement of a high tenor singing over the chords of the blended mid-range voices and a strong bass voice. Their lead singer, <a href="/wiki/Sonny_Til" title="Sonny Til">Sonny Til</a>, had a soft, high-pitched tenor, and like the rest of the group, was still a teenager at the time. His style reflected the optimism of young black Americans in the postmigration era. The sound they helped develop, later called '"doo-wop", eventually became a "sonic bridge" to reach a white teen audience.<a href="#cite_note-Runowicz201038-45">[45]</a> In 1948, <a href="/wiki/Jubilee_Records" title="Jubilee Records">Jubilee Records</a> signed the Orioles to a contract, following which they appeared on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scout radio show. The song they performed, "It's Too Soon to Know", often cited as the first doo-wop song,<a href="#cite_note-BogdanovWoodstra2002-46">[46]</a> went to number 1 on Billboard's "Race Records" chart, and number 13 on the pop charts, a crossover first for a black group.<a href="#cite_note-Olesker2013-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Larkin2011-48">[48]</a> This was followed in 1953 by "Crying in the Chapel", their biggest hit, which went to number 1 on the R&B chart and number 11 on the pop chart.<a href="#cite_note-Zak201289-49">[49]</a> The Orioles were perhaps the first of the many doo-wop groups who named themselves after birds.<a href="#cite_note-Simmons2018-50">[50]</a> The sexual innuendo in the Orioles' songs was less disguised than in the vocal group music of the <a href="/wiki/Swing_music" title="Swing music">swing</a> era. Their stage choreography was also more sexually explicit, and their songs were simpler and more emotionally direct. This new approach to sex in their performances did not target the white teen audience at first—when the Orioles took the stage, they were appealing directly to a young black audience,<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan2013379-51">[51]</a> with Sonny Til using his entire body to convey the emotion in the lyrics of their songs. He became a teen sex symbol for black girls, who reacted by screaming and throwing pieces of clothing onto the stage when he sang. Other young male vocalists of the era took note and adjusted their own acts accordingly.<a href="#cite_note-Runowicz201038-45">[45]</a> The Orioles were soon displaced by newer groups who imitated these pioneers as a model for success.<a href="#cite_note-MancusoLampe1996-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pitilli201624-53">[53]</a> The Swallows began in the late 1940s as a group of Baltimore teenagers calling themselves the Oakaleers. One of the members lived across the street from Sonny Til, who went on to lead the Orioles, and their success inspired the Oakaleers to rename themselves the Swallows.<a href="#cite_note-Simmons2018-50">[50]</a> Their song "Will You Be Mine", released in 1951, reached number 9 on the US Billboard R&B chart.<a href="#cite_note-Warner2006303-54">[54]</a> In 1952, the Swallows released "Beside You", their second national hit, which peaked at number 10 on the R&B chart.<a href="#cite_note-Warner2006303-54">[54]</a> Some Baltimore doo-wop groups were connected with street gangs, and a few members were active in both scenes, such as Johnny Page of <a href="/wiki/The_Marylanders" title="The Marylanders">the Marylanders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goosman2010-55">[55]</a> As in all the major urban centers of the US, many of the teen gangs had their own street corner vocal groups in which they took great pride and which they supported fiercely. Competitive music and dance was a part of African American street culture, and with the success of some local groups, competition increased, leading to territorial rivalries among performers. Pennsylvania Avenue served as a boundary between East and West Baltimore, with the East producing the Swallows and <a href="/wiki/The_Cardinals" title="The Cardinals">the Cardinals</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Blentones" title="The Blentones">the Blentones</a>, while the West was home to the Orioles and <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Buddies" title="The Four Buddies">the Four Buddies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ward1998-56">[56]</a> Baltimore vocal groups gathered at neighborhood record stores, where they practiced the latest hits in hopes that the store owners' connections with record companies and distributors might land them an audition. A <a href="/wiki/King_Records_(United_States)" title="King Records (United States)">King Records</a> talent scout discovered the Swallows as they were rehearsing in Goldstick's record store. Sam Azrael's Super Music Store and Shaw's shoeshine parlor were also favored hangouts for Baltimore vocal groups; <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Wexler" title="Jerry Wexler">Jerry Wexler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahmet_Ertegun" title="Ahmet Ertegun">Ahmet Ertegun</a> auditioned the Cardinals at Azrael's. Some groups cut <a href="/wiki/Demo_(music)" title="Demo (music)">demos</a> at local studios and played them for recording <a href="/wiki/Executive_producer#Music" title="Executive producer">producers</a>, with the aim of getting signed to a record deal.<a href="#cite_note-Ward1998-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chicago">Chicago</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chicago">edit</a>]</div> The city of Chicago was outranked as a recording center in the United States only by New York City in the early years of the music <a href="/wiki/Music_industry" title="Music industry">recording industry</a>. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, independent record labels gained control of the black record market from the major companies, and Chicago rose as one of the main centers for rhythm and blues music. This music was a vital source for the youth music called rock 'n' roll. In the mid-1950s, a number of rhythm and blues acts performing in the vocal ensemble style later known as doo-wop began to cross over from the R&B charts to mainstream rock 'n' roll.<a href="#cite_note-Cateforis2019-57">[57]</a> The Chicago record companies took note of this trend and scouted for vocal groups from the city that they could sign to their labels.<a href="#cite_note-Pruter19961-58">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Record_label" title="Record label">record labels</a>, record distributors, and nightclub owners of Chicago all had a part in developing the vocal potential of the doo-wop groups, but Chicago doo-wop was "created and nourished" on the street corners of the city's lower-class neighborhoods.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The Chicago doo-wop groups, like those in New York, started singing on street corners and practiced their harmonies in tiled bathrooms, hallways, and subways,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> but because they came originally from the deep South, the home of gospel and blues music, their doo-wop sound was more influenced by gospel and blues.<a href="#cite_note-GribinSchiff2000136a-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vee-Jay_Records" title="Vee-Jay Records">Vee-Jay Records</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chess_Records" title="Chess Records">Chess Records</a> were the main labels recording doo-wop groups in Chicago. Vee-Jay signed <a href="/wiki/The_Dells" title="The Dells">the Dells</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_El_Dorados" title="The El Dorados">the El Dorados</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Keyes_and_the_Magnificents" title="Johnny Keyes and the Magnificents">the Magnificents</a>, and the Spaniels, all of whom achieved national chart hits in the mid-1950s. Chess signed the Moonglows, who had the most commercial success (seven Top 40 R&B hits, six of those Top Ten<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>) of the 1950s doo-wop groups,<a href="#cite_note-Collis1998-63">[63]</a> and the Flamingos, who had national hits as well.<a href="#cite_note-Halker2004-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detroit">Detroit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Detroit">edit</a>]</div> In 1945,<a href="#cite_note-Stone2017-65">[65]</a> Joe Von Battle opened Joe's Record Shop at 3530 Hastings Street in Detroit; the store had the largest selection of rhythm and blues records in the city, according to a 1954 Billboard business survey. Battle, a migrant from Macon, Georgia, established his shop as the first black-owned business in the area, which remained primarily Jewish up to the late 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-Fletcher2017-66">[66]</a> Young aspiring performers would gather there in hopes of being discovered by the leading independent record company owners who courted Battle to promote and sell records, as well as to find new talent at his shop and studio. Battle's record labels included JVB, Von, Battle, Gone, and Viceroy;<a href="#cite_note-BjornGallert2001-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Komara2006-68">[68]</a> he also had subsidiary arrangements with labels such as King and Deluxe. He supplied Syd Nathan with many blues and doo-wop masters recorded in his primitive back-of-the-store studio from 1948 to 1954. As the pivotal recording mogul in the Detroit area, Battle was an important player in the independent label network.<a href="#cite_note-Broven2011-69">[69]</a> Jack and Devora Brown, a Jewish couple, founded <a href="/wiki/Fortune_Records" title="Fortune Records">Fortune Records</a> in 1946 and recorded a variety of eccentric artists and sounds; in the mid-1950s they became champions of Detroit rhythm and blues, including the music of local doo-wop groups. Fortune's premier act was the <a href="/wiki/Nolan_Strong_%26_the_Diablos" title="Nolan Strong & the Diablos">Diablos</a>, featuring the soaring tenor of lead vocalist Nolan Strong, a native of Alabama. The group's most notable hit was "<a href="/wiki/The_Wind_(Nolan_Strong_%26_The_Diablos_song)" title="The Wind (Nolan Strong & The Diablos song)">The Wind</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Ward1998464-70">[70]</a> Strong, like other R&B and doo-wop tenors of the time, was profoundly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Clyde_McPhatter" title="Clyde McPhatter">Clyde McPhatter</a>, lead singer of the Dominoes and later of the Drifters. Strong himself made a lasting impression on the young <a href="/wiki/Smokey_Robinson" title="Smokey Robinson">Smokey Robinson</a>, who went out of his way to attend Diablo shows.<a href="#cite_note-Liebler2016-71">[71]</a> In late 1957, seventeen-year-old Robinson, fronting a Detroit vocal harmony group called the Matadors, met the producer <a href="/wiki/Berry_Gordy" title="Berry Gordy">Berry Gordy</a>, who was beginning to take up new styles, including doo-wop.<a href="#cite_note-Flory2017-72">[72]</a> Gordy wanted to promote a black style of music that would appeal to both the black and white markets, performed by black musicians with roots in gospel, R&B, or doo-wop. He sought artists who understood that the music had to be updated to appeal to a broader audience and attain greater commercial success.<a href="#cite_note-StuessyLipscomb2006-73">[73]</a> Early recordings by Gordy's <a href="/wiki/Tamla_Records" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamla Records">Tamla Records</a>, founded several months before he established the <a href="/wiki/Motown_Record_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Motown Record Corporation">Motown Record Corporation</a> in January 1959,<a href="#cite_note-Cotten1989-74">[74]</a> were of either blues or doo-wop performances.<a href="#cite_note-MacKenzie2009-75">[75]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Bad_Girl_(The_Miracles_song)" title="Bad Girl (The Miracles song)">Bad Girl</a>", a 1959 doo-wop single by Robinson's group, <a href="/wiki/The_Miracles" title="The Miracles">the Miracles</a>, was the first single released (and the only one released by this group) on the Motown label—all previous singles from the company (and all those following from the group) were released on the Tamla label. Issued locally on the Motown Records label, it was licensed to and released nationally by Chess Records because the fledgling Motown Record Corporation did not, at that time, have national distribution.<a href="#cite_note-Larkin1997309-76">[76]</a> "Bad Girl" was the group's first national chart hit,<a href="#cite_note-Dahl2011-77">[77]</a> reaching number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100.<a href="#cite_note-Simmons2018234-78">[78]</a> Written by Miracles lead singer Smokey Robinson and Motown Records' president Berry Gordy, "Bad Girl" was the first of several of the Miracles' songs performed in the doo-wop style during the late 1950s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Los_Angeles">Los Angeles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Los Angeles">edit</a>]</div> Doo-wop groups also formed on the west coast of the United States, especially in California, where the scene was centered in Los Angeles. Independent record labels owned by black entrepreneurs such as <a href="/wiki/Dootsie_Williams" title="Dootsie Williams">Dootsie Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Dolphin_(music_producer)" title="John Dolphin (music producer)">John Dolphin</a> recorded these groups, most of which had formed in high schools. One such group, the Penguins, included Cleveland "Cleve" Duncan and Dexter Tisby, former classmates at <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fremont_High_School" title="John C. Fremont High School">Fremont High School</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Watts,_Los_Angeles" title="Watts, Los Angeles">Watts neighborhood</a> of Los Angeles. They, along with Bruce Tate and Curtis Williams, recorded the song "Earth Angel" (produced by Dootsie Williams), which rose to number one on the R&B charts in 1954.<a href="#cite_note-Macías2008-79">[79]</a> Most of the Los Angeles doo-wop groups came out of the Fremont, <a href="/wiki/Belmont_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Belmont High School (Los Angeles)">Belmont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Jefferson High School (Los Angeles)">Jefferson</a> high schools. All of them were influenced by <a href="/wiki/The_Robins" title="The Robins">the Robins</a>, a successful R&B group of the late 1940s and the 1950s who formed in San Francisco, or by other groups including <a href="/wiki/The_Flairs" title="The Flairs">the Flairs</a>, the Flamingos (not the Chicago group) and <a href="/wiki/The_Hollywood_Flames" title="The Hollywood Flames">the Hollywood Flames</a>. Many other Los Angeles doo-wop groups of the time were recorded by Dootsie Williams' Dootone Records and by John Dolphin's Central Avenue record store, Dolphin's of Hollywood. These included the Calvanes,<a href="#cite_note-Rosalsky2002-80">[80]</a> the Crescendos, the Cuff Linx, the Cubans, the Dootones, the Jaguars, the Jewels, <a href="/wiki/The_Meadowlarks" class="mw-redirect" title="The Meadowlarks">the Meadowlarks</a>, the Silks, the Squires, the Titans, and the Up-Fronts. A few groups, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Platters" title="The Platters">the Platters</a> and Rex Middleton's Hi-Fis, had <a href="/wiki/Crossover_music" title="Crossover music">crossover</a> success.<a href="#cite_note-Hoskyns2009-81">[81]</a> The Jaguars, from Fremont High School, was one of the first interracial vocal groups; it consisted of two African Americans, a Mexican American, and a Polish-Italian American. Doo-wop was popular with California Mexican Americans, who were attracted in the 1950s to its a capella vocals; the romantic style of the doo-wop groups appealed to them, as it was reminiscent of the traditional ballads and harmonies of Mexican folk music.<a href="#cite_note-Macías2008-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guevara201883-82">[82]</a> In 1960, <a href="/wiki/Art_Laboe" title="Art Laboe">Art Laboe</a> released one of the first <a href="/wiki/Oldies" title="Oldies">oldies</a> compilations, Memories of El Monte, on his record label, <a href="/wiki/Original_Sound" title="Original Sound">Original Sound</a>. The record was a collection of classic doo-wop songs by bands that used to play at the dances Laboe organized at <a href="/wiki/El_Monte_Legion_Stadium" title="El Monte Legion Stadium">Legion Stadium</a> in <a href="/wiki/El_Monte,_California" title="El Monte, California">El Monte, California</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Miles1970-83">[83]</a> beginning in 1955. It included songs by local bands such as the Heartbeats and <a href="/wiki/The_Medallions" title="The Medallions">the Medallions</a>. Laboe had become a celebrity in the Los Angeles area as a <a href="/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockey</a> for radio station <a href="/wiki/KTNQ" title="KTNQ">KPOP</a>, playing doo-wop and rhythm and blues broadcast from the parking lot of Scriverner's Drive-In on <a href="/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard" title="Sunset Boulevard">Sunset Boulevard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GuzmánFragoza2020-84">[84]</a> In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Zappa" title="Frank Zappa">Frank Zappa</a>, with his friend Ray Collins, wrote the doo-wop song "<a href="/wiki/Memories_of_El_Monte" title="Memories of El Monte">Memories of El Monte</a>". This was one of the first songs written by Zappa, who had been listening to Laboe's compilation of doo-wop <a href="/wiki/Single_(music)" title="Single (music)">singles</a>. Zappa took the song to Laboe, who recruited the lead vocalist of the Penguins, Cleve Duncan, for a new iteration of the group, recorded it, and released it as a single on his record label.<a href="#cite_note-GuzmánFragoza2020-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_City">New York City</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: New York City">edit</a>]</div> Early doo-wop music, dating from the late 1940s and early 1950s, was especially popular in the Northeast industrial corridor from New York to Philadelphia,<a href="#cite_note-Albrecht2019-85">[85]</a> and New York City was the world capital of doo-wop.<a href="#cite_note-GribinSchiff2000136b-86">[86]</a> There, African American groups such as the Ravens, the Drifters, the Dominoes, <a href="/wiki/The_Charts_(American_group)" title="The Charts (American group)">the Charts</a>, and the so-called "bird groups", such as the Crows, the Sparrows, the Larks, and <a href="/wiki/The_Wrens_(R%26B_band)" title="The Wrens (R&B band)">the Wrens</a>, melded rhythm and blues with the gospel music they had grown up singing in church. Street singing was almost always a cappella; instrumental accompaniment was added when the songs were recorded.<a href="#cite_note-Albrecht2019-85">[85]</a> The large numbers of blacks who had migrated to New York City as part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> came mostly from Georgia, Florida, and the Carolinas. In the 1940s black youths in the city began to sing the rhythm and blues styling that came to be known as doo-wop.<a href="#cite_note-WeissmanWeissman2005-87">[87]</a> Many of these groups were found in <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shaw1978-88">[88]</a> Blacks were forced by legal and social segregation, as well as by the constraints of the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a>, to live in certain parts of New York City of the early 1950s. They identified with their own wards, street blocks and streets. Being effectively locked out of mainstream white society increased their <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">social cohesion</a> and encouraged creativity within the context of African American culture. Young singers formed groups and rehearsed their songs in public spaces: on street corners, apartment stoops, and subway platforms, in bowling alleys, school bathrooms, and pool halls, as well as at playgrounds and under bridges.<a href="#cite_note-Runowicz201038-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Robinson_(record_producer)" title="Bobby Robinson (record producer)">Bobby Robinson</a>, a native of South Carolina, was an independent record producer and songwriter in Harlem who helped popularize doo-wop music in the 1950s. He got into the music business in 1946 when he opened "Bobby's Record Shop" (later "Bobby's Happy House") on the corner of <a href="/wiki/125th_Street_(Manhattan)" title="125th Street (Manhattan)">125th Street</a><a href="#cite_note-Eligon2007-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morris2011-90">[90]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Avenue_(Manhattan)" title="Eighth Avenue (Manhattan)">Eighth Avenue</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Theater" title="Apollo Theater">Apollo Theater</a>, a noted venue for African-American performers. The Apollo held talent contests in which audience members indicated their favorites with applause. These were a major outlet for doo-wop performers to be discovered by record company talent scouts.<a href="#cite_note-Zak2012-91">[91]</a> In 1951, Robinson started Robin Records, which later became <a href="/wiki/Red_Robin_Records" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Robin Records">Red Robin Records</a>, and began recording doo-wop; he recorded the Ravens, the Mello-Moods, and many other doo-wop vocal groups.<a href="#cite_note-MooreCross2002-92">[92]</a> He used the tiny shop to launch a series of record labels which released many hits in the US.<a href="#cite_note-Hinckley2011-93">[93]</a> Robinson founded or co-founded Red Robin Records, Whirlin' Disc Records, Fury Records, Everlast Records, Fire Records and Enjoy Records.<a href="#cite_note-Govenar2010-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Godfrey" title="Arthur Godfrey">Arthur Godfrey</a>'s long-running (1946–1958) morning radio show on CBS, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Godfrey%27s_Talent_Scouts" title="Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts">Talent Scouts</a>, was a New York venue from which some doo-wop groups gained national exposure. In 1948, the Orioles, then known as the Vibra-Nairs, went to the city with <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Chessler" title="Deborah Chessler">Deborah Chessler</a>, their manager and main songwriter, and appeared on the show. They won only third place, but Godfrey invited them back twice. Chessler leveraged a few demo recordings the group had cut, along with the recent radio exposure, to interest a distributor in marketing the group on an independent label. They cut six sides, one of which was a doo-wop ballad written by Chessler called "<a href="/wiki/It%27s_Too_Soon_to_Know" title="It's Too Soon to Know">It's Too Soon to Know</a>". It reached no. 1 on Billboard's national Most-Played Juke Box Race Records chart, and, in a first for a doo-wop song, the record crossed over to the mainstream pop chart, where it reached no. 13.<a href="#cite_note-Zak201289-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Du_Droppers" title="The Du Droppers">The Du Droppers</a> formed in Harlem in 1952. Members of the band were experienced <a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">gospel</a> singers in ensembles dating to the 1940s, and were one of the oldest groups to record during the era. Among the Du Droppers' most enduring songs are "I Wanna Know" and "I Found Out (What You Do When You Go Round There)", which both reached number three on the <a href="/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs" title="Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs">Billboard R&B charts</a> in 1953. Frankie Lymon, lead vocalist of <a href="/wiki/The_Teenagers" title="The Teenagers">the Teenagers</a>, was the first black <a href="/wiki/Teen_idol" title="Teen idol">teen idol</a> who appealed to both black and white audiences. He was born in Harlem, where he began singing doo-wop songs with his friends on the streets. He joined a group, the Premiers, and helped members <a href="/wiki/Herman_Santiago" title="Herman Santiago">Herman Santiago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Merchant" title="Jimmy Merchant">Jimmy Merchant</a> rewrite a song they had composed to create "<a href="/wiki/Why_Do_Fools_Fall_in_Love_(song)" title="Why Do Fools Fall in Love (song)">Why Do Fools Fall In Love</a>", which won the group an audition with <a href="/wiki/Gee_Records" title="Gee Records">Gee Records</a>. Santiago was too sick to sing lead on the day of the audition, consequently Lymon sang the lead on "Why Do Fools Fall in Love" instead, and the group was signed as the Teenagers with Lymon as lead singer. The song quickly charted as the number one R&B song in the United States and reached number six on the <a href="/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100" title="Billboard Hot 100">pop chart</a> in 1956,<a href="#cite_note-Phelps1999-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smith2012-96">[96]</a> becoming the number one pop hit in the United Kingdom as well.<a href="#cite_note-Besel2020-97">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Willows_(group)" title="The Willows (group)">The Willows</a>, an influential street corner group from Harlem, were a model for many of the New York City doo-wop acts that rose after them. Their biggest hit was "<a href="/wiki/Church_Bells_May_Ring" title="Church Bells May Ring">Church Bells May Ring</a>", featuring <a href="/wiki/Neil_Sedaka" title="Neil Sedaka">Neil Sedaka</a>, then a member of <a href="/wiki/The_Tokens#Career" title="The Tokens">the Linc-Tones</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Tubular_bells" title="Tubular bells">chimes</a>. It reached number 11 on the <a href="/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs" title="Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs">US R&B chart</a> in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-MorrowMaloof2007-99">[99]</a> Although they never had a national chart hit, <a href="/wiki/The_Solitaires" title="The Solitaires">the Solitaires</a>, best known for their 1957 <a href="/wiki/Hit_single" class="mw-redirect" title="Hit single">hit single</a> "<a href="/wiki/Walking_Along" title="Walking Along">Walking Along</a>", were one of the most popular vocal groups in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> in the late 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Goldberg2009-100">[100]</a> The heyday of the girl group era began in 1957 with the success of two teen groups from the Bronx, <a href="/wiki/The_Chantels" title="The Chantels">the Chantels</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Bobbettes" title="The Bobbettes">the Bobbettes</a>. The six girls in the Bobettes, aged eleven to fifteen, wrote and recorded "Mr. Lee", a novelty tune about a schoolteacher that was a national hit. The Chantels were the second African-American <a href="/wiki/Girl_group" title="Girl group">girl group</a> to enjoy nationwide success in the US. The group was established in the early 1950s by five students, all of them born in the Bronx,<a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann2005-101">[101]</a> who attended the Catholic <a href="/wiki/St._Anthony_of_Padua_Church_(Bronx)" title="St. Anthony of Padua Church (Bronx)">St. Anthony of Padua School</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Bronx" title="The Bronx">the Bronx</a>, where they were trained to sing <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Chant">Gregorian Chants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Weller2008-102">[102]</a> Their first recording was "He's Gone" (1958), which made them the first <a href="/wiki/Pop_rock" title="Pop rock">pop rock</a> girl group to chart. Their second single, "Maybe" hit the charts, No. 15 on Billboard's Hot 100.<a href="#cite_note-Cole2009-103">[103]</a> In 1960, <a href="/wiki/The_Chiffons" title="The Chiffons">the Chiffons</a> began as a trio of schoolmates at <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe_High_School_(New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Monroe High School (New York)">James Monroe High School</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Bronx" title="The Bronx">the Bronx</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Warner2006265-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judy_Craig" title="Judy Craig">Judy Craig</a>, fourteen years old, was the lead singer, singing with Patricia Bennett and Barbara Lee, both thirteen. In 1962, the girls met songwriter <a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Mack" title="Ronnie Mack">Ronnie Mack</a> at the after-school center; Mack suggested they add Sylvia Peterson, who had sung with <a href="/wiki/Little_Jimmy_%26_the_Tops" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Jimmy & the Tops">Little Jimmy & the Tops</a>, to the group. The group was named the Chiffons when recording and releasing their first single, "<a href="/wiki/He%27s_So_Fine" title="He's So Fine">He's So Fine</a>". Written by Mack, it was released on the <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Records" title="Laurie Records">Laurie Records</a> label in 1963. "He's So Fine" hit No. 1 in the US, selling over one million copies.<a href="#cite_note-Murrels-105">[105]</a> Public School 99, which sponsored evening talent shows, and Morris High School were centers of musical creativity in the Bronx during the doo-wop era. Arthur Crier, a leading figure in the doo-wop scene in the <a href="/wiki/Morrisania,_Bronx" title="Morrisania, Bronx">Morrissania</a> neighborhood,<a href="#cite_note-Naison2004-106">[106]</a> was born in Harlem and raised in the Bronx; his mother was from North Carolina. Crier was a founding member of a doo-wop group called the Five Chimes, one of several different groups with that name,<a href="#cite_note-Groia1983-107">[107]</a> and sang bass with <a href="/wiki/The_Halos" title="The Halos">the Halos</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Mellows" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mellows">the Mellows</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McLaughlin2019-108">[108]</a> Many years later he observed that there was a shift in the music sung on the streets from gospel to secular rhythm and blues between 1950 and 1952.<a href="#cite_note-Crier2015-109">[109]</a> New York was also the capital of Italian doo-wop, and all its boroughs were home to groups that made successful records. The Crests were from the Lower East Side in Manhattan; Dion and the Belmonts, the Regents, and <a href="/wiki/Nino_and_the_Ebb_Tides" title="Nino and the Ebb Tides">Nino and the Ebb Tides</a> were from the Bronx; the Elegants from Staten Island; <a href="/wiki/The_Capris" title="The Capris">the Capris</a> from Queens; the Mystics, the Neons, the Classics, and <a href="/wiki/Vito_%26_the_Salutations" title="Vito & the Salutations">Vito & the Salutations</a> from Brooklyn.<a href="#cite_note-Cinotto2014198-110">[110]</a> Although Italians were a much smaller proportion of the Bronx's population in the 1950s than Jews and the Irish, only they had significant influence as rock 'n' roll singers. Young people of other ethnicities were listening to rock 'n' roll, but it was Italian Americans who established themselves in performing and recording the music.<a href="#cite_note-Naison2019-111">[111]</a> While relationships between Italian Americans and African Americans in the Bronx were sometimes fraught, there were many instances of collaboration between them.<a href="#cite_note-Gennari20178-112">[112]</a> Italian Americans kept African Americans out of their neighborhoods with racial boundary policing and fought against them in turf wars and <a href="/wiki/Gang#Gang_violence" title="Gang">gang battles</a>, yet they adopted the popular music of African Americans, treated it as their own, and were an appreciative audience for black doo-wop groups.<a href="#cite_note-Tricarico2018-113">[113]</a> Similarities in language idioms, masculine norms, and public comportment<a href="#cite_note-Gennari2017-114">[114]</a> made it possible for African American and Italian American young men to mingle easily when societal expectations did not interfere. These cultural commonalities allowed Italian Americans to appreciate the singing of black doo-woppers in <a href="/wiki/Deterritorialization" title="Deterritorialization">deterritorialized</a> spaces, whether on the radio, on records, at live concerts, or in street performances.<a href="#cite_note-Cinotto2014204-115">[115]</a> Dozens of neighborhood Italian groups formed, some of which recorded songs at Cousins Records, a record shop turned label, on Fordham Road.<a href="#cite_note-Warner2006434-116">[116]</a> Italian American groups from the Bronx released a steady stream of doo-wop songs, including "Teenager In Love" and "I Wonder Why" by Dion and the Belmonts, and "Barbara Ann" by the Regents.<a href="#cite_note-Naison2019-111">[111]</a> Johnny Maestro, the Italian American lead singer of the interracial Bronx group the Crests, was the lead on the hit "<a href="/wiki/16_Candles_(song)" title="16 Candles (song)">Sixteen Candles</a>". Maestro said that he became interested in R&B vocal group harmony listening to the Flamingos, <a href="/wiki/The_Harptones" title="The Harptones">the Harptones</a>, and the Moonglows on <a href="/wiki/Alan_Freed" title="Alan Freed">Alan Freed</a>'s radio show on <a href="/wiki/WINS_(AM)" title="WINS (AM)">WINS</a> in New York. Freed's various radio and stage shows had a crucial role in creating a market for Italian doo-wop.<a href="#cite_note-Cinotto2014204-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Philadelphia">edit</a>]</div> Young black singers in Philadelphia helped create the doo-wop vocal harmony style developing in the major cities of the US during the 1950s. Early doo-wop groups in the city included <a href="/wiki/The_Castelles" title="The Castelles">the Castelles</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Silhouettes" title="The Silhouettes">the Silhouettes</a>, the Turbans, and <a href="/wiki/Lee_Andrews_%26_the_Hearts" title="Lee Andrews & the Hearts">Lee Andrews & the Hearts</a>. They were recorded by small independent rhythm and blues record labels, and occasionally by more established labels in New York. Most of these groups had limited success, scoring only one or two hit songs on the R&B charts. They had frequent personnel changes and often moved from label to label hoping to achieve another hit.<a href="#cite_note-McCarthy2016-117">[117]</a> The migration of blacks to Philadelphia from the southern states of the US, especially South Carolina and Virginia, had a profound effect not only on the city's demographics, but on its music and culture as well. During the Great Migration, the black population of Philadelphia increased to 250,000 by 1940. Hundreds of thousands of southern African Americans migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan area</a>, bringing their secular and religious folk music with them. After World War II, the black population of the metro grew to about 530,000 by 1960.<a href="#cite_note-KernodleMaxille2010-118">[118]</a> Black doo-wop groups had a major role in the evolution of rhythm and blues in early 1950s Philadelphia. Groups like the Castelles and the Turbans helped develop the music with their tight harmonies, lush ballads, and distinctive <a href="/wiki/Falsetto" title="Falsetto">falsettos</a>. Many of these vocal groups got together in <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary schools</a> such as <a href="/wiki/West_Philadelphia_High_School" title="West Philadelphia High School">West Philadelphia High School</a>, and performed at neighborhood recreation centers and teen dances.<a href="#cite_note-KernodleMaxille2010-118">[118]</a> The Turbans, Philadelphia's first nationally charting R&B group,<a href="#cite_note-Talevski201019-119">[119]</a> formed in 1953 when they were in their teens. They signed with <a href="/wiki/Herald_Records" title="Herald Records">Herald Records</a> and recorded "Let Me Show You (Around My Heart)" with its B side, "When We Dance", in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-Archive2011-120">[120]</a> "When We Dance" became a national hit, rising to no. 3 on the R&B charts and reaching the Top 40 on the pop charts.<a href="#cite_note-Leszczak2013-121">[121]</a> The Silhouettes' crossover hit "<a href="/wiki/Get_a_Job_(song)" title="Get a Job (song)">Get a Job</a>", released in 1957, reached number one on the pop and R&B charts in February 1958, while Lee Andrews & the Hearts had hits in 1957 and 1958 with "Teardrops", "<a href="/wiki/Long_Lonely_Nights" title="Long Lonely Nights">Long Lonely Nights</a>", and "Try the Impossible".<a href="#cite_note-McCarthy2016-117">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kae_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Kae Williams">Kae Williams</a>, a Philadelphia deejay, record label owner and producer, managed the doo-wop groups Lee Andrews & the Hearts, <a href="/wiki/The_Sensations" title="The Sensations">the Sensations</a>, who sold nearly a million records in 1961 with the song "<a href="/wiki/Let_Me_In_(The_Sensations_song)" title="Let Me In (The Sensations song)">Let Me In</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Warner2006287-122">[122]</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Silhouettes" title="The Silhouettes">the Silhouettes</a>, who had a number 1 hit in 1958 with "Get a Job". After the nationally distributed <a href="/wiki/Ember_Records_(US_label)" title="Ember Records (US label)">Ember label</a> acquired the rights to "Get a Job", <a href="/wiki/Dick_Clark" title="Dick Clark">Dick Clark</a> began to play it on <a href="/wiki/American_Bandstand" title="American Bandstand">American Bandstand</a>, and subsequently it sold over a million copies, topping the Billboard R&B singles chart and pop singles chart.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson1999-123">[123]</a> Although American Bandstand's programming came to rely on the musical creations of black performers, the show marginalized black teens with exclusionary admissions policies until it moved to Los Angeles in 1964.<a href="#cite_note-KernodleMaxille2010-118">[118]</a> Featuring young whites dancing to music popularized by local deejays <a href="/wiki/Georgie_Woods" title="Georgie Woods">Georgie Woods</a> and Mitch Thomas, with steps created by their black teenage listeners, Bandstand presented to its national audience an image of youth culture that erased the presence of black teenagers in Philadelphia's youth music scene.<a href="#cite_note-Delmont201215-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2004-125">[125]</a> Broadcast from a warehouse on 46th and Market Street in West Philadelphia, most of American Bandstand's young dancers were Italian Americans who attended a nearby Catholic high school in South Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson2004-125">[125]</a> Like the rest of the entertainment industry, American Bandstand camouflaged the intrinsic blackness of the music in response to a national <a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">moral panic</a> over rock 'n' roll's popularity with white teenagers, and the show's Italian American dancers and performers were deethnicized as "nice white kids", their Italian American youth identity submerged in whiteness.<a href="#cite_note-LeonardD'Acierno1998-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConnellPugliese2017-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tricarico201837-128">[128]</a> Dick Clark kept track of the national music scene through <a href="/wiki/Promotion_(marketing)" title="Promotion (marketing)">promoters</a> and popular disc jockeys. In Philadelphia, he listened to <a href="/wiki/Hy_Lit" title="Hy Lit">Hy Lit</a>, the lone white deejay at <a href="/wiki/WHAT_(AM)" title="WHAT (AM)">WHAT</a>, and African American disc jockeys Georgie Woods and <a href="/wiki/Jocko_Henderson" title="Jocko Henderson">Douglas "Jocko" Henderson</a> on <a href="/wiki/WDAS_(AM)" title="WDAS (AM)">WDAS</a>. These were Philadelphia's two major black radio stations; they were black-oriented, but white-owned.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson199951-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy2016a-130">[130]</a> The program director of WHAT, Charlie O'Donnell, hired Lit, who was Jewish, to deejay on the station in 1955, and Lit's career was launched. From there he went to WRCV and then around 1956 to <a href="/wiki/WNTP#History" title="WNTP">WIBG</a>, where over 70 percent of the radio audience in the <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_range" title="Broadcast range">listening area</a> tuned in to his 6–10 p.m. program.<a href="#cite_note-Hatmaker2017-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cameo-Parkway_Records" title="Cameo-Parkway Records">Cameo Records and Parkway Records</a> were major record labels based in Philadelphia from 1956 (Cameo) and 1958 (Parkway) to 1967 that released doo-wop records. In 1957, small Philadelphia record label XYZ had recorded "<a href="/wiki/Silhouettes_(The_Rays_song)" title="Silhouettes (The Rays song)">Silhouettes</a>", a song by local group the Rays, which Cameo picked up for national distribution. It eventually reached number 3 on both the <a href="/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs" title="Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs">R&B Best Sellers</a> chart and <a href="/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)" title="Billboard (magazine)">Billboard</a> Top 100,<a href="#cite_note-Whitburn2004-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Warner2006284-133">[133]</a> and also reached the top five on both the sales and airplay charts. It was the group's only top 40 hit. Several white Philadelphia doo-wop groups also had <a href="/wiki/Record_chart#Chart_hit" title="Record chart">chart-toppers</a>; <a href="/wiki/The_Capris_(Philadelphia_group)" title="The Capris (Philadelphia group)">the Capris</a> had a regional hit with "<a href="/wiki/God_Only_Knows_(1954_song)" title="God Only Knows (1954 song)">God Only Knows</a>" in 1954.<a href="#cite_note-Larkin2000-134">[134]</a> In 1958, <a href="/wiki/Danny_%26_the_Juniors" title="Danny & the Juniors">Danny & the Juniors</a> had a number-one hit with "<a href="/wiki/At_the_Hop" title="At the Hop">At the Hop</a>" and their song "Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay" reached the top twenty. In 1961, <a href="/wiki/The_Dovells" title="The Dovells">the Dovells</a> reached the number two spot with "<a href="/wiki/Bristol_Stomp" title="Bristol Stomp">Bristol Stomp</a>", about teenagers in <a href="/wiki/Bristol,_Pennsylvania" title="Bristol, Pennsylvania">Bristol, Pennsylvania</a> who were dancing a new step called "The Stomp".<a href="#cite_note-McCarthy2016-117">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Blavat" title="Jerry Blavat">Jerry Blavat</a>, a half-Jewish, half-Italian, popular deejay on Philadelphia radio, built his career hosting dances and live shows and gained a devoted local following. He soon had his own independent radio show, on which he introduced many doo-wop acts in the 1960s to a wide audience, including <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_(band)" title="The Four Seasons (band)">the Four Seasons</a>, an Italian American group from Newark, New Jersey.<a href="#cite_note-Blavat2013-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConnellPugliese2017-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jamaica">Jamaica</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Jamaica">edit</a>]</div> The history of modern Jamaican music is relatively short. A sudden shift in its style began in the early 1950s with the importing of American rhythm and blues records to the island and the new availability of affordable transistor radios. Listeners whose tastes had been neglected by the lone Jamaican station at the time, <a href="/wiki/RJR_94_FM#History" title="RJR 94 FM">RJR</a> (Real Jamaican Radio), tuned into the R&B music being broadcast on the powerful nighttime signals of American AM radio stations,<a href="#cite_note-Kauppila2006-136">[136]</a> especially <a href="/wiki/WLAC#Late_night_rhythm_and_blues" title="WLAC">WLAC</a> in Nashville, WNOE in New Orleans, and <a href="/wiki/WINZ_(AM)" title="WINZ (AM)">WINZ</a> in Miami.<a href="#cite_note-GuilloryGreen1998-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fredericks2000-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lindsay2014-139">[139]</a> On these stations Jamaicans could hear the likes of <a href="/wiki/Fats_Domino" title="Fats Domino">Fats Domino</a> and doo-wop vocal groups.<a href="#cite_note-Joyner2008-140">[140]</a> Jamaicans who worked as migrant agricultural workers in the southern US returned with R&B records, which sparked an active dance scene in <a href="/wiki/Kingston,_Jamaica" title="Kingston, Jamaica">Kingston</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fredericks2000-138">[138]</a> In the late 1940s and early 1950s, many working-class Jamaicans who could not afford radios attended sound system dances, large outdoor dances featuring a deejay (<a href="/wiki/Disc_jockey#Dancehall/reggae_deejays" title="Disc jockey">selector</a>) and his selection of records. Enterprising deejays used mobile sound systems to create impromptu street parties.<a href="#cite_note-CampbellBrody2007-141">[141]</a> These developments were the principal means by which new American R&B records were introduced to a mass Jamaican audience.<a href="#cite_note-Kauppila2006-136">[136]</a> The opening by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Khouri" title="Ken Khouri">Ken Khouri</a> of Federal Studios, Jamaica's first recording facility, in 1954, marked the beginning of a prolific recording industry and a thriving rhythm and blues scene in Jamaica.<a href="#cite_note-Fredericks2000-138">[138]</a> In 1957, American performers including <a href="/wiki/Rosco_Gordon" title="Rosco Gordon">Rosco Gordon</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Platters" title="The Platters">the Platters</a> performed in Kingston.<a href="#cite_note-Kauppila2006-136">[136]</a> In late August 1957, the doo-wop group Lewis Lymon and the Teenchords arrived in Kingston as part of the "Rock-a-rama" rhythm and blues troupe for two days of shows at the Carib Theatre. <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Coins" title="The Four Coins">The Four Coins</a>, a Greek American doo-wop group from Pittsburgh, did a show in Kingston in 1958.<a href="#cite_note-Witmer1987-142">[142]</a> Like their American exemplars, many Jamaican vocalists began their careers by practicing harmonies in groups on street corners, before moving on to the talent contest circuit that was the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proving_ground" class="extiw" title="wikt:proving ground">proving ground</a> for new talent in the days before the rise of the first sound systems.<a href="#cite_note-O'Hagan2020-143">[143]</a> In 1959, while he was a student at <a href="/wiki/Kingston_College_(Jamaica)" title="Kingston College (Jamaica)">Kingston College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dobby_Dobson" title="Dobby Dobson">Dobby Dobson</a> wrote the doo-wop song "Cry a Little Cry" in honor of his shapely biology teacher, and recruited a group of his schoolmates to back him on a recording of the song under the name Dobby Dobson and the Deltas on the Tip-Top label. It climbed to number one on the RJR charts, where it spent some six weeks.<a href="#cite_note-Black2015-144">[144]</a> The harmonizing of the American doo-wop groups <a href="/wiki/The_Drifters" title="The Drifters">the Drifters</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Impressions" title="The Impressions">the Impressions</a> served as a vocal model for a newly formed (1963) group, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Marley_and_the_Wailers" title="Bob Marley and the Wailers">the Wailers</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Bob_Marley" title="Bob Marley">Bob Marley</a> sang lead while <a href="/wiki/Bunny_Wailer" title="Bunny Wailer">Bunny Wailer</a> sang high harmony and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tosh" title="Peter Tosh">Peter Tosh</a> sang low harmony.<a href="#cite_note-GuilloryGreen1998-137">[137]</a> The Wailers recorded an homage to doo-wop in 1965 with their version of Dion and the Belmonts' "<a href="/wiki/A_Teenager_in_Love" title="A Teenager in Love">A Teenager in Love</a>".<a href="#cite_note-O'Hagan2020-143">[143]</a> Bunny Wailer cited Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers, the Platters, and the Drifters as early influences on the group. The Wailers covered Harvey and the Moonglows' 1958 doo-wop hit, "Ten Commandments of Love", on their debut album, <a href="/wiki/Wailing_Wailers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wailing Wailers">Wailing Wailers</a>, released in late 1965.<a href="#cite_note-Unterberger2017-145">[145]</a> The same year, the Wailers cut the doo-wop song "Lonesome Feelings", with "There She Goes" on the <a href="/wiki/A-side_and_B-side" title="A-side and B-side">B-side</a>, as a single produced by <a href="/wiki/Coxsone_Dodd" title="Coxsone Dodd">Coxsone Dodd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson2002-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Doo-wop_and_racial_relations">Doo-wop and racial relations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Doo-wop and racial relations">edit</a>]</div> The synthesis of music styles that evolved into what is now called rhythm and blues, previously labeled "race music" by the record companies, found a broad youth audience in the postwar years and helped to catalyze changes in racial relations in American society. By 1948, RCA Victor was marketing black music under the name "Blues and Rhythm". In 1949, <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Wexler" title="Jerry Wexler">Jerry Wexler</a>, a reporter for Billboard magazine at the time, reversed the words and coined the name "Rhythm and Blues" to replace the term "Race Music" for the magazine's black music chart.<a href="#cite_note-Gulla2008-147">[147]</a> One style of rhythm and blues was mostly vocal, with instrumental backing that ranged from a full orchestra to none. It was most often performed by a group, frequently a quartet, as in the black gospel tradition; utilizing close harmonies, this style was nearly always performed in a slow to medium tempo. The lead voice, usually one in the upper register, often sang over the driving, wordless chords of the other singers or interacted with them in a <a href="/wiki/Call-and-response" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-and-response">call-and-response</a> exchange. Vocal harmony groups such as the Ink Spots embodied this style, the direct antecedent of doo-wop, which rose from inner city street corners in the mid-1950s and ranked high on the popular music charts between 1955 and 1959.<a href="#cite_note-Modleski1986-7">[7]</a> Black and white young people both wanted to see popular doo-wop acts perform, and racially mixed groups of youths would stand on inner city street corners and sing doo-wop songs a capella. This angered white supremacists, who considered rhythm and blues and rock and roll a danger to America's youth.<a href="#cite_note-Hill1997-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peddie2020-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taruskin2006-150">[150]</a> The development of rhythm and blues coincided with the issue of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> becoming more socially contentious in American society, while the black leadership increasingly challenged the old social order. The white power structure in American society and some executives in the corporately controlled entertainment industry saw rhythm and blues, rooted in black culture, as obscene,<a href="#cite_note-Bertrand2000-151">[151]</a> and considered it a threat to white youth, among whom the genre was becoming increasingly popular.<a href="#cite_note-Absher2014-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_influence_in_doo-wop">Jewish influence in doo-wop</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Jewish influence in doo-wop">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_influence_in_rhythm_and_blues" title="Jewish influence in rhythm and blues">Jewish influence in rhythm and blues</a></div> Jewish composers, musicians, and promoters had a prominent role in the transition to doo-wop and rock 'n' roll from jazz and swing in American popular music of the 1950s,<a href="#cite_note-Rausch1996-153">[153]</a> while Jewish businessmen founded many of the labels that recorded rhythm and blues during the height of the vocal group era.<a href="#cite_note-RanMorad2016-154">[154]</a> In the decade from 1944 to 1955, many of the most influential record companies specializing in "race" music—or "rhythm and blues", as it later came to be known—were owned or co-owned by Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Kobrin2012-155">[155]</a> It was the small independent record companies that recorded, marketed, and distributed doo-wop music.<a href="#cite_note-Runowicz2010-156">[156]</a> For example, Jack and Devora Brown, a Jewish couple in Detroit, founded <a href="/wiki/Fortune_Records" title="Fortune Records">Fortune Records</a> in 1946, and recorded a variety of eccentric artists and sounds; in the mid-1950s they became champions of Detroit rhythm and blues, including the music of local doo-wop groups.<a href="#cite_note-Liebler2016-71">[71]</a> A few other Jewish women were in the recording business, such as <a href="/wiki/Florence_Greenberg" title="Florence Greenberg">Florence Greenberg</a>, who started the <a href="/wiki/Scepter_Records" title="Scepter Records">Scepter</a> label in 1959, and signed the African American girl group, <a href="/wiki/The_Shirelles" title="The Shirelles">the Shirelles</a>. The songwriting team of <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Goffin" title="Gerry Goffin">Goffin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carole_King" title="Carole King">King</a>, who worked for Don Kirshner's Aldon music at 1650 Broadway (near the famed <a href="/wiki/Brill_Building" title="Brill Building">Brill Building</a> at 1619),<a href="#cite_note-Emerson200611-157">[157]</a> offered Greenberg a song, "<a href="/wiki/Will_You_Love_Me_Tomorrow" title="Will You Love Me Tomorrow">Will You Love Me Tomorrow</a>", which was recorded by the Shirelles and rose to number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1961. During the early 1960s, Scepter was the most successful independent record label.<a href="#cite_note-Stratton2017-158">[158]</a> Deborah Chessler, a young Jewish sales clerk interested in black music, became the manager and songwriter for the Baltimore doo-wop group the Orioles. They recorded her song "It's Too Soon to Know" and it reached no. 1 on Billboard's race records charts in November 1948.<a href="#cite_note-GoldsteinWeiner2018-159">[159]</a> Some record company owners such as <a href="/wiki/Herman_Lubinsky" title="Herman Lubinsky">Herman Lubinsky</a> had a reputation for exploiting black artists.<a href="#cite_note-CherryGriffith2014-160">[160]</a> Lubinsky, who founded Savoy Records in 1942, produced and recorded the Carnations, the Debutantes, <a href="/wiki/The_Falcons" title="The Falcons">the Falcons</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jive_Bombers" title="The Jive Bombers">the Jive Bombers</a>, the Robins, and many others. Although his entrepreneurial approach to the music business and his role as a middleman between black artists and white audiences created opportunities for unrecorded groups to pursue wider exposure,<a href="#cite_note-CherryGriffith2014-160">[160]</a> he was reviled by many of the black musicians he dealt with.<a href="#cite_note-Kukla2002-161">[161]</a> Historians <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Cherry" title="Robert D. Cherry">Robert Cherry</a> and Jennifer Griffith maintain that regardless of Lubinsky's personal shortcomings, the evidence that he treated African American artists worse in his business dealings than other independent label owners did is unconvincing. They contend that in the extremely competitive independent record company business during the postwar era, the practices of Jewish record owners generally were more a reflection of changing economic realities in the industry than of their personal attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-CherryGriffith2014-160">[160]</a> New York rockers <a href="/wiki/Lou_Reed" title="Lou Reed">Lou Reed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joey_Ramone" title="Joey Ramone">Joey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Ramone" title="Tommy Ramone">Tommy Ramone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chris_Stein" title="Chris Stein">Chris Stein</a> were doo-wop fans, as were many other Jewish <a href="/wiki/Punk_rock" title="Punk rock">punks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-punk" title="Proto-punk">proto-punks</a>. Reed recorded his first lead vocals in 1962 on two doo-wop songs, "Merry Go Round" and "Your Love", which were not released at the time.<a href="#cite_note-Beeber200643-162">[162]</a> A few years later, Reed worked as a staff songwriter writing bubblegum and doo-wop songs in the assembly-line operation at <a href="/wiki/Pickwick_Records" title="Pickwick Records">Pickwick Records</a> in New York.<a href="#cite_note-Beeber2006-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Doo-wop_influence_on_punk_and_proto-punk_rockers">Doo-wop influence on punk and proto-punk rockers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Doo-wop influence on punk and proto-punk rockers">edit</a>]</div> The R&B and doo-wop music that informed early rock 'n' roll was racially appropriated in the 1970s just as blues-based rock had been in the 1950s and 1960s. Generic terms such as "Brill Building music" obscure the roles of the black producers, writers, and groups like <a href="/wiki/The_Marvelettes" title="The Marvelettes">the Marvelettes</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Supremes" title="The Supremes">the Supremes</a>, who were performing similar music and creating hits for the Motown label, but were categorized as soul. According to ethnomusicologist Evan Rapport, before 1958 more than ninety percent of doo-wop performers were African-American, but the situation changed as large numbers of white groups began to enter the performance arena.<a href="#cite_note-Rapport2020-164">[164]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg/220px-Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg/330px-Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg/440px-Ramones_Toronto_1976.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>The Ramones in Toronto (1976)</figcaption></figure> This music was embraced by punk rockers in the 1970s, as part of a larger societal trend among white people in the US of romanticizing it as music that belonged to a simpler (in their eyes) time of racial harmony before the social upheaval of the 1960s. White Americans had a nostalgic fascination with the 1950s and early 1960s that entered mainstream culture beginning in 1969 when Gus Gossert started to broadcast early rock and roll and doo-wop songs on New York's <a href="/wiki/WCBS-FM" title="WCBS-FM">WCBS-FM</a> radio station. This trend reached its peak in racially segregated commercial productions such as <a href="/wiki/American_Graffiti" title="American Graffiti">American Graffiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Happy_Days" title="Happy Days">Happy Days</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grease_(film)" title="Grease (film)">Grease</a>, which was double-billed with <a href="/wiki/The_Ramones" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ramones">the Ramones</a>' B-movie feature <a href="/wiki/Rock_%27n%27_Roll_High_School" title="Rock 'n' Roll High School">Rock 'n' Roll High School</a> in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-Rapport2020-164">[164]</a> Early punk rock adaptations of the 12-bar aab pattern associated with California surf or beach music, done within eight-, sixteen-, and twenty-four bar forms, were made by bands such as the Ramones, either as covers or as original compositions. Employing stylistic conventions of 1950s and 1960s doowop and rock and roll to signify the period referenced, some punk bands used call-and-response background vocals and doo-wop style <a href="/wiki/Non-lexical_vocables" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-lexical vocables">vocables</a> in songs, with subject matter following the example set by rock and roll and doo-wop groups of that era: teenage romance, cars, and dancing. Early punk rockers sometimes portrayed these nostalgic 1950s <a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">tropes</a> with irony and sarcasm according to their own lived experiences, but they still indulged the fantasies evoked by the images.<a href="#cite_note-Rapport2020116-165">[165]</a> By 1963 and 1964, <a href="/wiki/Proto-punk" title="Proto-punk">proto-punk</a> rocker Lou Reed was working the college circuit, leading bands that played covers of three-chord hits by pop groups and "anything from New York with a classic doo-wop feel and a street attitude".<a href="#cite_note-Dogget2013-166">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Richman" title="Jonathan Richman">Jonathan Richman</a>, founder of the influential proto-punk band <a href="/wiki/The_Modern_Lovers" title="The Modern Lovers">the Modern Lovers</a>, cut the album <a href="/wiki/Rockin%27_and_Romance" title="Rockin' and Romance">Rockin' and Romance</a> (1985) with acoustic guitar and doo-wop harmonies. His song "Down in Bermuda" for example, was directly influenced by "Down in Cuba" by the Royal Holidays. His album <a href="/wiki/Modern_Lovers_88" title="Modern Lovers 88">Modern Lovers 88</a> (1987), with doo-wop stylings and <a href="/wiki/Bo_Diddley" title="Bo Diddley">Bo Diddley</a> rhythms, was recorded in acoustic trio format.<a href="#cite_note-BogdanovWoodstra2002942-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popularity">Popularity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Popularity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg/240px-The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg/360px-The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg/480px-The-Cleftones-Pittsburgh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Cleftones" title="The Cleftones">The Cleftones</a> during their participation in the doo-wop festival celebrated in May 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Benedum_Center" title="Benedum Center">Benedum Center</a>.</figcaption></figure> Doo-wop groups achieved 1951 R&B chart hits with songs such as "<a href="/wiki/Sixty_Minute_Man" title="Sixty Minute Man">Sixty Minute Man</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Billy_Ward_and_His_Dominoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Billy Ward and His Dominoes">Billy Ward and His Dominoes</a>, "Where Are You?" by <a href="/wiki/The_Mello-Moods" title="The Mello-Moods">the Mello-Moods</a>, "<a href="/wiki/The_Glory_of_Love_(song)" title="The Glory of Love (song)">The Glory of Love</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Keys" title="The Five Keys">the Five Keys</a>, and "Shouldn't I Know" by <a href="/wiki/The_Cardinals" title="The Cardinals">the Cardinals</a>. Doo-wop groups played a significant role in ushering in the <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</a> era when two big <a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">rhythm and blues</a> hits by vocal harmony groups, "<a href="/wiki/Gee_(The_Crows_song)" title="Gee (The Crows song)">Gee</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Crows" title="The Crows">the Crows</a>, and "<a href="/wiki/Sh-Boom" title="Sh-Boom">Sh-Boom</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Chords_(American_band)" title="The Chords (American band)">the Chords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crossover_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossover (music)">crossed over</a> onto the <a href="/wiki/Pop_music" title="Pop music">pop music</a> charts in 1954.<a href="#cite_note-MooreCross2002-92">[92]</a> "Sh-Boom" is considered to have been the first rhythm-and-blues record to break into the top ten on the <a href="/wiki/Billboard_charts" title="Billboard charts">Billboard</a> charts, reaching number 5; a few months later, a white group from Canada, the <a href="/wiki/The_Crew-Cuts" title="The Crew-Cuts">Crew Cuts</a>, released their cover of the song, which reached number 1 and remained there for nine weeks.<a href="#cite_note-Koskoff2017-168">[168]</a> This was followed by several other white artists covering doo-wop songs performed by black artists, all of which scored higher on the Billboard charts than did the originals. These include "<a href="/wiki/Hearts_of_Stone" title="Hearts of Stone">Hearts of Stone</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Fontaine_Sisters" class="mw-redirect" title="The Fontaine Sisters">the Fontaine Sisters</a> (number 1), "<a href="/wiki/At_My_Front_Door" title="At My Front Door">At My Front Door</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Pat_Boone" title="Pat Boone">Pat Boone</a> (number 7), "<a href="/wiki/Sincerely_(song)" title="Sincerely (song)">Sincerely</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_McGuire_Sisters" title="The McGuire Sisters">the McGuire Sisters</a> (number 1), and "<a href="/wiki/Little_Darlin%27" title="Little Darlin'">Little Darlin'</a>" by <a href="/wiki/The_Diamonds" title="The Diamonds">the Diamonds</a> (number 2). Music historian <a href="/wiki/Billy_Vera" title="Billy Vera">Billy Vera</a> points out that these recordings are not considered to be doo-wop.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Only_You_(And_You_Alone)" title="Only You (And You Alone)">Only You</a>" was released in June 1955 by pop group <a href="/wiki/The_Platters" title="The Platters">the Platters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> That same year the Platters had a number one pop chart hit with "<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Pretender" title="The Great Pretender">The Great Pretender</a>", released on 3 November.<a href="#cite_note-pc5-171">[171]</a> In 1956, <a href="/wiki/Frankie_Lymon" title="Frankie Lymon">Frankie Lymon</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Teenagers" title="The Teenagers">the Teenagers</a> appeared on the <a href="/wiki/Frankie_Laine" title="Frankie Laine">Frankie Laine</a> show in New York, which was televised nationally, performing their hit "<a href="/wiki/Why_Do_Fools_Fall_in_Love_(song)" title="Why Do Fools Fall in Love (song)">Why Do Fools Fall in Love?</a>". Frankie Laine referred to it as "rock and roll"; Lymon's extreme youth appealed to a young and enthusiastic audience. His string of hits included: "<a href="/wiki/I_Promise_to_Remember" title="I Promise to Remember">I Promise to Remember</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_ABC%27s_of_Love" title="The ABC's of Love">The ABC's of Love</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/I%27m_Not_a_Juvenile_Delinquent" title="I'm Not a Juvenile Delinquent">I'm Not a Juvenile Delinquent</a>". Up tempo doo-wop groups such as <a href="/wiki/The_Monotones" title="The Monotones">the Monotones</a>",<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Silhouettes" title="The Silhouettes">the Silhouettes</a>, and the Marcels had hits that charted on Billboard. All-white doo-wop groups would appear and also produce hits: <a href="/wiki/The_Mello-Kings" title="The Mello-Kings">The Mello-Kings</a> in 1957 with "Tonight, Tonight", <a href="/wiki/The_Diamonds" title="The Diamonds">the Diamonds</a> in 1957 with the chart-topping cover song "Little Darlin'" (original song by an African American group), <a href="/wiki/The_Skyliners" title="The Skyliners">the Skyliners</a> in 1959 with "<a href="/wiki/Since_I_Don%27t_Have_You" title="Since I Don't Have You">Since I Don't Have You</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_Tokens" title="The Tokens">the Tokens</a> in 1961 with "The Lion Sleeps Tonight". The peak of doo-wop might have been in the late 1950s; in the early 1960s the most notable hits were <a href="/wiki/Dion_DiMucci" title="Dion DiMucci">Dion's</a> "<a href="/wiki/Runaround_Sue" title="Runaround Sue">Runaround Sue</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_Wanderer_(Dion_song)" title="The Wanderer (Dion song)">The Wanderer</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Lovers_Who_Wander_(song)" title="Lovers Who Wander (song)">Lovers Who Wander</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Ruby_Baby" title="Ruby Baby">Ruby Baby</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Whitburn2010-173">[173]</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Marcels" title="The Marcels">the Marcels</a>' "<a href="/wiki/Blue_Moon_(1934_song)" title="Blue Moon (1934 song)">Blue Moon</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Whitburn2010880-174">[174]</a> There was a revival of the nonsense syllable form of doo-wop in the early 1960s, with popular records by <a href="/wiki/The_Marcels" title="The Marcels">the Marcels</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Rivingtons" title="The Rivingtons">the Rivingtons</a>, and Vito & the Salutations. The genre reached the <a href="/wiki/Self-reference" title="Self-reference">self-referential</a> stage, with songs about the singers ("Mr. Bass Man" by <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Cymbal" title="Johnny Cymbal">Johnny Cymbal</a>) and the songwriters ("<a href="/wiki/Who_Put_the_Bomp_(in_the_Bomp,_Bomp,_Bomp)" title="Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp)">Who Put the Bomp?</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Barry_Mann" title="Barry Mann">Barry Mann</a>), in 1961. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Doo-wop's_influence">Doo-wop's influence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Doo-wop's influence">edit</a>]</div> Other pop R&B groups, including <a href="/wiki/The_Coasters" title="The Coasters">the Coasters</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Drifters" title="The Drifters">the Drifters</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Midnighters" title="The Midnighters">the Midnighters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Platters" title="The Platters">the Platters</a>, helped link the doo-wop style to the mainstream, and to the future sound of <a href="/wiki/Soul_music" title="Soul music">soul music</a>. The style's influence is heard in the music of <a href="/wiki/The_Miracles" title="The Miracles">the Miracles</a>, particularly in their early hits such as "Got A Job" (an <a href="/wiki/Answer_song" title="Answer song">answer song</a> to "<a href="/wiki/Get_a_Job_(song)" title="Get a Job (song)">Get a Job</a>"),<a href="#cite_note-pc25-175">[175]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Bad_Girl_(The_Miracles_song)" title="Bad Girl (The Miracles song)">Bad Girl</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Loving_You" class="mw-redirect" title="Who's Loving You">Who's Loving You</a>", "<a href="/wiki/(You_Can)_Depend_on_Me" title="(You Can) Depend on Me">(You Can) Depend on Me</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Ooo_Baby_Baby" title="Ooo Baby Baby">Ooo Baby Baby</a>". Doo-wop was a precursor to many of the African-American musical styles seen today. Having evolved from <a href="/wiki/Pop_music" title="Pop music">pop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blues_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Blues music">blues</a>, doo-wop influenced many of the major rock and roll groups that defined the latter decades of the 20th century, and laid the foundation for many later musical innovations. Doo-wop's influence continued in soul, pop, and <a href="/wiki/Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock</a> groups of the 1960s, including <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_(band)" title="The Four Seasons (band)">the Four Seasons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Girl_group" title="Girl group">girl groups</a>, and vocal <a href="/wiki/Surf_music" title="Surf music">surf music</a> performers such as <a href="/wiki/The_Beach_Boys" title="The Beach Boys">the Beach Boys</a>. In the Beach Boys' case, doo-wop influence is evident in the <a href="/wiki/%2750s_progression" title="'50s progression">chord progression</a> used on part of their early hit "<a href="/wiki/Surfer_Girl_(song)" title="Surfer Girl (song)">Surfer Girl</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Lambert2007-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lambert2016-177">[177]</a> The Beach Boys later acknowledged their debt to doo-wop by covering <a href="/wiki/The_Regents_(doo-wop_band)" title="The Regents (doo-wop band)">the Regents</a>' 1961 number 7 hit, "<a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ann" title="Barbara Ann">Barbara Ann</a>" with their number 2 cover of the song in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> In 1984, <a href="/wiki/Billy_Joel" title="Billy Joel">Billy Joel</a> released "<a href="/wiki/The_Longest_Time" title="The Longest Time">The Longest Time</a>", a clear tribute to doo-wop music.<a href="#cite_note-Schruers2015-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revivals">Revivals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Revivals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg/225px-EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg/338px-EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg/450px-EarthAngels-with-KathyYoung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kathy_Young" title="Kathy Young">Kathy Young</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_Earth_Angels" title="The Earth Angels">the Earth Angels</a> performing Kathy's hit "<a href="/wiki/A_Thousand_Stars" title="A Thousand Stars">A Thousand Stars</a>" during the festival of this genre celebrated at the <a href="/wiki/Benedum_Center" title="Benedum Center">Benedum Center for the Performing Arts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, in May 2010</figcaption></figure> Although the ultimate longevity of doo-wop has been disputed,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> at various times in the 1970s–1990s the genre saw revivals, with artists being concentrated in urban areas, mainly in New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, <a href="/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark</a>, and Los Angeles. Revival television shows and boxed CD sets such as the "Doo Wop Box" set 1–3 have rekindled interest in the music, the artists, and their stories. <a href="/wiki/Cruising_with_Ruben_%26_the_Jets" title="Cruising with Ruben & the Jets">Cruising with Ruben & the Jets</a>, released in late 1968,<a href="#cite_note-pc11-31">[31]</a> is a concept album of doo-wop music recorded by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Zappa" title="Frank Zappa">Frank Zappa</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Mothers_of_Invention" title="The Mothers of Invention">the Mothers of Invention</a> performing as a fictitious <a href="/wiki/Chicano" title="Chicano">Chicano</a> doo-wop band called Ruben & the Jets. In collaboration with Zappa, singer Ruben Guevara went on to start a real band called <a href="/wiki/Ruben_and_the_Jets" title="Ruben and the Jets">Ruben and the Jets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guevara2018-182">[182]</a> An early notable revival of "pure" doo-wop occurred when <a href="/wiki/Sha_Na_Na" title="Sha Na Na">Sha Na Na</a> appeared at the <a href="/wiki/Woodstock_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodstock Festival">Woodstock Festival</a>. Soul group the Trammps recorded "<a href="/wiki/Zing!_Went_the_Strings_of_My_Heart" title="Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart">Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart</a>" in 1972. Over the years other groups have had doo-wop or doo-wop-influenced hits, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_John" title="Robert John">Robert John</a>'s 1972 version of "<a href="/wiki/The_Lion_Sleeps_Tonight" title="The Lion Sleeps Tonight">The Lion Sleeps Tonight</a>", <a href="/wiki/Darts_(band)" title="Darts (band)">Darts</a> successful revival of the doo-wop standards "<a href="/wiki/Daddy_Cool_(The_Rays_song)" title="Daddy Cool (The Rays song)">Daddy Cool</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Come_Back_My_Love" title="Come Back My Love">Come Back My Love</a>" in the late 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Toby_Beau" title="Toby Beau">Toby Beau</a>'s 1978 hit "My Angel Baby", and <a href="/wiki/Billy_Joel" title="Billy Joel">Billy Joel</a>'s 1984 hit "<a href="/wiki/The_Longest_Time" title="The Longest Time">The Longest Time</a>". Soul and funk bands such as <a href="/wiki/Zapp_(band)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapp (band)">Zapp</a> released the single ("<a href="/wiki/Doo_Wa_Ditty_(Blow_That_Thing)/A_Touch_of_Jazz_(Playin%27_Kinda_Ruff_Part_II)" title="Doo Wa Ditty (Blow That Thing)/A Touch of Jazz (Playin' Kinda Ruff Part II)">Doo Wa Ditty (Blow That Thing)/A Touch of Jazz (Playin' Kinda Ruff Part II)</a>"). The last doo-wop record to reach the top ten on the U.S. pop charts was "It's Alright" by <a href="/wiki/Huey_Lewis_and_the_News" title="Huey Lewis and the News">Huey Lewis and the News</a>, a doo-wop adaptation of <a href="/wiki/The_Impressions" title="The Impressions">the Impressions</a>' 1963 Top 5 <a href="/wiki/It%27s_All_Right_(The_Impressions_song)" title="It's All Right (The Impressions song)">smash hit</a>. It reached number 7 on the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Billboard_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Billboard magazine">Billboard</a> <a href="/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music" title="Adult contemporary music">Adult contemporary</a> chart in June 1993. Much of the album had a doo-wop flavor. Another song from the By the Way sessions to feature a doo-wop influence was a cover of "Teenager In Love", originally recorded by <a href="/wiki/Dion_and_the_Belmonts" title="Dion and the Belmonts">Dion and the Belmonts</a>. The genre would see another resurgence in popularity in 2018, with the release of the album "Love in the Wind" by Brooklyn-based band, the Sha La Das, produced by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brenneck" title="Thomas Brenneck">Thomas Brenneck</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Daptone_Records" title="Daptone Records">Daptone Record</a> label. Doo-wop is popular among <a href="/wiki/Barbershop_quartet" title="Barbershop quartet">barbershoppers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collegiate_a_cappella" title="Collegiate a cappella">collegiate a cappella</a> groups due to its easy adaptation to an all-vocal form. Doo-wop experienced a resurgence in popularity at the turn of the 21st century with the airing of PBS's doo-wop concert programs: <a href="/wiki/Doo_Wop_50" title="Doo Wop 50">Doo Wop 50</a>, Doo Wop 51, and Rock, Rhythm, and Doo Wop. These programs brought back, live on stage, some of the better known doo-wop groups of the past. In addition to <a href="/wiki/The_Earth_Angels" title="The Earth Angels">the Earth Angels</a>, doo-wop acts in vogue in the second decade of the 2000s range from the Four Quarters<a href="#cite_note-4Quarters-183">[183]</a> to Street Corner Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-SCR-184">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Mars" title="Bruno Mars">Bruno Mars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meghan_Trainor" title="Meghan Trainor">Meghan Trainor</a> are two examples of current artists who incorporate doo-wop music into their records and live performances. Mars says he has "a special place in [his] heart for old-school music".<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> The formation of the hip-hop scene beginning in the late 1970s strongly parallels the rise of the doo-wop scene of the 1950s, particularly mirroring it in the emergence of the urban street culture of the 1990s. According to Bobby Robinson, a well-known producer of the period: <blockquote>Doo-wop originally started out as the black teenage expression of the '50s and rap emerged as the black teenage ghetto expression of the '70s. Same identical thing that started it – the doowop groups down the street, in hallways, in alleys and on the corner. They'd gather anywhere and, you know, doo-wop doowah da dadada. You'd hear it everywhere. So the same thing started with rap groups around '76 or so. All of a sudden, everywhere you turned you'd hear kids rapping. In the summertime, they'd have these little parties in the park. They used to go out and play at night and kids would be out there dancing. All of a sudden, all you could hear was, hip hop hit the top don't stop. It's kids – to a great extent mixed-up and confused – reaching out to express themselves. They were forcefully trying to express themselves and they made up in fantasy what they missed in reality.<a href="#cite_note-PotterPress2000-186">[186]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/10px-GClef.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/15px-GClef.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/20px-GClef.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="15" data-file-height="41" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_doo-wop_musicians" title="List of doo-wop musicians">List of doo-wop musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scat_singing" title="Scat singing">Scat singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocalese" title="Vocalese">Vocalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/50s_progression" class="mw-redirect" title="50s progression">50s progression</a>, also known as the "Doo-wop" progression</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boogie" title="Boogie">Boogie</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/doo-wop-music">[1]</a> - Encyclopedia.com </li> <li id="cite_note-PriceKernodle2011-2"><a href="#cite_ref-PriceKernodle2011_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Gentry2011" class="citation book cs1">Philip Gentry (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nVxgs_E57_EC&pg=PA298">"Doo-Wop"</a>. In Emmett G. Price III; Tammy Lynn Kernodle; Horace Joseph Maxile (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American Music. ABC-CLIO. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34199-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34199-1"><bdi>978-0-313-34199-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Doo-Wop&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+Music&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-34199-1&rft.au=Philip+Gentry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnVxgs_E57_EC%26pg%3DPA298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goosman2013-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Goosman2013_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart_L._Goosman2013" class="citation book cs1">Stuart L. Goosman (17 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYoXAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR10">Group Harmony: The Black Urban Roots of Rhythm and Blues</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0204-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0204-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-0204-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Group+Harmony%3A+The+Black+Urban+Roots+of+Rhythm+and+Blues&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013-07-17&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0204-5&rft.au=Stuart+L.+Goosman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYoXAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli2016-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli2016_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldblatt2013-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Goldblatt2013_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Goldblatt2013" class="citation journal cs1">David Goldblatt (2013). "Nonsense in Public Places: Songs of Black Vocal Rhythm and Blues or Doo-Wop". The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 71 (1). Wiley: 105. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8529">0021-8529</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23597540">23597540</a>. <q>Doo-wop is characterized by simple lyrics, usually about the trials and ecstasies of young love, sung by a lead vocal against a background of repeated nonsense syllables.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Aesthetics+and+Art+Criticism&rft.atitle=Nonsense+in+Public+Places%3A+Songs+of+Black+Vocal+Rhythm+and+Blues+or+Doo-Wop&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23597540%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0021-8529&rft.au=David+Goldblatt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goosman2013193-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goosman2013193_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goosman2013193_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart_L._Goosman2013" class="citation book cs1">Stuart L. Goosman (17 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYoXAAAAQBAJ&pg=193">Group Harmony: The Black Urban Roots of Rhythm and Blues</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0204-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0204-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-0204-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Group+Harmony%3A+The+Black+Urban+Roots+of+Rhythm+and+Blues&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013-07-17&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0204-5&rft.au=Stuart+L.+Goosman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYoXAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3D193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Modleski1986-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Modleski1986_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Modleski1986_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_Gendron1986" class="citation book cs1">Bernard Gendron (1986). "2: Theodor Adorno Meets the Cadillacs". In Tania Modleski (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studiesinenterta00andw">Studies in Entertainment: Critical Approaches to Mass Culture</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-35566-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-35566-4"><bdi>0-253-35566-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Theodor+Adorno+Meets+the+Cadillacs&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Entertainment%3A+Critical+Approaches+to+Mass+Culture&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-253-35566-4&rft.au=Bernard+Gendron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudiesinenterta00andw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AppenFrei-Hauenschild2015-8"><a href="#cite_ref-AppenFrei-Hauenschild2015_8-0">^</a> Ralf von Appen, Markus Frei-Hauenschild (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gfpm-samples.de/Samples13/appenfrei.pdf">"AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms and their Historical Development"</a>. In: Samples. Online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusikforschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e.V., Ed. by Ralf von Appen, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Doehring" title="André Doehring">André Doehring</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Phleps" title="Thomas Phleps">Thomas Phleps</a>. Vol. 13, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Ink_Spots" class="citation web cs1">The Ink Spots. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-ink-spots-mn0000082831">"The Ink Spots | Biography, Albums, Streaming Links"</a>. AllMusic. Retrieved 10 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Ink+Spots+%26%23124%3B+Biography%2C+Albums%2C+Streaming+Links&rft.pub=AllMusic&rft.au=The+Ink+Spots&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allmusic.com%2Fartist%2Fthe-ink-spots-mn0000082831&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli201618-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli201618_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joel_Whitburn" title="Joel Whitburn">Whitburn, Joel</a>, Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Records: 1940-1955, Record Research, Menomanee, Wisconsin, 1973 p.37 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cosby2016-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cosby2016_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cosby2016_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_A._Cosby2016" class="citation book cs1">James A. Cosby (19 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gyzVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA190">Devil's Music, Holy Rollers and Hillbillies: How America Gave Birth to Rock and Roll</a>. McFarland. pp. 190–191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6229-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6229-9"><bdi>978-1-4766-6229-9</bdi></a>. <q>When done in swing time, early doo-wop became a popular form of rock and roll, and it was often slowed down to provide dance hits throughout the 1950s, and the genre was personified by successful groups like the Coasters and the Drifters.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Devil%27s+Music%2C+Holy+Rollers+and+Hillbillies%3A+How+America+Gave+Birth+to+Rock+and+Roll&rft.pages=190-191&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2016-05-19&rft.isbn=978-1-4766-6229-9&rft.au=James+A.+Cosby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgyzVDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shepherd2003-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Shepherd2003_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGage_Averill2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Gage Averill (8 July 2003). John Shepherd (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pJvzEzjahkQC&pg=PA124">Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Volume II: Performance and Production</a>. Vol. 11, Close Harmony Singing. A&C Black. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6322-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6322-7"><bdi>978-0-8264-6322-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Continuum+Encyclopedia+of+Popular+Music+of+the+World%3A+Volume+II%3A+Performance+and+Production&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2003-07-08&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-6322-7&rft.au=Gage+Averill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpJvzEzjahkQC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Averill2003-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Averill2003_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGage_Averill2003" class="citation book cs1">Gage Averill (20 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w2R2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167">Four Parts, No Waiting: A Social History of American Barbershop Quartet</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028347-6"><bdi>978-0-19-028347-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Four+Parts%2C+No+Waiting%3A+A+Social+History+of+American+Barbershop+Quartet&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003-02-20&rft.isbn=978-0-19-028347-6&rft.au=Gage+Averill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw2R2CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Birnbaum2013-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Birnbaum2013_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarry_Birnbaum2013" class="citation book cs1">Larry Birnbaum (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJes-jdk5kEC&pg=PA168">Before Elvis: The Prehistory of Rock 'n' Roll</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8638-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8638-4"><bdi>978-0-8108-8638-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Elvis%3A+The+Prehistory+of+Rock+%27n%27+Roll&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-8638-4&rft.au=Larry+Birnbaum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyJes-jdk5kEC%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Gribin, Anthony j., and Matthew M. Schiff, The Complete Book of Doo-Wop, Collectables, Narberth, PA US, 2009 p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-Abjorensen2017-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Abjorensen2017_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman_Abjorensen2017" class="citation book cs1">Norman Abjorensen (25 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZyrDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA249">Historical Dictionary of Popular Music</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-0215-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-0215-2"><bdi>978-1-5381-0215-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Popular+Music&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2017-05-25&rft.isbn=978-1-5381-0215-2&rft.au=Norman+Abjorensen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6ZyrDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner2006-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americansingingg00warn">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericansingingg00warn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli201629-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli201629_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merrill2017-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Merrill2017_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirginia_Dellenbaugh2017" class="citation book cs1">Virginia Dellenbaugh (30 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5v2ODgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">"From Earth Angel to Electric Lucifer: Castrati, Doo Wop and the Vocoder"</a>. In Julia Merrill (ed.). Popular Music Studies Today: Proceedings of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music 2017. Springer. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-17740-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-17740-9"><bdi>978-3-658-17740-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Earth+Angel+to+Electric+Lucifer%3A+Castrati%2C+Doo+Wop+and+the+Vocoder&rft.btitle=Popular+Music+Studies+Today%3A+Proceedings+of+the+International+Association+for+the+Study+of+Popular+Music+2017&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-03-30&rft.isbn=978-3-658-17740-9&rft.au=Virginia+Dellenbaugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5v2ODgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pruter1996-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Pruter1996_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Pruter1996" class="citation book cs1">Robert Pruter (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j06dhDdsgioC&pg=PR12">Doowop: The Chicago Scene</a>. University of Illinois Press. p. xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06506-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06506-4"><bdi>978-0-252-06506-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doowop%3A+The+Chicago+Scene&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06506-4&rft.au=Robert+Pruter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj06dhDdsgioC%26pg%3DPR12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinstein2015-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weinstein2015_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weinstein2015_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeena_Weinstein2015" class="citation book cs1">Deena Weinstein (27 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8WnBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58">Rock'n America: A Social and Cultural History</a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0018-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0018-8"><bdi>978-1-4426-0018-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rock%27n+America%3A+A+Social+and+Cultural+History&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2015-01-27&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0018-8&rft.au=Deena+Weinstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-8WnBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Electric2007-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Electric2007_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Electric2007_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electricearl.com/dws/origin.html">"Where'd We Get the Name Doo-wop?"</a>. electricearl.com. Retrieved 18 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=electricearl.com&rft.atitle=Where%27d+We+Get+the+Name+Doo-wop%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.electricearl.com%2Fdws%2Forigin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli201628-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli201628_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli201627-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli201627_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Five_Satins" class="citation web cs1">The Five Satins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-five-satins-mn0000061479">"The Five Satins | Biography, Albums, Streaming Links"</a>. AllMusic. Retrieved 10 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Five+Satins+%26%23124%3B+Biography%2C+Albums%2C+Streaming+Links&rft.pub=AllMusic&rft.au=The+Five+Satins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allmusic.com%2Fartist%2Fthe-five-satins-mn0000061479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gregory2019-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Gregory2019_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorgina_Gregory2019" class="citation book cs1">Georgina Gregory (3 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQWQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT31">Boy Bands and the Performance of Pop Masculinity</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-64845-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-64845-8"><bdi>978-0-429-64845-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boy+Bands+and+the+Performance+of+Pop+Masculinity&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019-04-03&rft.isbn=978-0-429-64845-8&rft.au=Georgina+Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwQWQDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner200624-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Warner200624_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americansingingg00warn">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 24]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericansingingg00warn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GribinSchiff2000-29"><a href="#cite_ref-GribinSchiff2000_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_J._GribinMatthew_M._Schiff2000" class="citation book cs1">Anthony J. Gribin; Matthew M. Schiff (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kEUAQAAIAAJ&q=%22doo%20doo-wop%22">The Complete Book of Doo-Wop</a>. Krause. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-829-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-829-4"><bdi>978-0-87341-829-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Book+of+Doo-Wop&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Krause&rft.date=2000-01&rft.isbn=978-0-87341-829-4&rft.au=Anthony+J.+Gribin&rft.au=Matthew+M.+Schiff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_kEUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522doo%2520doo-wop%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PalmerCulture2006-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerCulture2006_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerCulture2006_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_A._PalmerSchomburg_Center_for_Research_in_Black_Culture2006" class="citation book cs1">Colin A. Palmer; Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cS0OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22they%20evolved%20a%20type%20of%20group%20harmony%22">Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History: the Black Experience in the Americas</a>. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 1534. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865820-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865820-9"><bdi>978-0-02-865820-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African-American+Culture+and+History%3A+the+Black+Experience+in+the+Americas&rft.pages=1534&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865820-9&rft.au=Colin+A.+Palmer&rft.au=Schomburg+Center+for+Research+in+Black+Culture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcS0OAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522they%2520evolved%2520a%2520type%2520of%2520group%2520harmony%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pc11-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pc11_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pc11_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilliland1969" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gilliland" title="John Gilliland">Gilliland, John</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc19759/m1/">"Show 11 – Big Rock Candy Mountain: Early rock 'n' roll vocal groups & Frank Zappa"</a> (audio). <a href="/wiki/Pop_Chronicles" title="Pop Chronicles">Pop Chronicles</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Texas_Libraries" title="University of North Texas Libraries">University of North Texas Libraries</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pop+Chronicles&rft.atitle=Show+11+%E2%80%93+Big+Rock+Candy+Mountain%3A+Early+rock+%27n%27+roll+vocal+groups+%26+Frank+Zappa&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Gilliland&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc19759%2Fm1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> Track 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/artist/shep-the-limelites-mn0000020809">"Shep & the Limelites Biography"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AllMusic" title="AllMusic">AllMusic</a>. Retrieved 10 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AllMusic&rft.atitle=Shep+%26+the+Limelites+Biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allmusic.com%2Fartist%2Fshep-the-limelites-mn0000020809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Jive_Five" class="citation web cs1">The Jive Five. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-jive-five-mn0000769693">"The Jive Five | Biography, Albums, Streaming Links"</a>. AllMusic. Retrieved 10 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Jive+Five+%26%23124%3B+Biography%2C+Albums%2C+Streaming+Links&rft.pub=AllMusic&rft.au=The+Jive+Five&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allmusic.com%2Fartist%2Fthe-jive-five-mn0000769693&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabaka2016-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Rabaka2016_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiland_Rabaka2016" class="citation book cs1">Reiland Rabaka (3 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilrightsmusic0000raba">Civil Rights Music: The Soundtracks of the Civil Rights Movement</a>. Lexington Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilrightsmusic0000raba/page/127">127</a>–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-3179-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-3179-5"><bdi>978-1-4985-3179-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Rights+Music%3A+The+Soundtracks+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.pages=127-128&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2016-05-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-3179-5&rft.au=Reiland+Rabaka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilrightsmusic0000raba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cinotto2014-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Cinotto2014_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimone_Cinotto2014" class="citation book cs1">Simone Cinotto (1 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpKUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT198">Making Italian America: Consumer Culture and the Production of Ethnic Identities</a>. Fordham University Press. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6"><bdi>978-0-8232-5626-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Italian+America%3A+Consumer+Culture+and+the+Production+of+Ethnic+Identities&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-5626-6&rft.au=Simone+Cinotto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqpKUDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Helander2001-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Helander2001_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock_Helander2001" class="citation book cs1">Brock Helander (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4mbHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT200">The Rockin' 60s: The People Who Made the Music</a>. Schirmer Trade Books. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85712-811-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85712-811-9"><bdi>978-0-85712-811-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rockin%27+60s%3A+The+People+Who+Made+the+Music&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Schirmer+Trade+Books&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-85712-811-9&rft.au=Brock+Helander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4mbHDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli201647-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli201647_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 47–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=47-48&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan2013-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan2013_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteve_Sullivan2013" class="citation book cs1">Steve Sullivan (4 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QWBPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA616">Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 616. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8296-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8296-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-8296-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Great+Popular+Song+Recordings&rft.pages=616&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2013-10-04&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-8296-6&rft.au=Steve+Sullivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQWBPAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HendersonStacey2014-39"><a href="#cite_ref-HendersonStacey2014_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreg_Bower2014" class="citation book cs1">Greg Bower (27 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA179%7C">"Doo-wop"</a>. In Lol Henderson; Lee Stacey (eds.). Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century. Routledge. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92946-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92946-6"><bdi>978-1-135-92946-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Doo-wop&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Music+in+the+20th+Century&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-01-27&rft.isbn=978-1-135-92946-6&rft.au=Greg+Bower&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm8W2AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA179%257C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cinotto2014207-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Cinotto2014207_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimone_Cinotto2014" class="citation book cs1">Simone Cinotto (1 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpKUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207">Making Italian America: Consumer Culture and the Production of Ethnic Identities</a>. Fordham University Press. pp. 207–208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6"><bdi>978-0-8232-5626-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Italian+America%3A+Consumer+Culture+and+the+Production+of+Ethnic+Identities&rft.pages=207-208&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-5626-6&rft.au=Simone+Cinotto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqpKUDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hinckley-41"><a href="#cite_ref-hinckley_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinckley2013" class="citation news cs1">Hinckley, David (29 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130503103443/http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/lillian-leach-boyd-singer-mellows-dead-76-article-1.1330276">"Lillian Leach Boyd, singer for The Mellows, dead at 76"</a>. New York Daily News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/lillian-leach-boyd-singer-mellows-dead-76-article-1.1330276">the original</a> on 3 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Daily+News&rft.atitle=Lillian+Leach+Boyd%2C+singer+for+The+Mellows%2C+dead+at+76&rft.date=2013-04-29&rft.aulast=Hinckley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nydailynews.com%2Fentertainment%2Fmusic-arts%2Flillian-leach-boyd-singer-mellows-dead-76-article-1.1330276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RubinMelnick2001-42"><a href="#cite_ref-RubinMelnick2001_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReebee_Garofalo2001" class="citation book cs1">Reebee Garofalo (2001). "VI. Off the Charts". In Rachel Rubin Jeffrey Paul Melnick (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanpopularm00rubi">American Popular Music: New Approaches to the Twentieth Century</a>. Amherst: Univ of Massachusetts Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanpopularm00rubi/page/125">125</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55849-268-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55849-268-2"><bdi>1-55849-268-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VI.+Off+the+Charts&rft.btitle=American+Popular+Music%3A+New+Approaches+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Amherst&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Univ+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-55849-268-2&rft.au=Reebee+Garofalo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanpopularm00rubi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sasfy1984-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Sasfy1984_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoe_Sasfy1984" class="citation news cs1">Joe Sasfy (21 November 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1984/11/21/doo-wop-harmony/86cf2110-2ee6-401a-b440-cf91e93b5c6b">"Doo-Wop Harmony"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. Retrieved 17 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Doo-Wop+Harmony&rft.date=1984-11-21&rft.au=Joe+Sasfy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Flifestyle%2F1984%2F11%2F21%2Fdoo-wop-harmony%2F86cf2110-2ee6-401a-b440-cf91e93b5c6b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT1985-44"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT1985_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff1985" class="citation news cs1">Staff (12 June 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/12/us/comeback-on-chitlin-circuit.html">"Comeback On 'Chitlin Circuit'"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 17 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Comeback+On+%27Chitlin+Circuit%27&rft.date=1985-06-12&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1985%2F06%2F12%2Fus%2Fcomeback-on-chitlin-circuit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Runowicz201038-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Runowicz201038_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runowicz201038_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runowicz201038_45-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Michael_Runowicz2010" class="citation book cs1">John Michael Runowicz (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VqzcQgAACAAJ">Forever Doo-wop: Race, Nostalgia, and Vocal Harmony</a>. University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 38–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-824-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-824-2"><bdi>978-1-55849-824-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+Doo-wop%3A+Race%2C+Nostalgia%2C+and+Vocal+Harmony&rft.pages=38-41&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55849-824-2&rft.au=John+Michael+Runowicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVqzcQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BogdanovWoodstra2002-46"><a href="#cite_ref-BogdanovWoodstra2002_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVladimir_BogdanovChris_WoodstraStephen_Thomas_Erlewine2002" class="citation book cs1">Vladimir Bogdanov; Chris Woodstra; Stephen Thomas Erlewine (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1-pH4i3jXvAC&pg=PA1306">All Music Guide to Rock: The Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul</a>. Backbeat Books. p. 1306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-653-3"><bdi>978-0-87930-653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Music+Guide+to+Rock%3A+The+Definitive+Guide+to+Rock%2C+Pop%2C+and+Soul&rft.pages=1306&rft.pub=Backbeat+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87930-653-3&rft.au=Vladimir+Bogdanov&rft.au=Chris+Woodstra&rft.au=Stephen+Thomas+Erlewine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1-pH4i3jXvAC%26pg%3DPA1306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olesker2013-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Olesker2013_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Olesker2013" class="citation book cs1">Michael Olesker (1 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UesEAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT39">Front Stoops in the Fifties: Baltimore Legends Come of Age</a>. JHU Press. pp. 39–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1161-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1161-3"><bdi>978-1-4214-1161-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Front+Stoops+in+the+Fifties%3A+Baltimore+Legends+Come+of+Age&rft.pages=39-40&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2013-11-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1161-3&rft.au=Michael+Olesker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUesEAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larkin2011-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Larkin2011_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_Larkin2011" class="citation book cs1">Colin Larkin (27 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_NNmFiUnSmUC&pg=RA31-PA1998">The Encyclopedia of Popular Music</a>. Omnibus Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85712-595-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85712-595-8"><bdi>978-0-85712-595-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Popular+Music&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Omnibus+Press&rft.date=2011-05-27&rft.isbn=978-0-85712-595-8&rft.au=Colin+Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_NNmFiUnSmUC%26pg%3DRA31-PA1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zak201289-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zak201289_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zak201289_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbin_Zak2012" class="citation book cs1">Albin Zak (4 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DEc_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">I Don't Sound Like Nobody: Remaking Music in 1950s America</a>. University of Michigan Press. pp. 89–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03512-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03512-0"><bdi>978-0-472-03512-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Don%27t+Sound+Like+Nobody%3A+Remaking+Music+in+1950s+America&rft.pages=89-90&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2012-10-04&rft.isbn=978-0-472-03512-0&rft.au=Albin+Zak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDEc_DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simmons2018-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simmons2018_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simmons2018_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRick_Simmons2018" class="citation book cs1">Rick Simmons (8 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT267">Carolina Beach Music Encyclopedia</a>. McFarland. pp. 259–260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6767-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6767-6"><bdi>978-1-4766-6767-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carolina+Beach+Music+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=259-260&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4766-6767-6&rft.au=Rick+Simmons&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBE1nDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sullivan2013379-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Sullivan2013379_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteve_Sullivan2013" class="citation book cs1">Steve Sullivan (4 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QWBPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA379">Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8296-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8296-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-8296-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Great+Popular+Song+Recordings&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2013-10-04&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-8296-6&rft.au=Steve+Sullivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQWBPAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MancusoLampe1996-52"><a href="#cite_ref-MancusoLampe1996_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChuck_MancusoDavid_Lampe1996" class="citation book cs1">Chuck Mancuso; David Lampe (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ws0iAQAAIAAJ&q=%22key%20component%22">Popular Music and the Underground: Foundations of Jazz, Blues, Country, and Rock, 1900-1950</a>. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. p. 440. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8403-9088-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8403-9088-2"><bdi>978-0-8403-9088-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Music+and+the+Underground%3A+Foundations+of+Jazz%2C+Blues%2C+Country%2C+and+Rock%2C+1900-1950&rft.pages=440&rft.pub=Kendall%2FHunt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8403-9088-2&rft.au=Chuck+Mancuso&rft.au=David+Lampe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dws0iAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522key%2520component%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitilli201624-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitilli201624_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Pitilli2016" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Pitilli (2 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTO5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">Doo-Wop Acappella: A Story of Street Corners, Echoes, and Three-Part Harmonies</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4430-6"><bdi>978-1-4422-4430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo-Wop+Acappella%3A+A+Story+of+Street+Corners%2C+Echoes%2C+and+Three-Part+Harmonies&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-08-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4430-6&rft.au=Lawrence+Pitilli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTO5DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner2006303-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006303_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006303_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTM_9JTeoMIC&pg=PA303">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=303&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTM_9JTeoMIC%26pg%3DPA303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goosman2010-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Goosman2010_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart_L._Goosman2010" class="citation book cs1">Stuart L. Goosman (9 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ccDAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Group Harmony: The Black Urban Roots of Rhythm and Blues</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2108-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2108-4"><bdi>978-0-8122-2108-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Group+Harmony%3A+The+Black+Urban+Roots+of+Rhythm+and+Blues&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2010-03-09&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-2108-4&rft.au=Stuart+L.+Goosman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ccDAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ward1998-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ward1998_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ward1998_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard1998" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Brian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/justmysoulrespo000ward/page/62/mode/2up">Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race</a>. University of California Press. pp. 62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21298-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21298-3"><bdi>0-520-21298-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Just+My+Soul+Responding%3A+Rhythm+and+Blues%2C+Black+Consciousness%2C+and+Race&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-520-21298-3&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjustmysoulrespo000ward%2Fpage%2F62%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cateforis2019-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Cateforis2019_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnny_Keys2019" class="citation book cs1">Johnny Keys (15 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nPmADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT20">"Du-Wop"</a>. In Theo Cateforis (ed.). The Rock History Reader. Taylor & Francis. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-39480-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-39480-0"><bdi>978-1-315-39480-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Du-Wop&rft.btitle=The+Rock+History+Reader&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019-01-15&rft.isbn=978-1-315-39480-0&rft.au=Johnny+Keys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnPmADwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pruter19961-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Pruter19961_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Pruter1996" class="citation book cs1">Robert Pruter (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j06dhDdsgioC&pg=PA1">Doowop: The Chicago Scene</a>. University of Illinois Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06506-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06506-4"><bdi>978-0-252-06506-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doowop%3A+The+Chicago+Scene&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06506-4&rft.au=Robert+Pruter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj06dhDdsgioC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Pruter 1996, pp. 2, 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Pruter 1996, pp. 2, 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-GribinSchiff2000136a-61"><a href="#cite_ref-GribinSchiff2000136a_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_J._GribinMatthew_M._Schiff2000" class="citation book cs1">Anthony J. Gribin; Matthew M. Schiff (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kEUAQAAIAAJ&q=%22gospel%20and%20blues%22">The Complete Book of Doo-Wop</a>. Krause. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-829-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-829-4"><bdi>978-0-87341-829-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Book+of+Doo-Wop&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Krause&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87341-829-4&rft.au=Anthony+J.+Gribin&rft.au=Matthew+M.+Schiff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_kEUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522gospel%2520and%2520blues%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joel_Whitburn" title="Joel Whitburn">Whitburn, Joel</a>, The Billboard Book of TOP 40 R&B and Hip Hop Hits, Billboard Books, New York 2006, p. 407 </li> <li id="cite_note-Collis1998-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Collis1998_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Collis1998" class="citation book cs1">John Collis (15 October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZASIpS00zv8C&pg=PA106">The Story of Chess Records</a>. Bloomsbury USA. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58234-005-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58234-005-0"><bdi>978-1-58234-005-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Chess+Records&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=1998-10-15&rft.isbn=978-1-58234-005-0&rft.au=John+Collis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZASIpS00zv8C%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halker2004-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Halker2004_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark_"Bucky"_Halker2004" class="citation web cs1">Clark "Bucky" Halker (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1084.html">"Rock Music"</a>. www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org. Chicago Historical Society. Retrieved 9 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org&rft.atitle=Rock+Music&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Clark+%22Bucky%22+Halker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org%2Fpages%2F1084.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stone2017-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Stone2017_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarsha_Music2017" class="citation book cs1">Marsha Music (5 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rLK1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT63">"Joe's Record Shop"</a>. In Joel Stone (ed.). Detroit 1967: Origins, Impacts, Legacies. Wayne State University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4304-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4304-3"><bdi>978-0-8143-4304-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Joe%27s+Record+Shop&rft.btitle=Detroit+1967%3A+Origins%2C+Impacts%2C+Legacies&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2017-06-05&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-4304-3&rft.au=Marsha+Music&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrLK1DgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fletcher2017-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Fletcher2017_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTony_Fletcher2017" class="citation book cs1">Tony Fletcher (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92d4DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">In the Midnight Hour: The Life & Soul of Wilson Pickett</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-025294-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-025294-6"><bdi>978-0-19-025294-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Midnight+Hour%3A+The+Life+%26+Soul+of+Wilson+Pickett&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-025294-6&rft.au=Tony+Fletcher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D92d4DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BjornGallert2001-67"><a href="#cite_ref-BjornGallert2001_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLars_BjornJim_Gallert2001" class="citation book cs1">Lars Bjorn; Jim Gallert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K11GJ-xaEcoC&pg=PA173">Before Motown: A History of Jazz in Detroit, 1920-60</a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-06765-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-06765-6"><bdi>0-472-06765-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Motown%3A+A+History+of+Jazz+in+Detroit%2C+1920-60&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-472-06765-6&rft.au=Lars+Bjorn&rft.au=Jim+Gallert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK11GJ-xaEcoC%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Komara2006-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Komara2006_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_M._Komara2006" class="citation book cs1">Edward M. Komara (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-w-uGwm_LhcC&pg=PA555">Encyclopedia of the Blues</a>. Psychology Press. p. 555. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92699-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92699-7"><bdi>978-0-415-92699-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Blues&rft.pages=555&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-92699-7&rft.au=Edward+M.+Komara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-w-uGwm_LhcC%26pg%3DPA555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broven2011-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Broven2011_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Broven2011" class="citation book cs1">John Broven (11 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3zdJ66VAOQC&pg=PA321">Record Makers and Breakers: Voices of the Independent Rock 'n' Roll Pioneers</a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 135, 321. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-09401-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-09401-9"><bdi>978-0-252-09401-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Record+Makers+and+Breakers%3A+Voices+of+the+Independent+Rock+%27n%27+Roll+Pioneers&rft.pages=135%2C+321&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2011-08-11&rft.isbn=978-0-252-09401-9&rft.au=John+Broven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY3zdJ66VAOQC%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ward1998464-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Ward1998464_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Ward1998" class="citation book cs1">Brian Ward (6 July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ibrrPmSpLTAC&pg=PA464">Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations</a>. University of California Press. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21298-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21298-5"><bdi>978-0-520-21298-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Just+My+Soul+Responding%3A+Rhythm+and+Blues%2C+Black+Consciousness%2C+and+Race+Relations&rft.pages=464&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998-07-06&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21298-5&rft.au=Brian+Ward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DibrrPmSpLTAC%26pg%3DPA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liebler2016-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liebler2016_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liebler2016_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._L._LieblerS.R._Boland2016" class="citation book cs1">M. L. Liebler; S.R. Boland (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIUyjwEACAAJ">"3: The Pre-Motown Sounds"</a>. Heaven was Detroit: From Jazz to Hip-hop and Beyond. Wayne State University Press. pp. 100–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4122-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4122-3"><bdi>978-0-8143-4122-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+The+Pre-Motown+Sounds&rft.btitle=Heaven+was+Detroit%3A+From+Jazz+to+Hip-hop+and+Beyond&rft.pages=100-104&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-4122-3&rft.au=M.+L.+Liebler&rft.au=S.R.+Boland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzIUyjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flory2017-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Flory2017_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Flory2017" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Flory (30 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LEc_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">I Hear a Symphony: Motown and Crossover R&B</a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03686-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03686-8"><bdi>978-0-472-03686-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Hear+a+Symphony%3A+Motown+and+Crossover+R%26B&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2017-05-30&rft.isbn=978-0-472-03686-8&rft.au=Andrew+Flory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLEc_DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-StuessyLipscomb2006-73"><a href="#cite_ref-StuessyLipscomb2006_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoe_StuessyScott_David_Lipscomb2006" class="citation book cs1">Joe Stuessy; Scott David Lipscomb (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YUUYAQAAIAAJ&q=%22roots%20were%20in%20gospel%22">Rock and Roll: Its History and Stylistic Development</a>. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-193098-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-193098-8"><bdi>978-0-13-193098-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rock+and+Roll%3A+Its+History+and+Stylistic+Development&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-13-193098-8&rft.au=Joe+Stuessy&rft.au=Scott+David+Lipscomb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYUUYAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522roots%2520were%2520in%2520gospel%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cotten1989-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Cotten1989_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee_Cotten1989" class="citation book cs1">Lee Cotten (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IyLaAAAAMAAJ&q=%22first%20single%20on%20Motown%20Records%22">The Golden Age of American Rock 'n Roll</a>. Pierian Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9646588-4-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9646588-4-4"><bdi>978-0-9646588-4-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+American+Rock+%27n+Roll&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Pierian+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-9646588-4-4&rft.au=Lee+Cotten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIyLaAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522first%2520single%2520on%2520Motown%2520Records%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacKenzie2009-75"><a href="#cite_ref-MacKenzie2009_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlex_MacKenzie2009" class="citation book cs1">Alex MacKenzie (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yik3AQAAIAAJ&q=%22started%20Tamla%20Records%22">The Life and Times of the Motown Stars</a>. Together Publications LLP. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84226-014-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84226-014-2"><bdi>978-1-84226-014-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+the+Motown+Stars&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Together+Publications+LLP&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84226-014-2&rft.au=Alex+MacKenzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyik3AQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522started%2520Tamla%2520Records%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larkin1997309-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Larkin1997309_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_Larkin1997" class="citation book cs1">Colin Larkin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HLo7AQAAIAAJ&q=%22doo-wop%20novelty%22">The Virgin Encyclopedia of Sixties Music</a>. Virgin. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7535-0149-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7535-0149-8"><bdi>978-0-7535-0149-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virgin+Encyclopedia+of+Sixties+Music&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Virgin&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7535-0149-8&rft.au=Colin+Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHLo7AQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522doo-wop%2520novelty%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dahl2011-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Dahl2011_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBill_Dahl2011" class="citation book cs1">Bill Dahl (28 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qsCrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT243">Motown: The Golden Years: More than 100 rare photographs</a>. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4402-2557-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4402-2557-4"><bdi>978-1-4402-2557-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motown%3A+The+Golden+Years%3A+More+than+100+rare+photographs&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011-02-28&rft.isbn=978-1-4402-2557-4&rft.au=Bill+Dahl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqsCrDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simmons2018234-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Simmons2018234_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRick_Simmons2018" class="citation book cs1">Rick Simmons (8 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT234">Carolina Beach Music Encyclopedia</a>. McFarland. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6767-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6767-6"><bdi>978-1-4766-6767-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carolina+Beach+Music+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4766-6767-6&rft.au=Rick+Simmons&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBE1nDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macías2008-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Macías2008_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macías2008_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Macías2008" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Macías (11 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Sf8V7FUjZAC&pg=PA182">Mexican American Mojo: Popular Music, Dance, and Urban Culture in Los Angeles, 1935–1968</a>. Duke University Press. pp. 182–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8938-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8938-5"><bdi>978-0-8223-8938-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mexican+American+Mojo%3A+Popular+Music%2C+Dance%2C+and+Urban+Culture+in+Los+Angeles%2C+1935%E2%80%931968&rft.pages=182-183&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2008-11-11&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-8938-5&rft.au=Anthony+Mac%C3%ADas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Sf8V7FUjZAC%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosalsky2002-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Rosalsky2002_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitch_Rosalsky2002" class="citation book cs1">Mitch Rosalsky (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L4ghJfL5iBIC&pg=PA45">Encyclopedia of Rhythm & Blues and Doo-Wop Vocal Groups</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4592-3"><bdi>978-0-8108-4592-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Rhythm+%26+Blues+and+Doo-Wop+Vocal+Groups&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-4592-3&rft.au=Mitch+Rosalsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL4ghJfL5iBIC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoskyns2009-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoskyns2009_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarney_Hoskyns2009" class="citation book cs1">Barney Hoskyns (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w7oB2UKVxgQC&pg=PA33">Waiting for the Sun: A Rock 'n' Roll History of Los Angeles</a>. Backbeat Books. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-943-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-943-5"><bdi>978-0-87930-943-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waiting+for+the+Sun%3A+A+Rock+%27n%27+Roll+History+of+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Backbeat+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87930-943-5&rft.au=Barney+Hoskyns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw7oB2UKVxgQC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guevara201883-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Guevara201883_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubén_Funkahuatl_Guevara2018" class="citation book cs1">Rubén Funkahuatl Guevara (13 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eqhSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83">Confessions of a Radical Chicano Doo-Wop Singer</a>. University of California Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96966-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96966-7"><bdi>978-0-520-96966-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confessions+of+a+Radical+Chicano+Doo-Wop+Singer&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2018-04-13&rft.isbn=978-0-520-96966-7&rft.au=Rub%C3%A9n+Funkahuatl+Guevara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeqhSDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miles1970-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Miles1970_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry_Miles1970" class="citation book cs1">Barry Miles (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BW1Jom4nswwC&pg=PA71">Zappa</a>. Grove Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802142153" title="Special:BookSources/9780802142153"><bdi>9780802142153</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zappa&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780802142153&rft.au=Barry+Miles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBW1Jom4nswwC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GuzmánFragoza2020-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GuzmánFragoza2020_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GuzmánFragoza2020_84-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebre2020" class="citation book cs1">Webre, Jude P. (14 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4nnNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA227">"Memories of El Monte: Art Laboe's Charmed Life on the Air"</a>. In Guzmán, Romeo; <a href="/wiki/Carribean_Fragoza" title="Carribean Fragoza">Fragoza, Carribean</a>; Cummings, Alex Sayf; Reft, Ryan (eds.). East of East: The Making of Greater El Monte. Rutgers University Press. pp. 227–231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-978805-48-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-978805-48-4"><bdi>978-1-978805-48-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Memories+of+El+Monte%3A+Art+Laboe%27s+Charmed+Life+on+the+Air&rft.btitle=East+of+East%3A+The+Making+of+Greater+El+Monte&rft.pages=227-231&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2020-02-14&rft.isbn=978-1-978805-48-4&rft.aulast=Webre&rft.aufirst=Jude+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4nnNDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Albrecht2019-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Albrecht2019_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Albrecht2019_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbrecht2019" class="citation journal cs1">Albrecht, Robert (15 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321896991">"Doo-wop Italiano: Towards an understanding and appreciation of Italian-American vocal groups of the late 1950s and early 1960s"</a>. Popular Music and Society. 42 (2): 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03007766.2017.1414663">10.1080/03007766.2017.1414663</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191844795">191844795</a>. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Music+and+Society&rft.atitle=Doo-wop+Italiano%3A+Towards+an+understanding+and+appreciation+of+Italian-American+vocal+groups+of+the+late+1950s+and+early+1960s&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2019-03-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03007766.2017.1414663&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191844795%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Albrecht&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F321896991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GribinSchiff2000136b-86"><a href="#cite_ref-GribinSchiff2000136b_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_J._GribinMatthew_M._Schiff2000" class="citation book cs1">Anthony J. Gribin; Matthew M. Schiff (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kEUAQAAIAAJ&q=%22world%20center%E2%80%9D">The Complete Book of Doo-wop</a>. Krause. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-829-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87341-829-4"><bdi>978-0-87341-829-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Book+of+Doo-wop&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Krause&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87341-829-4&rft.au=Anthony+J.+Gribin&rft.au=Matthew+M.+Schiff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_kEUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522world%2520center%25E2%2580%259D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WeissmanWeissman2005-87"><a href="#cite_ref-WeissmanWeissman2005_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDick_WeissmanRichard_Weissman2005" class="citation book cs1">Dick Weissman; Richard Weissman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yYtR20TlGOoC&pg=PA95">"New York and the Doo-wop Groups"</a>. Blues: The Basics. Psychology Press. pp. 95–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-97068-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-97068-6"><bdi>978-0-415-97068-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+York+and+the+Doo-wop+Groups&rft.btitle=Blues%3A+The+Basics&rft.pages=95-96&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-97068-6&rft.au=Dick+Weissman&rft.au=Richard+Weissman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyYtR20TlGOoC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw1978-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1978_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold_Shaw1978" class="citation book cs1">Arnold Shaw (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyY6AQAAIAAJ&q=%22thousands%22%20%22Harlem%22">Honkers and Shouters: The Golden Years of Rhythm and Blues</a>. Macmillan. p. xix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-610000-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-610000-7"><bdi>978-0-02-610000-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Honkers+and+Shouters%3A+The+Golden+Years+of+Rhythm+and+Blues&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-02-610000-7&rft.au=Arnold+Shaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZyY6AQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522thousands%2522%2520%2522Harlem%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eligon2007-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Eligon2007_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Eligon2007" class="citation news cs1">John Eligon (21 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/nyregion/21bobbys.html">"An Old Record Shop May Fall Victim to Harlem's Success (Published 2007)"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Old+Record+Shop+May+Fall+Victim+to+Harlem%27s+Success+%28Published+2007%29&rft.date=2007-08-21&rft.au=John+Eligon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F08%2F21%2Fnyregion%2F21bobbys.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris2011-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Morris2011_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Morris" class="citation news cs1">Christopher Morris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://variety.com/2011/music/news/music-entrepreneur-bobby-robinson-dies-at-93-1118030020/">"Music entrepreneur Bobby Robinson dies at 93"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Variety_(magazine)" title="Variety (magazine)">Variety</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110115003747/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118030020?refCatId=16">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Variety&rft.atitle=Music+entrepreneur+Bobby+Robinson+dies+at+93&rft.au=Christopher+Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvariety.com%2F2011%2Fmusic%2Fnews%2Fmusic-entrepreneur-bobby-robinson-dies-at-93-1118030020%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zak2012-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Zak2012_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbin_Zak2012" class="citation book cs1">Albin Zak (4 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DEc_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">I Don't Sound Like Nobody: Remaking Music in 1950s America</a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03512-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03512-0"><bdi>978-0-472-03512-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Don%27t+Sound+Like+Nobody%3A+Remaking+Music+in+1950s+America&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2012-10-04&rft.isbn=978-0-472-03512-0&rft.au=Albin+Zak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDEc_DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MooreCross2002-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MooreCross2002_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MooreCross2002_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDave_Headlam2002" class="citation book cs1">Dave Headlam (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-P5JyRVS6UC&pg=PA171">"Appropriations of blues and gospel in popular music"</a>. In Allan Moore; Jonathan Cross (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Blues and Gospel Music. Cambridge University Press. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00107-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00107-6"><bdi>978-0-521-00107-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appropriations+of+blues+and+gospel+in+popular+music&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Blues+and+Gospel+Music&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00107-6&rft.au=Dave+Headlam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-P5JyRVS6UC%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hinckley2011-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Hinckley2011_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Hinckley2011" class="citation news cs1">David Hinckley (8 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nydailynews.com/news/harlem-legend-dead-bobby-robinson-owner-happy-house-125th-st-article-1.150627">"Harlem legend dead Bobby Robinson, owner of Happy House on 125th St"</a>. New York Daily News. Retrieved 6 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Daily+News&rft.atitle=Harlem+legend+dead+Bobby+Robinson%2C+owner+of+Happy+House+on+125th+St.&rft.date=2011-01-08&rft.au=David+Hinckley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nydailynews.com%2Fnews%2Fharlem-legend-dead-bobby-robinson-owner-happy-house-125th-st-article-1.150627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Govenar2010-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Govenar2010_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_B._Govenar2010" class="citation book cs1">Alan B. Govenar (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cia6lyn3c4YC&pg=PT126">Lightnin' Hopkins: His Life and Blues</a>. Chicago Review Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-962-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-962-7"><bdi>978-1-55652-962-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lightnin%27+Hopkins%3A+His+Life+and+Blues&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Chicago+Review+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55652-962-7&rft.au=Alan+B.+Govenar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcia6lyn3c4YC%26pg%3DPT126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phelps1999-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Phelps1999_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirelle_Phelps1999" class="citation book cs1">Shirelle Phelps, ed. (August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mzR2AAAAMAAJ">Contemporary Black Biography</a>. Gale Research Incorporated. pp. 137–139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-2419-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-2419-4"><bdi>978-0-7876-2419-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Black+Biography&rft.pages=137-139&rft.pub=Gale+Research+Incorporated&rft.date=1999-08&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-2419-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmzR2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith2012-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith2012_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessie_Carney_Smith2012" class="citation book cs1">Jessie Carney Smith (1 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=93SDBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46">Black Firsts: 4,000 Ground-Breaking and Pioneering Historical Events</a>. Visible Ink Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-424-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-424-5"><bdi>978-1-57859-424-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Firsts%3A+4%2C000+Ground-Breaking+and+Pioneering+Historical+Events&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Visible+Ink+Press&rft.date=2012-12-01&rft.isbn=978-1-57859-424-5&rft.au=Jessie+Carney+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D93SDBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Besel2020-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Besel2020_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Besel2018" class="citation web cs1">Peter Besel (2 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201107171044/https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/frankie-lymon-and-teenagers-1954-1957/">"Frankie Lymon and The Teenagers (1954–1957)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/frankie-lymon-and-teenagers-1954-1957/">the original</a> on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frankie+Lymon+and+The+Teenagers+%281954%E2%80%931957%29&rft.date=2018-12-02&rft.au=Peter+Besel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackpast.org%2Fafrican-american-history%2Ffrankie-lymon-and-teenagers-1954-1957%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://musicvf.com/song.php?title=Church+Bells+May+Ring+by+Willows&id=48906">"The Willows, "Church Bells May Ring" Chart Positions"</a>. Retrieved 23 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Willows%2C+%22Church+Bells+May+Ring%22+Chart+Positions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmusicvf.com%2Fsong.php%3Ftitle%3DChurch%2BBells%2BMay%2BRing%2Bby%2BWillows%26id%3D48906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MorrowMaloof2007-99"><a href="#cite_ref-MorrowMaloof2007_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCousin_Bruce_MorrowRich_Maloof2007" class="citation book cs1">Cousin Bruce Morrow; Rich Maloof (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CDKHWB1amlgC&pg=PA132">Doo Wop: The Music, the Times, the Era</a>. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-4276-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-4276-7"><bdi>978-1-4027-4276-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doo+Wop%3A+The+Music%2C+the+Times%2C+the+Era&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Sterling+Publishing+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4027-4276-7&rft.au=Cousin+Bruce+Morrow&rft.au=Rich+Maloof&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCDKHWB1amlgC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldberg2009-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Goldberg2009_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarv_Goldberg" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marv_Goldberg" title="Marv Goldberg">Marv Goldberg</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uncamarvy.com/Solitaires/solitaires.html">"The Solitaires"</a>. Marv Goldberg's R&B Notebooks. Retrieved 31 March 2015. <q>While never achieving the national stature of many of their contemporaries, the Solitaires managed to outlast most of them in a career that saw them as one of the top vocal groups on the New York scene.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Marv+Goldberg%27s+R%26B+Notebooks&rft.atitle=The+Solitaires&rft.au=Marv+Goldberg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uncamarvy.com%2FSolitaires%2Fsolitaires.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoffmann2005-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoffmann2005_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_W._Hoffmann2005" class="citation book cs1">Frank W. Hoffmann (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wNfx07-AJwcC&pg=PA38">Rhythm and Blues, Rap, and Hip-hop</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6980-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6980-4"><bdi>978-0-8160-6980-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhythm+and+Blues%2C+Rap%2C+and+Hip-hop&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6980-4&rft.au=Frank+W.+Hoffmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwNfx07-AJwcC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weller2008-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Weller2008_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheila_Weller2008" class="citation book cs1">Sheila Weller (8 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Uz9qcETMwAC&pg=PT56">Girls Like Us: Carole King, Joni Mitchell, Carly Simon--And the Journey of a Generation</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-6477-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-6477-5"><bdi>978-1-4165-6477-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Girls+Like+Us%3A+Carole+King%2C+Joni+Mitchell%2C+Carly+Simon--And+the+Journey+of+a+Generation&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2008-04-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-6477-5&rft.au=Sheila+Weller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Uz9qcETMwAC%26pg%3DPT56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cole2009-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Cole2009_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClay_Cole2009" class="citation book cs1">Clay Cole (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T8JQmqUBag0C&pg=PA208">Sh-Boom!: The Explosion of Rock 'n' Roll (1953–1968)</a>. Wordclay. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60037-638-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60037-638-2"><bdi>978-1-60037-638-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sh-Boom%21%3A+The+Explosion+of+Rock+%27n%27+Roll+%281953%E2%80%931968%29&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Wordclay&rft.date=2009-10&rft.isbn=978-1-60037-638-2&rft.au=Clay+Cole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT8JQmqUBag0C%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner2006265-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006265_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTM_9JTeoMIC&pg=PA265">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTM_9JTeoMIC%26pg%3DPA265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murrels-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Murrels_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Murrells1978" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Murrells (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/157">The Book of Golden Discs</a> (2nd ed.). London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-214-20512-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-214-20512-6"><bdi>0-214-20512-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Golden+Discs&rft.place=London&rft.pages=157&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Barrie+and+Jenkins+Ltd&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-214-20512-6&rft.au=Joseph+Murrells&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbookofgoldendisc00murr%2Fpage%2F157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naison2004-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Naison2004_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Naison2004" class="citation journal cs1">Mark Naison (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200213164340/http://sdonline.org/36/from-doo-wop-to-hip-hop-the-bittersweet-odyssey-of-african-americans-in-the-south-bronx/">"From Doo Wop to Hip Hop: The Bittersweet Odyssey of African-Americans in the South Bronx | Socialism and Democracy"</a>. Socialism and Democracy. 18 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sdonline.org/36/from-doo-wop-to-hip-hop-the-bittersweet-odyssey-of-african-americans-in-the-south-bronx/">the original</a> on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Socialism+and+Democracy&rft.atitle=From+Doo+Wop+to+Hip+Hop%3A+The+Bittersweet+Odyssey+of+African-Americans+in+the+South+Bronx+%7C+Socialism+and+Democracy&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Mark+Naison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsdonline.org%2F36%2Ffrom-doo-wop-to-hip-hop-the-bittersweet-odyssey-of-african-americans-in-the-south-bronx%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Groia1983-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Groia1983_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Groia1983" class="citation book cs1">Philip Groia (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2zYYAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Arthur%20Crier%22">They All Sang on the Corner: A Second Look at New York City's Rhythm and Blues Vocal Groups</a>. P. Dee Enterprises. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9612058-0-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9612058-0-5"><bdi>978-0-9612058-0-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+All+Sang+on+the+Corner%3A+A+Second+Look+at+New+York+City%27s+Rhythm+and+Blues+Vocal+Groups&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=P.+Dee+Enterprises&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-9612058-0-5&rft.au=Philip+Groia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2zYYAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522Arthur%2520Crier%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLaughlin2019-108"><a href="#cite_ref-McLaughlin2019_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarolyn_McLaughlin2019" class="citation book cs1">Carolyn McLaughlin (21 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=knGODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110">South Bronx Battles: Stories of Resistance, Resilience, and Renewal</a>. University of California Press. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96380-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96380-1"><bdi>978-0-520-96380-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Bronx+Battles%3A+Stories+of+Resistance%2C+Resilience%2C+and+Renewal&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019-05-21&rft.isbn=978-0-520-96380-1&rft.au=Carolyn+McLaughlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DknGODwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crier2015-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Crier2015_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_Crier2015" class="citation journal cs1">Arthur Crier (25 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620055431/https://research.library.fordham.edu/baahp_oralhist/144/">"Interview with the Bronx African American History Project"</a>. Oral Histories. Fordham University: 10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.library.fordham.edu/baahp_oralhist/144/">the original</a> on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oral+Histories&rft.atitle=Interview+with+the+Bronx+African+American+History+Project.&rft.pages=10&rft.date=2015-09-25&rft.au=Arthur+Crier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.library.fordham.edu%2Fbaahp_oralhist%2F144%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cinotto2014198-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Cinotto2014198_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimone_Cinotto2014" class="citation book cs1">Simone Cinotto (1 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpKUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT198">"Italian Doo-Wop: Sense of place, Politics of Style, and Racial Crossovers in Postwar New York City"</a>. Making Italian America: Consumer Culture and the Production of Ethnic Identities. Fordham University Press. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6"><bdi>978-0-8232-5626-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italian+Doo-Wop%3A+Sense+of+place%2C+Politics+of+Style%2C+and+Racial+Crossovers+in+Postwar+New+York+City&rft.btitle=Making+Italian+America%3A+Consumer+Culture+and+the+Production+of+Ethnic+Identities&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-5626-6&rft.au=Simone+Cinotto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqpKUDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naison2019-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Naison2019_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naison2019_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Naison2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mark Naison (29 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201106032821/https://research.library.fordham.edu/baahp_essays/">"Italian Americans in Bronx Doo Wop-The Glory and the Paradox"</a>. Occasional Essays. Fordham University: 2–4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fordham.bepress.com/baahp_essays/1">the original</a> on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Occasional+Essays&rft.atitle=Italian+Americans+in+Bronx+Doo+Wop-The+Glory+and+the+Paradox&rft.pages=2-4&rft.date=2019-01-29&rft.au=Mark+Naison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffordham.bepress.com%2Fbaahp_essays%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gennari20178-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Gennari20178_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Gennari2017" class="citation book cs1">John Gennari (18 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sZUtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">"Who Put the Wop in Doo-wop?"</a>. Flavor and Soul: Italian America at Its African American Edge. University of Chicago Press. pp. 8–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-42832-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-42832-1"><bdi>978-0-226-42832-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Who+Put+the+Wop+in+Doo-wop%3F&rft.btitle=Flavor+and+Soul%3A+Italian+America+at+Its+African+American+Edge&rft.pages=8-9&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017-03-18&rft.isbn=978-0-226-42832-1&rft.au=John+Gennari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsZUtDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tricarico2018-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Tricarico2018_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Tricarico2018" class="citation book cs1">Donald Tricarico (24 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EzKBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">Guido Culture and Italian American Youth: From Bensonhurst to Jersey Shore</a>. Springer. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-03293-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-03293-7"><bdi>978-3-030-03293-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guido+Culture+and+Italian+American+Youth%3A+From+Bensonhurst+to+Jersey+Shore&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018-12-24&rft.isbn=978-3-030-03293-7&rft.au=Donald+Tricarico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzKBDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gennari2017-114"><a href="#cite_ref-Gennari2017_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Gennari2017" class="citation book cs1">John Gennari (18 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0D0bDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91">Flavor and Soul: Italian America at Its African American Edge</a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 22–23, 48, 71, 90–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-42832-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-42832-1"><bdi>978-0-226-42832-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flavor+and+Soul%3A+Italian+America+at+Its+African+American+Edge&rft.pages=22-23%2C+48%2C+71%2C+90-95&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017-03-18&rft.isbn=978-0-226-42832-1&rft.au=John+Gennari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0D0bDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cinotto2014204-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cinotto2014204_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cinotto2014204_115-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimone_Cinotto2014" class="citation book cs1">Simone Cinotto (1 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpKUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT204">"Italian Doo-Wop: Sense of place, Politics of Style, and Racial Crossovers in Postwar New York City"</a>. Making Italian America: Consumer Culture and the Production of Ethnic Identities. Fordham University Press. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-5626-6"><bdi>978-0-8232-5626-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italian+Doo-Wop%3A+Sense+of+place%2C+Politics+of+Style%2C+and+Racial+Crossovers+in+Postwar+New+York+City&rft.btitle=Making+Italian+America%3A+Consumer+Culture+and+the+Production+of+Ethnic+Identities&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-5626-6&rft.au=Simone+Cinotto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqpKUDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner2006434-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006434_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTM_9JTeoMIC&pg=PA434">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 434. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=434&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTM_9JTeoMIC%26pg%3DPA434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy2016-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy2016_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy2016_117-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy2016_117-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_McCarthy2016" class="citation web cs1">Jack McCarthy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200921095844/https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/doo-wop/">"Doo Wop"</a>. philadelphiaencyclopedia.org. Rutgers University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/doo-wop/">the original</a> on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 3 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=philadelphiaencyclopedia.org&rft.atitle=Doo+Wop&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Jack+McCarthy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphiladelphiaencyclopedia.org%2Farchive%2Fdoo-wop%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KernodleMaxille2010-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KernodleMaxille2010_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KernodleMaxille2010_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KernodleMaxille2010_118-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmett_G._Price_IIITammy_KernodleHorace_J._Maxile,_Jr.2010" class="citation book cs1">Emmett G. Price III; Tammy Kernodle; Horace J. Maxile, Jr., eds. (17 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nVxgs_E57_EC&pg=PA727">Encyclopedia of African American Music</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 727. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34200-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34200-4"><bdi>978-0-313-34200-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+Music&rft.pages=727&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010-12-17&rft.isbn=978-0-313-34200-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnVxgs_E57_EC%26pg%3DPA727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talevski201019-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Talevski201019_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNick_Talevski2010" class="citation book cs1">Nick Talevski (7 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DykffzkFALoC&pg=PA19">Rock Obituaries: Knocking On Heaven's Door</a>. Music Sales. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85712-117-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85712-117-2"><bdi>978-0-85712-117-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rock+Obituaries%3A+Knocking+On+Heaven%27s+Door&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Music+Sales&rft.date=2010-04-07&rft.isbn=978-0-85712-117-2&rft.au=Nick+Talevski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDykffzkFALoC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archive2011-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Archive2011_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheTurbansOnHeraldRecords/herald458aWhenYouDance.mp3">"The Turbans on Herald Records"</a>. archive.org. Internet Archive. 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=The+Turbans+on+Herald+Records&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTheTurbansOnHeraldRecords%2Fherald458aWhenYouDance.mp3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leszczak2013-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Leszczak2013_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBob_Leszczak2013" class="citation book cs1">Bob Leszczak (10 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oQJ1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA238">Who Did It First?: Great Rhythm and Blues Cover Songs and Their Original Artists</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8867-8"><bdi>978-0-8108-8867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Did+It+First%3F%3A+Great+Rhythm+and+Blues+Cover+Songs+and+Their+Original+Artists&rft.pages=238&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2013-10-10&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-8867-8&rft.au=Bob+Leszczak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoQJ1AQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner2006287-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006287_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTM_9JTeoMIC&pg=PA287">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTM_9JTeoMIC%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson1999-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson1999_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Jackson1999" class="citation book cs1">John Jackson (3 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=29jhBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT120">American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock 'n' Roll Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028490-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028490-9"><bdi>978-0-19-028490-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Bandstand%3A+Dick+Clark+and+the+Making+of+a+Rock+%27n%27+Roll+Empire&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999-06-03&rft.isbn=978-0-19-028490-9&rft.au=John+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D29jhBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Delmont201215-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Delmont201215_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_F._Delmont2012" class="citation book cs1">Matthew F. Delmont (22 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n6Z7VI39WDMC&pg=PT15">The Nicest Kids in Town: American Bandstand, Rock 'n' Roll, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in 1950s Philadelphia</a>. University of California Press. pp. 15–16, 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95160-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95160-0"><bdi>978-0-520-95160-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nicest+Kids+in+Town%3A+American+Bandstand%2C+Rock+%27n%27+Roll%2C+and+the+Struggle+for+Civil+Rights+in+1950s+Philadelphia&rft.pages=15-16%2C+21&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2012-02-22&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95160-0&rft.au=Matthew+F.+Delmont&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn6Z7VI39WDMC%26pg%3DPT15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson2004-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson2004_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson2004_125-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_A._Jackson2004" class="citation book cs1">John A. Jackson (23 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ug0TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">A House on Fire: The Rise and Fall of Philadelphia Soul</a>. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 13–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514972-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514972-2"><bdi>978-0-19-514972-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+House+on+Fire%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Philadelphia+Soul&rft.pages=13-14&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2004-09-23&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514972-2&rft.au=John+A.+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUg0TDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeonardD'Acierno1998-126"><a href="#cite_ref-LeonardD'Acierno1998_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_J._LeonardPellegrino_D'Acierno1998" class="citation book cs1">George J. Leonard; Pellegrino D'Acierno (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nevq7gnw-WgC&pg=PA437">The Italian American Heritage: A Companion to Literature and Arts</a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 437–438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0380-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0380-0"><bdi>978-0-8153-0380-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+American+Heritage%3A+A+Companion+to+Literature+and+Arts&rft.pages=437-438&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-0380-0&rft.au=George+J.+Leonard&rft.au=Pellegrino+D%27Acierno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNevq7gnw-WgC%26pg%3DPA437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConnellPugliese2017-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ConnellPugliese2017_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConnellPugliese2017_127-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Gennari2017" class="citation book cs1">John Gennari (27 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=inM3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT580">"Groovin': A Riff on Italian Americans in Popular Music and Jazz"</a>. In William J. Connell; Stanislao G. Pugliese (eds.). The Routledge History of Italian Americans. Taylor & Francis. p. 580. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-04670-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-04670-5"><bdi>978-1-135-04670-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Groovin%27%3A+A+Riff+on+Italian+Americans+in+Popular+Music+and+Jazz&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+History+of+Italian+Americans&rft.pages=580&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017-09-27&rft.isbn=978-1-135-04670-5&rft.au=John+Gennari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DinM3DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT580&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tricarico201837-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Tricarico201837_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Tricarico2018" class="citation book cs1">Donald Tricarico (24 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EzKBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37">Guido Culture and Italian American Youth: From Bensonhurst to Jersey Shore</a>. Springer. pp. 37–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-03293-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-03293-7"><bdi>978-3-030-03293-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guido+Culture+and+Italian+American+Youth%3A+From+Bensonhurst+to+Jersey+Shore&rft.pages=37-38&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018-12-24&rft.isbn=978-3-030-03293-7&rft.au=Donald+Tricarico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzKBDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson199951-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson199951_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Jackson1999" class="citation book cs1">John Jackson (3 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=29jhBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT51">American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock 'n' Roll Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028490-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028490-9"><bdi>978-0-19-028490-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Bandstand%3A+Dick+Clark+and+the+Making+of+a+Rock+%27n%27+Roll+Empire&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999-06-03&rft.isbn=978-0-19-028490-9&rft.au=John+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D29jhBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy2016a-130"><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy2016a_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_McCarthy2016" class="citation web cs1">Jack McCarthy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170319111927/http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/radio-djs/">"Radio DJs"</a>. philadelphiaencyclopedia.org. Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia | Rutgers University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/radio-djs/">the original</a> on 19 March 2017. Retrieved 12 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=philadelphiaencyclopedia.org&rft.atitle=Radio+DJs&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Jack+McCarthy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphiladelphiaencyclopedia.org%2Farchive%2Fradio-djs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hatmaker2017-131"><a href="#cite_ref-Hatmaker2017_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulia_Hatmaker2017" class="citation web cs1">Julia Hatmaker (15 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pennlive.com/life/2017/06/25_memorable_djs_and_radio_per.html">"25 memorable DJs and radio personalities from Philadelphia's past"</a>. pennlive. Advance Local Media. Retrieved 12 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pennlive&rft.atitle=25+memorable+DJs+and+radio+personalities+from+Philadelphia%27s+past&rft.date=2017-06-15&rft.au=Julia+Hatmaker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pennlive.com%2Flife%2F2017%2F06%2F25_memorable_djs_and_radio_per.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitburn2004-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Whitburn2004_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoel_Whitburn2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_Whitburn" title="Joel Whitburn">Joel Whitburn</a> (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–2004. Record Research. p. 484.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Top+R%26B%2FHip-Hop+Singles%3A+1942%E2%80%932004&rft.pages=484&rft.pub=Record+Research&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Joel+Whitburn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner2006284-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Warner2006284_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Warner2006" class="citation book cs1">Jay Warner (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTM_9JTeoMIC&pg=PA284">American Singing Groups: A History from 1940s to Today</a>. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-634-09978-6"><bdi>978-0-634-09978-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Singing+Groups%3A+A+History+from+1940s+to+Today&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Hal+Leonard+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-634-09978-6&rft.au=Jay+Warner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTM_9JTeoMIC%26pg%3DPA284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larkin2000-134"><a href="#cite_ref-Larkin2000_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_Larkin2000" class="citation book cs1">Colin Larkin (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8gkKAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Philadelphia%20sound%22">The Encyclopedia of Popular Music: Brown, Marion – Dilated Peoples</a>. MUZE. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531373-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531373-4"><bdi>978-0-19-531373-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Popular+Music%3A+Brown%2C+Marion+%E2%80%93+Dilated+Peoples&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=MUZE&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-531373-4&rft.au=Colin+Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8gkKAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Philadelphia%2520sound%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blavat2013-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Blavat2013_135-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerry_Blavat2013" class="citation book cs1">Jerry Blavat (13 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2fIfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA157">You Only Rock Once: My Life in Music</a>. Running Press. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-5018-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-5018-3"><bdi>978-0-7624-5018-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=You+Only+Rock+Once%3A+My+Life+in+Music&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Running+Press&rft.date=2013-08-13&rft.isbn=978-0-7624-5018-3&rft.au=Jerry+Blavat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2fIfAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kauppila2006-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kauppila2006_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kauppila2006_136-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kauppila2006_136-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Kauppila2006" class="citation journal cs1">Paul Kauppila (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/70410093.pdf">"From Memphis to Kingston: An Investigation into the Origin of Jamaican Ska"</a> (PDF). Social and Economic Studies. 55 (1 & 2): 78–83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210515204823/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/70410093.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+and+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=From+Memphis+to+Kingston%3A+An+Investigation+into+the+Origin+of+Jamaican+Ska&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1+%26+2&rft.pages=78-83&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Paul+Kauppila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F70410093.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GuilloryGreen1998-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GuilloryGreen1998_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GuilloryGreen1998_137-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant_Fared1998" class="citation book cs1">Grant Fared (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ls7wHSpjed8C&pg=PA67">"Wailin; Soul"</a>. In Monique Guillory; Richard Green (eds.). Soul: Black Power, Politics, and Pleasure. NYU Press. pp. 67–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3084-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3084-3"><bdi>978-0-8147-3084-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wailin%3B+Soul&rft.btitle=Soul%3A+Black+Power%2C+Politics%2C+and+Pleasure&rft.pages=67-69&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3084-3&rft.au=Grant+Fared&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLs7wHSpjed8C%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fredericks2000-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fredericks2000_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fredericks2000_138-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fredericks2000_138-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrad_Fredericks" class="citation web cs1">Brad Fredericks. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20001017195824/http://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/fredericks.html">"American Rhythm and Blues Influence on Early Jamaican Musical Style"</a>. debate.uvm.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/fredericks.html">the original</a> on 17 October 2000. Retrieved 15 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=debate.uvm.edu&rft.atitle=American+Rhythm+and+Blues+Influence+on+Early+Jamaican+Musical+Style&rft.au=Brad+Fredericks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdebate.uvm.edu%2Fdreadlibrary%2Ffredericks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindsay2014-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Lindsay2014_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClinton_Lindsay2014" class="citation news cs1">Clinton Lindsay (20 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140720124359/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140720/ent/ent3.html">"Jamaican records fill R&B gap"</a>. jamaica-gleaner.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140720/ent/ent3.html">the original</a> on 20 July 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=jamaica-gleaner.com&rft.atitle=Jamaican+records+fill+R%26B+gap&rft.date=2014-07-20&rft.au=Clinton+Lindsay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjamaica-gleaner.com%2Fgleaner%2F20140720%2Fent%2Fent3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joyner2008-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Joyner2008_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Lee_Joyner2008" class="citation book cs1">David Lee Joyner (27 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x-s3AQAAIAAJ&q=%22Jamaica%22%20%22doo-wop%22">American Popular Music</a>. McGraw-Hill Education. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-352657-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-352657-7"><bdi>978-0-07-352657-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Popular+Music&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2008-06-27&rft.isbn=978-0-07-352657-7&rft.au=David+Lee+Joyner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx-s3AQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522Jamaica%2522%2520%2522doo-wop%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CampbellBrody2007-141"><a href="#cite_ref-CampbellBrody2007_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_CampbellJames_Brody2007" class="citation book cs1">Michael Campbell; James Brody (27 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XTo8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA339">Rock and Roll: An Introduction</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-79453-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-79453-8"><bdi>978-1-111-79453-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rock+and+Roll%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=339&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007-02-27&rft.isbn=978-1-111-79453-8&rft.au=Michael+Campbell&rft.au=James+Brody&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXTo8AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witmer1987-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Witmer1987_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Witmer1987" class="citation journal cs1">Robert Witmer (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/948066">""Local" and "Foreign": The Popular Music Culture of Kingston, Jamaica, before Ska, Rock Steady, and Reggae"</a>. Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana. 8 (1): 13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F948066">10.2307/948066</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0163-0350">0163-0350</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/948066">948066</a>. Retrieved 15 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Music+Review+%2F+Revista+de+M%C3%BAsica+Latinoamericana&rft.atitle=%22Local%22+and+%22Foreign%22%3A+The+Popular+Music+Culture+of+Kingston%2C+Jamaica%2C+before+Ska%2C+Rock+Steady%2C+and+Reggae&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13&rft.date=1987&rft.issn=0163-0350&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F948066%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F948066&rft.au=Robert+Witmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F948066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Hagan2020-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Hagan2020_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Hagan2020_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSean_O'Hagan2020" class="citation news cs1">Sean O'Hagan (12 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201012150802/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/oct/12/a-thousand-teardrops-how-doo-wop-kickstarted-jamaica-pop-revolution-reggae-rocksteady">"A thousand teardrops: how doo-wop kickstarted Jamaica's pop revolution"</a>. The Guardian. Guardian News & Media. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/oct/12/a-thousand-teardrops-how-doo-wop-kickstarted-jamaica-pop-revolution-reggae-rocksteady">the original</a> on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=A+thousand+teardrops%3A+how+doo-wop+kickstarted+Jamaica%27s+pop+revolution&rft.date=2020-10-12&rft.au=Sean+O%27Hagan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmusic%2F2020%2Foct%2F12%2Fa-thousand-teardrops-how-doo-wop-kickstarted-jamaica-pop-revolution-reggae-rocksteady&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black2015-144"><a href="#cite_ref-Black2015_144-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy_Black2015" class="citation news cs1">Roy Black (22 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/entertainment/20150222/roy-black-column">"Roy Black Column: Dobby Dobson"</a>. The Gleaner. Kingston, Jamaica. Retrieved 16 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gleaner&rft.atitle=Roy+Black+Column%3A+Dobby+Dobson&rft.date=2015-02-22&rft.au=Roy+Black&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjamaica-gleaner.com%2Farticle%2Fentertainment%2F20150222%2Froy-black-column&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Unterberger2017-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Unterberger2017_145-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichie_Unterberger2017" class="citation book cs1">Richie Unterberger (September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_vEpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">Bob Marley and the Wailers: The Ultimate Illustrated History</a>. Voyageur Press. pp. 15, 30–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-5241-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-5241-0"><bdi>978-0-7603-5241-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bob+Marley+and+the+Wailers%3A+The+Ultimate+Illustrated+History&rft.pages=15%2C+30-31&rft.pub=Voyageur+Press&rft.date=2017-09&rft.isbn=978-0-7603-5241-0&rft.au=Richie+Unterberger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_vEpDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson2002-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson2002_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDave_Thompson2002" class="citation book cs1">Dave Thompson (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ARrDQKqFo7AC&pg=PA361">Reggae & Caribbean Music</a>. Backbeat Books. p. 361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-655-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-655-7"><bdi>978-0-87930-655-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reggae+%26+Caribbean+Music&rft.pages=361&rft.pub=Backbeat+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87930-655-7&rft.au=Dave+Thompson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DARrDQKqFo7AC%26pg%3DPA361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gulla2008-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Gulla2008_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBob_Gulla2008" class="citation book cs1">Bob Gulla (16 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pLgqFaYmgw8C&pg=RA1-PR11">Icons of R & B and Soul: An Encyclopedia of the Artists who Revolutionized Rhythm</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. xi–xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34044-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34044-4"><bdi>978-0-313-34044-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Icons+of+R+%26+B+and+Soul%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+Artists+who+Revolutionized+Rhythm&rft.pages=xi-xii&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008-01-16&rft.isbn=978-0-313-34044-4&rft.au=Bob+Gulla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpLgqFaYmgw8C%26pg%3DRA1-PR11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill1997-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Hill1997_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMike_Hill1997" class="citation book cs1">Mike Hill (July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lvwEfesT2jQC&pg=PA138">Whiteness: A Critical Reader</a>. NYU Press. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3545-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3545-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-3545-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whiteness%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1997-07&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3545-9&rft.au=Mike+Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlvwEfesT2jQC%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peddie2020-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Peddie2020_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_M._Jones2020" class="citation book cs1">David M. Jones (6 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8GfDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT768">"23, "Bring It on Home": Constructions of Social Class in Rhythm and Blues and Soul Music, 1949-1980"</a>. In Ian Peddie (ed.). The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music and Social Class. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 768. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5013-4537-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5013-4537-1"><bdi>978-1-5013-4537-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=23%2C+%22Bring+It+on+Home%22%3A+Constructions+of+Social+Class+in+Rhythm+and+Blues+and+Soul+Music%2C+1949-1980&rft.btitle=The+Bloomsbury+Handbook+of+Popular+Music+and+Social+Class&rft.pages=768&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2020-02-06&rft.isbn=978-1-5013-4537-1&rft.au=David+M.+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8GfDDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT768&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taruskin2006-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Taruskin2006_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Taruskin2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taruskin" title="Richard Taruskin">Richard Taruskin</a> (14 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mWFmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA313">Music in the Late Twentieth Century: The Oxford History of Western Music</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 313–314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979593-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979593-2"><bdi>978-0-19-979593-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+in+the+Late+Twentieth+Century%3A+The+Oxford+History+of+Western+Music&rft.pages=313-314&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006-08-14&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979593-2&rft.au=Richard+Taruskin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmWFmDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bertrand2000-151"><a href="#cite_ref-Bertrand2000_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_T._Bertrand2000" class="citation book cs1">Michael T. Bertrand (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=keafptPvxYcC&pg=PA66">Race, Rock, and Elvis</a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 66–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02586-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02586-0"><bdi>978-0-252-02586-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Rock%2C+and+Elvis&rft.pages=66-68&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02586-0&rft.au=Michael+T.+Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkeafptPvxYcC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Absher2014-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Absher2014_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmy_Absher2014" class="citation book cs1">Amy Absher (16 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=amfAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101">The Black Musician and the White City: Race and Music in Chicago, 1900-1967</a>. University of Michigan Press. pp. 101–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11917-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11917-2"><bdi>978-0-472-11917-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Musician+and+the+White+City%3A+Race+and+Music+in+Chicago%2C+1900-1967&rft.pages=101-103&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2014-06-16&rft.isbn=978-0-472-11917-2&rft.au=Amy+Absher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DamfAAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rausch1996-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Rausch1996_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_A._Rausch1996" class="citation book cs1">David A. Rausch (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LklGAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Jewish%22%20%22Doo-wop%22">Friends, Colleagues, and Neighbors: Jewish Contributions to American History</a>. Baker Books. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-1119-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-1119-1"><bdi>978-0-8010-1119-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Friends%2C+Colleagues%2C+and+Neighbors%3A+Jewish+Contributions+to+American+History&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Baker+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-1119-1&rft.au=David+A.+Rausch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLklGAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Jewish%2522%2520%2522Doo-wop%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RanMorad2016-154"><a href="#cite_ref-RanMorad2016_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAri_Katorza2016" class="citation book cs1">Ari Katorza (21 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3iRzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83">"Walls of Sounds: Leiber & Stoller, Phil Spector, the Black-Jewish Alliance, and the "Enlarging" of America"</a>. In Amalia Ran; Moshe Morad (eds.). Mazal Tov, Amigos! Jews and Popular Music in the Americas. Brill. pp. 83, 86, 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20477-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20477-5"><bdi>978-90-04-20477-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Walls+of+Sounds%3A+Leiber+%26+Stoller%2C+Phil+Spector%2C+the+Black-Jewish+Alliance%2C+and+the+%22Enlarging%22+of+America&rft.btitle=Mazal+Tov%2C+Amigos%21+Jews+and+Popular+Music+in+the+Americas&rft.pages=83%2C+86%2C+88&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016-01-21&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20477-5&rft.au=Ari+Katorza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3iRzCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kobrin2012-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Kobrin2012_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Karp2012" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Karp (20 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOQwPXh2xZIC&pg=PA141">"Blacks, Jews, and the Business of Race Music, 1945–1955"</a>. In RebeccaKobrin (ed.). Chosen Capital: The Jewish Encounter with American Capitalism. Rutgers University Press. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-5329-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-5329-0"><bdi>978-0-8135-5329-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Blacks%2C+Jews%2C+and+the+Business+of+Race+Music%2C+1945%E2%80%931955&rft.btitle=Chosen+Capital%3A+The+Jewish+Encounter+with+American+Capitalism&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2012-08-20&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-5329-0&rft.au=Jonathan+Karp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkOQwPXh2xZIC%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Runowicz2010-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Runowicz2010_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Michael_Runowicz2010" class="citation book cs1">John Michael Runowicz (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VqzcQgAACAAJ">Forever Doo-wop: Race, Nostalgia, and Vocal Harmony</a>. University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 45, 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-824-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55849-824-2"><bdi>978-1-55849-824-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+Doo-wop%3A+Race%2C+Nostalgia%2C+and+Vocal+Harmony&rft.pages=45%2C+48&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55849-824-2&rft.au=John+Michael+Runowicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVqzcQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Emerson200611-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Emerson200611_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKen_Emerson2006" class="citation book cs1">Ken Emerson (26 September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H7N3tPSny6AC&pg=PT11">Always Magic in the Air: The Bomp and Brilliance of the Brill Building Era</a>. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 11–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-15692-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-15692-6"><bdi>978-1-101-15692-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Always+Magic+in+the+Air%3A+The+Bomp+and+Brilliance+of+the+Brill+Building+Era&rft.pages=11-13&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006-09-26&rft.isbn=978-1-101-15692-6&rft.au=Ken+Emerson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH7N3tPSny6AC%26pg%3DPT11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stratton2017-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Stratton2017_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJon_Stratton2017" class="citation book cs1">Jon Stratton (5 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Py8rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43">Jews, Race and Popular Music</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-56170-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-56170-9"><bdi>978-1-351-56170-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Race+and+Popular+Music&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017-07-05&rft.isbn=978-1-351-56170-9&rft.au=Jon+Stratton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPy8rDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GoldsteinWeiner2018-159"><a href="#cite_ref-GoldsteinWeiner2018_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_L._GoldsteinDeborah_R._Weiner2018" class="citation book cs1">Eric L. Goldstein; Deborah R. Weiner (28 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QNTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA281">On Middle Ground: A History of the Jews of Baltimore</a>. JHU Press. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2452-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2452-1"><bdi>978-1-4214-2452-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Middle+Ground%3A+A+History+of+the+Jews+of+Baltimore&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2018-03-28&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-2452-1&rft.au=Eric+L.+Goldstein&rft.au=Deborah+R.+Weiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0QNTDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CherryGriffith2014-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CherryGriffith2014_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CherryGriffith2014_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CherryGriffith2014_160-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_CherryJennifer_Griffith2014" class="citation journal cs1">Robert Cherry; Jennifer Griffith (Summer 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14713%2FJJS.V10I1.84">"Down to Business: Herman Lubinsky and the Postwar Music Industry"</a>. Journal of Jazz Studies. 10 (1): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14713%2FJJS.V10I1.84">10.14713/JJS.V10I1.84</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161459134">161459134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jazz+Studies&rft.atitle=Down+to+Business%3A+Herman+Lubinsky+and+the+Postwar+Music+Industry&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14713%2FJJS.V10I1.84&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161459134%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Robert+Cherry&rft.au=Jennifer+Griffith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.14713%252FJJS.V10I1.84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kukla2002-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Kukla2002_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_J._Kukla2002" class="citation book cs1">Barbara J. Kukla (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cbt1NiemfHsC&pg=PA153">Swing City: Newark Nightlife, 1925-50</a>. Rutgers University Press. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3116-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3116-8"><bdi>978-0-8135-3116-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swing+City%3A+Newark+Nightlife%2C+1925-50&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3116-8&rft.au=Barbara+J.+Kukla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcbt1NiemfHsC%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeber200643-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Beeber200643_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Lee_Beeber2006" class="citation book cs1">Steven Lee Beeber (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Loulao8hWM8C&pg=PA43">The Heebie-jeebies at CBGB's: A Secret History of Jewish Punk</a>. Chicago Review Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-613-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-613-8"><bdi>978-1-55652-613-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heebie-jeebies+at+CBGB%27s%3A+A+Secret+History+of+Jewish+Punk&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Chicago+Review+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-55652-613-8&rft.au=Steven+Lee+Beeber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLoulao8hWM8C%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeber2006-163"><a href="#cite_ref-Beeber2006_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Lee_Beeber2006" class="citation book cs1">Steven Lee Beeber (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Loulao8hWM8C&pg=PA16">The Heebie-jeebies at CBGB's: A Secret History of Jewish Punk</a>. Chicago Review Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-613-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55652-613-8"><bdi>978-1-55652-613-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heebie-jeebies+at+CBGB%27s%3A+A+Secret+History+of+Jewish+Punk&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Chicago+Review+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-55652-613-8&rft.au=Steven+Lee+Beeber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLoulao8hWM8C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rapport2020-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rapport2020_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rapport2020_164-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvan_Rapport2020" class="citation book cs1">Evan Rapport (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSkGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">Damaged: Musicality and Race in Early American Punk</a>. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 105–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4968-3123-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4968-3123-1"><bdi>978-1-4968-3123-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Damaged%3A+Musicality+and+Race+in+Early+American+Punk&rft.pages=105-107&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4968-3123-1&rft.au=Evan+Rapport&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtSkGEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rapport2020116-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Rapport2020116_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvan_Rapport2020" class="citation book cs1">Evan Rapport (24 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSkGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116">Damaged: Musicality and Race in Early American Punk</a>. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 116–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4968-3123-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4968-3123-1"><bdi>978-1-4968-3123-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Damaged%3A+Musicality+and+Race+in+Early+American+Punk&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2020-11-24&rft.isbn=978-1-4968-3123-1&rft.au=Evan+Rapport&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtSkGEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dogget2013-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Dogget2013_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Doggett2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Doggett (25 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDT_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT46">Lou Reed: The Defining Years</a>. Omnibus Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78323-084-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78323-084-6"><bdi>978-1-78323-084-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lou+Reed%3A+The+Defining+Years&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Omnibus+Press&rft.date=2013-11-25&rft.isbn=978-1-78323-084-6&rft.au=Peter+Doggett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiDT_AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BogdanovWoodstra2002942-167"><a href="#cite_ref-BogdanovWoodstra2002942_167-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVladimir_BogdanovChris_WoodstraStephen_Thomas_Erlewine2002" class="citation book cs1">Vladimir Bogdanov; Chris Woodstra; Stephen Thomas Erlewine, eds. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1-pH4i3jXvAC&pg=PA942">All Music Guide to Rock: The Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul</a>. Backbeat Books. p. 942. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87930-653-3"><bdi>978-0-87930-653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Music+Guide+to+Rock%3A+The+Definitive+Guide+to+Rock%2C+Pop%2C+and+Soul&rft.pages=942&rft.pub=Backbeat+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87930-653-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1-pH4i3jXvAC%26pg%3DPA942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koskoff2017-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Koskoff2017_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllen_Koskoff2017" class="citation book cs1">Ellen Koskoff (25 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Eh03DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT591">The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The United States and Canada</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 591. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-54414-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-54414-6"><bdi>978-1-351-54414-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garland+Encyclopedia+of+World+Music%3A+The+United+States+and+Canada&rft.pages=591&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017-09-25&rft.isbn=978-1-351-54414-6&rft.au=Ellen+Koskoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEh03DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> The Doo-Wop Box I, Rhino Records Inc., liner notes by Bob Hyde, Billy Vera and others, 1993 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolden1994" class="citation news cs1">Holden, Stephen (29 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/29/arts/pop-view-the-deep-forbidden-music-how-doo-wop-casts-its-spell.html">"POP VIEW; 'The Deep Forbidden Music': How Doo-Wop Casts Its Spell"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 26 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=POP+VIEW%3B+%27The+Deep+Forbidden+Music%27%3A+How+Doo-Wop+Casts+Its+Spell&rft.date=1994-05-29&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Holden&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F05%2F29%2Farts%2Fpop-view-the-deep-forbidden-music-how-doo-wop-casts-its-spell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pc5-171"><a href="#cite_ref-pc5_171-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/search/?fq=str_title_serial%3A%22The+Pop+Chronicles+%28John+Gilliland+Collection%29%22&sort=date_a&start=4">Buck Ram (manager of Penguins and Platters)</a> interviewed on the <a href="/wiki/Pop_Chronicles" title="Pop Chronicles">Pop Chronicles</a> (1969) </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Monotones" class="citation web cs1">The Monotones. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-monotones-mn0000406898">"The Monotones | Biography, Albums, Streaming Links"</a>. AllMusic. Retrieved 10 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Monotones+%26%23124%3B+Biography%2C+Albums%2C+Streaming+Links&rft.pub=AllMusic&rft.au=The+Monotones&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allmusic.com%2Fartist%2Fthe-monotones-mn0000406898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitburn2010-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Whitburn2010_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoel_Whitburn2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_Whitburn" title="Joel Whitburn">Joel Whitburn</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EW9RsB0a0oAC&pg=PA190">The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits</a>. Billboard Books. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8230-8554-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8230-8554-5"><bdi>978-0-8230-8554-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Billboard+Book+of+Top+40+Hits&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Billboard+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8230-8554-5&rft.au=Joel+Whitburn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEW9RsB0a0oAC%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitburn2010880-174"><a href="#cite_ref-Whitburn2010880_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoel_Whitburn2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_Whitburn" title="Joel Whitburn">Joel Whitburn</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EW9RsB0a0oAC&pg=PA880">The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits</a>. Billboard Books. p. 880. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8230-8554-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8230-8554-5"><bdi>978-0-8230-8554-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Billboard+Book+of+Top+40+Hits&rft.pages=880&rft.pub=Billboard+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8230-8554-5&rft.au=Joel+Whitburn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEW9RsB0a0oAC%26pg%3DPA880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pc25-175"><a href="#cite_ref-pc25_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilliland1969" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gilliland" title="John Gilliland">Gilliland, John</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc19780/m1/">"Show 25 – The Soul Reformation: Phase two, the Motown story. [Part 4]"</a> (audio). <a href="/wiki/Pop_Chronicles" title="Pop Chronicles">Pop Chronicles</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Texas_Libraries" title="University of North Texas Libraries">University of North Texas Libraries</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pop+Chronicles&rft.atitle=Show+25+%E2%80%93+The+Soul+Reformation%3A+Phase+two%2C+the+Motown+story.+%5BPart+4%5D&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Gilliland&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc19780%2Fm1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert2007-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert2007_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Lambert2007" class="citation book cs1">Philip Lambert (19 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3sGoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">Inside the Music of Brian Wilson: The Songs, Sounds, and Influences of the Beach Boys' Founding Genius</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-0748-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-0748-0"><bdi>978-1-4411-0748-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Music+of+Brian+Wilson%3A+The+Songs%2C+Sounds%2C+and+Influences+of+the+Beach+Boys%27+Founding+Genius&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2007-03-19&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-0748-0&rft.au=Philip+Lambert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3sGoAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert2016-177"><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert2016_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Lambert2016" class="citation book cs1">Philip Lambert (7 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aU5KDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA66">Good Vibrations: Brian Wilson and the Beach Boys in Critical Perspective</a>. University of Michigan Press. pp. 66–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11995-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11995-0"><bdi>978-0-472-11995-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Good+Vibrations%3A+Brian+Wilson+and+the+Beach+Boys+in+Critical+Perspective&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2016-10-07&rft.isbn=978-0-472-11995-0&rft.au=Philip+Lambert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaU5KDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Joel_Whitburn" title="Joel Whitburn">Whitburn, Joel</a>, The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits, Billboard Books, New York, 1992, pp. 42 & 381 </li> <li id="cite_note-Schruers2015-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Schruers2015_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFred_Schruers2015" class="citation book cs1">Fred Schruers (17 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSrZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172">Billy Joel: The Definitive Biography</a>. Crown Archetype. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-4021-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-4021-8"><bdi>978-0-8041-4021-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Billy+Joel%3A+The+Definitive+Biography&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Crown+Archetype&rft.date=2015-11-17&rft.isbn=978-0-8041-4021-8&rft.au=Fred+Schruers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiSrZCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApplebome2012" class="citation news cs1">Applebome, Peter (29 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/01/nyregion/as-ronnie-is-closes-sounds-of-doo-wop-fade-away.html?_r=2&emc=eta1/">"A Doo-Wop Shop Prepares to Close, Signaling the End of a Fading Genre"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 5 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Doo-Wop+Shop+Prepares+to+Close%2C+Signaling+the+End+of+a+Fading+Genre&rft.date=2012-02-29&rft.aulast=Applebome&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F03%2F01%2Fnyregion%2Fas-ronnie-is-closes-sounds-of-doo-wop-fade-away.html%3F_r%3D2%26emc%3Deta1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2012" class="citation web cs1">Levinson, Paul (4 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paullevinson.blogspot.com/2012/03/doo-wop-forever.html">"Doo Wop Forever"</a>. Infinite Regress. Retrieved 21 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infinite+Regress&rft.atitle=Doo+Wop+Forever&rft.date=2012-03-04&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaullevinson.blogspot.com%2F2012%2F03%2Fdoo-wop-forever.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guevara2018-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Guevara2018_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubén_Funkahuatl_Guevara2018" class="citation book cs1">Rubén Funkahuatl Guevara (13 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eqhSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">Confessions of a Radical Chicano Doo-Wop Singer</a>. University of California Press. p. 81−83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96966-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-96966-7"><bdi>978-0-520-96966-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confessions+of+a+Radical+Chicano+Doo-Wop+Singer&rft.pages=81%E2%88%9283&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2018-04-13&rft.isbn=978-0-520-96966-7&rft.au=Rub%C3%A9n+Funkahuatl+Guevara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeqhSDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4Quarters-183"><a href="#cite_ref-4Quarters_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2010" class="citation news cs1">Newman, Steve (13 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yourottawaregion.com/what's%20on/article/404758--four-quarters-on-a-roll">"Four Quarters on a roll"</a>. YourOttawaRegion.com. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Four+Quarters+on+a+roll&rft.date=2010-01-13&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yourottawaregion.com%2Fwhat%27s%2520on%2Farticle%2F404758--four-quarters-on-a-roll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCR-184"><a href="#cite_ref-SCR_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeir2012" class="citation web cs1">McNeir, D. Kevin (26 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130128150806/http://miamitimesonline.com/street-corner-renaissance-takes-%E2%80%98doo-wop%E2%80%99-to-new-levels/">"Street Corner Renaissance takes 'doo-wop' to new levels"</a>. The Miami Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://miamitimesonline.com/street-corner-renaissance-takes-%E2%80%98doo-wop%E2%80%99-to-new-levels/">the original</a> on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Miami+Times&rft.atitle=Street+Corner+Renaissance+takes+%27doo-wop%27+to+new+levels&rft.date=2012-04-26&rft.aulast=McNeir&rft.aufirst=D.+Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmiamitimesonline.com%2Fstreet-corner-renaissance-takes-%25E2%2580%2598doo-wop%25E2%2580%2599-to-new-levels%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikael_Wood2013" class="citation web cs1">Mikael Wood (28 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/music/posts/la-et-ms-review-bruno-mars-staples-center-20130728-story.html">"Review: Bruno Mars brings Moonshine Jungle to Staples Center"</a>. Los Angeles Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130918091159/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jul/28/entertainment/la-et-ms-review-bruno-mars-staples-center-20130728">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 4 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Bruno+Mars+brings+Moonshine+Jungle+to+Staples+Center&rft.date=2013-07-28&rft.au=Mikael+Wood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fentertainment%2Fmusic%2Fposts%2Fla-et-ms-review-bruno-mars-staples-center-20130728-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PotterPress2000-186"><a href="#cite_ref-PotterPress2000_186-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Toop2000" class="citation book cs1">David Toop (13 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8T73OnRmIVIC&pg=PA43">"4 The evolving language of rap"</a>. In John Potter; Jonathan Cross (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Singing. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62709-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62709-2"><bdi>978-0-521-62709-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4+The+evolving+language+of+rap&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Singing&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000-04-13&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62709-2&rft.au=David+Toop&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8T73OnRmIVIC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADoo-wop" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Doo-wop&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Further_reading_cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This "<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout#Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">Further reading</a>" section may need cleanup. Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">editing guide</a> and help improve the section. (May 2017) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 45em;"> <ul><li>Baptista, Todd R. (1996). Group Harmony: Behind the Rhythm and Blues. New Bedford, Massachusetts: TRB Enterprises. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9631722-5-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-9631722-5-5">0-9631722-5-5</a>.</li> <li>Baptista, Todd R. (2000). Group Harmony: Echoes of the Rhythm and Blues Era. New Bedford, Massachusetts: TRB Enterprises. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9706852-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-9706852-0-3">0-9706852-0-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Cummings" title="Tony Cummings">Cummings, Tony</a> (1975). The Sound of Philadelphia. London: Eyre Methuen.</li> <li>Engel, Ed (1977). White and Still All Right. Scarsdale, New York: Crackerjack Press.</li> <li>Gribin, Anthony J., and Matthew M. Shiff (1992). Doo-Wop: The Forgotten Third of Rock 'n Roll. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnny_Keyes_and_the_Magnificents" title="Johnny Keyes and the Magnificents">Keyes, Johnny</a> (1987). Du-Wop. Chicago: Vesti Press.</li> <li>Lepri, Paul (1977). The New Haven Sound 1946–1976. New Haven, Connecticut: [self published].</li> <li>McCutcheon, Lynn Ellis (1971). Rhythm and Blues. Arlington, Virginia.</li> <li>Warner, Jay (1992). The Da Capo Book of American Singing Groups. New York: Da Capo Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rhythm_and_blues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: blue; color: white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhythm_and_blues" title="Template:Rhythm and blues"><abbr title="View this template" style="color: white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhythm_and_blues" title="Template talk:Rhythm and blues"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color: white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhythm_and_blues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhythm and blues"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color: white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rhythm_and_blues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">Rhythm and blues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: blue; color: white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">Genres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: blue; color: white;;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_music" title="Beach music">Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boogie_(genre)" title="Boogie (genre)">Boogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_rhythm_and_blues" title="British rhythm and blues">British rhythm and blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_R%26B" title="Christian R&B">Christian R&B</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Doo-wop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_rhythm_and_blues" title="New Orleans rhythm and blues">New Orleans R&B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamp_pop" title="Swamp pop">Swamp pop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: blue; color: white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_R%26B" title="Contemporary R&B">Contemporary R&B</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_R%26B" title="Alternative R&B">Alternative R&B</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alt%C3%A9" title="Alté">Alté</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crunk%26B" class="mw-redirect" title="Crunk&B">Crunk&B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_soul" title="Hip hop soul">Hip hop soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_R%26B" title="Latin R&B">Latin R&B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_jack_swing" title="New jack swing">New jack swing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluggnb" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluggnb">Pluggnb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_storm" title="Quiet storm">Quiet storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%AF%27n%27B" title="Raï'n'B">Raï'n'B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime_(music_genre)#Rhythm_&_grime" class="mw-redirect" title="Grime (music genre)">Rhythm & grime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RnBass" title="RnBass">RnBass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snap%26B" class="mw-redirect" title="Snap&B">Snap&B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_contemporary_music" title="Urban contemporary music">Urban contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_adult_contemporary" title="Urban adult contemporary">Urban adult contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: blue; color: white;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music" title="Adult contemporary music">Adult contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroswing" title="Afroswing">Afroswing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beat_music" title="Beat music">Beat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nederbeat" title="Nederbeat">Nederbeat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jump_blues" title="Jump blues">Jump blues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boogaloo" title="Boogaloo">Boogaloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funk" title="Funk">Funk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_jam" title="Slow jam">Slow jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smooth_jazz" title="Smooth jazz">Smooth jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_music" title="Soul music">Soul</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-eyed_soul" title="Blue-eyed soul">Blue-eyed soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_soul" title="British soul">British soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motown" title="Motown">Motown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo_soul" title="Neo soul">Neo soul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_contemporary" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban contemporary">Urban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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