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class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="目录" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目录</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">序言</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-名称及语源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#名称及语源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 名称及语源 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-名称及语源-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关名称及语源子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-名称及语源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-中文称呼" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中文称呼"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 中文称呼 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中文称呼-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-西方称呼" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#西方称呼"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 西方称呼 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-西方称呼-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-历史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#历史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 历史 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-历史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-文化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#文化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 文化 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-文化-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关文化子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-文化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-宗教信仰" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#宗教信仰"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 宗教信仰 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-宗教信仰-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-婚丧嫁娶" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#婚丧嫁娶"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 婚丧嫁娶 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-婚丧嫁娶-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言文字" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言文字"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 语言文字 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语言文字-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-历法节期" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#历法节期"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 历法节期 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-历法节期-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-知名人物" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#知名人物"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 知名人物 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-知名人物-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-身份認同" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#身份認同"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 身份認同 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-身份認同-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-人口及分布" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#人口及分布"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 人口及分布 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-人口及分布-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关人口及分布子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-人口及分布-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-犹太人散居地区" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#犹太人散居地区"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 犹太人散居地区 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-犹太人散居地区-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-增长与发展" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#增长与发展"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 增长与发展 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-增长与发展-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-内部族群" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#内部族群"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 内部族群 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-内部族群-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关内部族群子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-内部族群-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-中国" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中国"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 中国 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中国-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-人口变化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#人口变化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 人口变化 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-人口变化-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关人口变化子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-人口变化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-移民" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#移民"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 移民 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-移民-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-融合与混同" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#融合与混同"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 融合与混同 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-融合与混同-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-战争与迫害" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#战争与迫害"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 战争与迫害 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-战争与迫害-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-科学研究" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#科学研究"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 科学研究 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-科学研究-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关科学研究子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-科学研究-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-遗传学研究" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#遗传学研究"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 遗传学研究 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-遗传学研究-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-基因研究" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#基因研究"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 基因研究 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-基因研究-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-考古学研究" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#考古学研究"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 考古学研究 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-考古学研究-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参见" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参见"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 参见 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-参见-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-註釋" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#註釋"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 註釋 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-註釋-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參考文獻" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參考文獻"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 參考文獻 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-參考文獻-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部链接" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部链接"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 外部链接 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部链接-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 开关目录 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">犹太人</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。150种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-150" aria-hidden="true" > 150种语言 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jode" title="Jode – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jode" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chodigos" title="Chodigos – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chodigos" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebi_Ju" title="Ebi Ju – 奥博洛语" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Ebi Ju" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="奥博洛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يهود – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يهود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9D%DC%97%DC%98%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܝܗܘܕܝܐ – 阿拉米语" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܝܗܘܕܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="阿拉米语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يهود – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="يهود" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يهود – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="يهود" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblu_xud%C3%ADu" title="Pueblu xudíu – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pueblu xudíu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%82%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="ЖугьутӀал – 阿瓦尔语" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ЖугьутӀал" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="阿瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C9%99hudil%C9%99r" title="Yəhudilər – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yəhudilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="یهودیلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یهودیلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D3%99%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80" title="Йәһүдтәр – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Йәһүдтәр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judn" title="Judn – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Judn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BD%C4%ABd%C4%81" title="Žīdā – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Žīdā" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%96" title="Яўрэі – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Яўрэі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%96" title="Габрэі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Габрэі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF" title="ইহুদি – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইহুদি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzevien" title="Yuzevien – 布列塔尼语" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yuzevien" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevreji" title="Jevreji – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jevreji" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8D%D2%BB%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Еврей үндэһэтэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Еврей үндэһэтэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jueus" title="Jueus – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jueus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B9-t%C3%A1i-n%C3%A8%CC%A4ng" title="Iù-tái-nè̤ng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Iù-tái-nè̤ng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Жуьгтий – 车臣语" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Жуьгтий" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="车臣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudiyo" title="Hudiyo – 宿务语" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Hudiyo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿务语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%88" title="جوو – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جوو" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreu" title="Ebreu – 科西嘉语" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Ebreu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeudiler" title="Yeudiler – 克里米亚鞑靼语" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Yeudiler" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="克里米亚鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDid%C3%A9" title="Židé – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Židé" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Еврейсем – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Еврейсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iddewon" title="Iddewon – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iddewon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8der" title="Jøder – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jøder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahuda" title="Yahuda – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Yahuda" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juden" title="Juden – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Juden" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%B1hudi" title="Cıhudi – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cıhudi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Εβραίοι – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εβραίοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews" title="Jews – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Jews" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judoj" title="Judoj – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Judoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_jud%C3%ADo" title="Pueblo judío – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pueblo judío" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juudid" title="Juudid – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Juudid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judu" title="Judu – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Judu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یهودیان – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یهودیان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahuudinko%27en" title="Yahuudinko'en – 富拉语" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Yahuudinko'en" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="富拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalaiset" title="Juutalaiset – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalaiset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dar" title="Jødar – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Jødar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juifs" title="Juifs – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Juifs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaden" title="Joaden – 西弗里西亚语" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Joaden" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%B1f%C4%B1tlar" title="Çıfıtlar – 加告兹语" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Çıfıtlar" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="加告兹语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_xudeu" title="Pobo xudeu – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo xudeu" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8A%D9%87%DB%8A%D8%AF" title="جۊهۊد – 吉拉基文" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="جۊهۊد" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="吉拉基文" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudioku%C3%A9ra" title="Hudiokuéra – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Hudiokuéra" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%B4%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌹𐌴𐌹𐍃 – 哥特语" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌹𐌴𐌹𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="哥特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewnyn" title="Ewnyn – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Ewnyn" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudawa" title="Yahudawa – 豪萨语" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yahudawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="豪萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%B9-thai-ng%C3%ACn" title="Yù-thai-ngìn – 客家语" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yù-thai-ngìn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="客家语" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D" title="יהודים – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יהודים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="यहूदी – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यहूदी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidovi" title="Židovi – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Židovi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jwif" title="Jwif – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jwif" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zsid%C3%B3k" title="Zsidók – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Zsidók" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հրեաներ – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հրեաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo" title="Judeo – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Judeo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Judah" title="Orang Judah – 伊班语" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Orang Judah" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="伊班语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Yahudi" title="Orang Yahudi – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew – 伊博语" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Jew" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="伊博语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Жугтий – 印古什语" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Жугтий" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judi" title="Judi – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Judi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C3%B0ingar" title="Gyðingar – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gyðingar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebrei" title="Ebrei – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ebrei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%80%E3%83%A4%E4%BA%BA" title="ユダヤ人 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユダヤ人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ებრაელები – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ებრაელები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1yahuda" title="A̱yahuda – 卡塔布语" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱yahuda" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="卡塔布语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayuda" title="Bayuda – 刚果语" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Bayuda" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="刚果语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jolma_Yahudi" title="Jolma Yahudi – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Jolma Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Еврейлер – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Еврейлер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C" title="ជនជាតិជ្វីហ្វ – 高棉语" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជនជាតិជ្វីហ្វ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="高棉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಯೆಹೂದ್ಯ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಯೆಹೂದ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%8C%80%EC%9D%B8" title="유대인 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유대인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D1%83%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Чууутлула – 卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Чууутлула" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cih%C3%BB" title="Cihû – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cihû" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D3%A9%D3%A9%D1%82%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80" title="Жөөттөр – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жөөттөр" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaei" title="Iudaei – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iudaei" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_djudio" title="Pueblo djudio – 拉迪诺语" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Pueblo djudio" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="拉迪诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Чувудар – 列兹金语" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Чувудар" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列兹金语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDydai" title="Žydai – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žydai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreji" title="Ebreji – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ebreji" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiosy" title="Jiosy – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jiosy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urang_Yahudi" title="Urang Yahudi – 米南佳保语" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Urang Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南佳保语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%BB" title="ജൂതൻ – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൂതൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Еврей – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Еврей" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0" title="ဂျူ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဂျူ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95" title="ज्यू लोक – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ज्यू लोक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Yahudi" title="Orang Yahudi – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Orang Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhud" title="Lhud – 马耳他语" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lhud" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="马耳他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="جهود – 马赞德兰语" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جهود" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="马赞德兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joden" title="Joden – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Joden" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeuden" title="Jeuden – 低萨克森语" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Jeuden" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="低萨克森语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – 尼亚斯语" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="尼亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joden" title="Joden – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Joden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dar" title="Jødar – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jødar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8der" title="Jøder – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jøder" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juis" title="Juis – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Juis" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jusieus" title="Jusieus – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Jusieus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B0%D0%B4%C3%A6%D0%BC" title="Дзуттаг адæм – 奥塞梯语" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Дзуттаг адæм" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="奥塞梯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80" title="ਯਹੂਦੀ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਯਹੂਦੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jua" title="Jua – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Jua" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBydzi" title="Żydzi – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Żydzi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="یہودی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہودی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="یهود – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="یهود" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeus" title="Judeus – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Judeus" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrei" title="Evrei – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evrei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8C%D1%8D%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Дьэбириэйдэр – 萨哈语" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Дьэбириэйдэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="萨哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreos" title="Ebreos – 萨丁语" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Ebreos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="萨丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbreu" title="Ebbreu – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ebbreu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews" title="Jews – 苏格兰语" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Jews" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="苏格兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevreji" title="Jevreji – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jevreji" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9D" title="යුදෙවුවෝ – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යුදෙවුවෝ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jew" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidia" title="Židia – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Židia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judje" title="Judje – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Judje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajudha" title="Vajudha – 绍纳语" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Vajudha" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="绍纳语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahudit%C3%AB" title="Jahuditë – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Jahuditë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B8" title="Јевреји – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јевреји" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judar" title="Judar – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Judar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayahudi" title="Wayahudi – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Wayahudi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBydy" title="Żydy – 西里西亚语" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Żydy" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="西里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="யூதர் – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யூதர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7" title="ชาวยิว – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชาวยิว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Hudyo" title="Mga Hudyo – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Hudyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C9%99hudijon" title="Jəhudijon – 塔里什文" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Jəhudijon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="塔里什文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudiler" title="Yahudiler – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudiler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Яһүдләр – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яһүдләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%DB%95%DA%BE%DB%87%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="يەھۇدىلار – 维吾尔语" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يەھۇدىلار" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="维吾尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%97" title="Євреї – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Євреї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF" title="یہود – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہود" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudiylar" title="Yahudiylar – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yahudiylar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Do_Th%C3%A1i" title="Người Do Thái – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Do Thái" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudeyo" title="Hudeyo – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hudeyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="犹太人 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="犹太人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ურიეფი – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ურიეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93" title="ייד – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ייד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%B4d%27n" title="Joôd'n – 西蘭文" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Joôd'n" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="西蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%B7%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%8F" title="ⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ – 标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BB-th%C3%A0i-l%C3%A2ng" title="Iû-thài-lâng – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iû-thài-lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="猶太人 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="猶太人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7325#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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div.NavHead:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn">犹太人 יהודים‎</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><table style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;margin:auto;width:300px"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%2831-12-2023%29.jpg/105px-%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%2831-12-2023%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="844" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%8B%89%E8%BF%AA%E7%B1%B3%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E6%BE%A4%E5%80%AB%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="弗拉迪米爾·澤倫斯基">澤倫斯基</a></div></td><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:60px;height:70px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustav_Mahler_side_profile.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gustav_Mahler_side_profile.png/52px-Gustav_Mahler_side_profile.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="70" class="mw-file-element" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pissarro-portrait-c1900.jpg/79px-Pissarro-portrait-c1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pissarro-portrait-c1900.jpg/105px-Pissarro-portrait-c1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E7%B1%B3%E8%80%B6%C2%B7%E7%95%A2%E6%B2%99%E7%BE%85" title="卡米耶·畢沙羅">畢沙羅</a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:60px;height:70px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg/51px-%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="51" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg/77px-%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg/103px-%C3%89mile_Durkheim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1440" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%82%E5%B0%94%E5%B9%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="涂尔干">涂尔干</a></div></td><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:60px;height:70px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/56px-Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="56" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/84px-Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/112px-Rembrandt_-_Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandments_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4990" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E8%A5%BF" title="摩西">摩西</a></div></td><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:60px;height:70px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg/49px-Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg" decoding="async" width="49" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg/74px-Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg/99px-Noether_retusche_nachcoloriert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="658" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E7%B1%B3%C2%B7%E8%AF%BA%E7%89%B9" title="埃米·诺特">諾特</a></div></td><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:60px;height:70px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_%28cropped%29.jpg/52px-Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="52" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_%28cropped%29.jpg/79px-Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_%28cropped%29.jpg/105px-Dr_Vint_Cerf_ForMemRS_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E9%A1%BF%C2%B7%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="文顿·瑟夫">瑟夫</a></div></td><td style="width:60px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:60px;height:70px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg/52px-Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg" decoding="async" width="52" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg/78px-Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg/104px-Rubens_apostel_paulus_grt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1434" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E4%BF%9D%E7%A6%84" class="mw-redirect" title="圣保禄">圣保禄</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;;">總人口</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="">1521萬–1990萬（如果包括部分猶太血統則為2260万）<a href="#cite_note-JDB-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-TToI-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;;">分佈地區</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/22px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/33px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/44px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">6,905,000–7,401,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD" title="美国">美国</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">6,000,000–11,500,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/22px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/33px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/44px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">440,000–600,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7" title="加拿大">加拿大</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">398,000–550,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">312,000–370,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/22px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/33px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/44px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%A0%B9%E5%BB%B7" title="阿根廷">阿根廷</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">175,000–310,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF" title="俄罗斯">俄羅斯</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">150,000–460,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/22px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/33px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/44px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD" title="德国">德国</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">118,000–225,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /> <a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="澳大利亚">澳大利亞</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">118,000–145,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/44px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E8%A5%BF" title="巴西">巴西</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">92,000–150,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/22px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/33px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/44px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E9%9D%9E" title="南非">南非</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">52,000–75,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/22px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/33px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/44px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E5%85%8B%E5%85%B0" title="乌克兰">烏克蘭</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">43,000–140,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/22px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/33px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/44px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9" title="匈牙利">匈牙利</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">47,000–100,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/22px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/33px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/44px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E8%A5%BF%E5%93%A5" title="墨西哥">墨西哥</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">40,000–50,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%B7%E5%85%B0" title="荷兰">荷蘭</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">30,000–53,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E5%88%A9%E6%97%B6" title="比利时">比利时</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">29,000–40,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/22px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/33px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/44px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A9%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="義大利">義大利</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">27,000–41,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/20px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB" title="瑞士">瑞士</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">18,000–25,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/22px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/33px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/44px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E5%88%A9" title="智利">智利</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">16,000–24,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/22px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/33px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/44px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%AD" title="乌拉圭">乌拉圭</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">16,000–24,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/22px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/33px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/44px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E8%80%B3%E5%85%B6" title="土耳其">土耳其</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">15,000–21,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/22px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/33px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/44px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%85%B8" title="瑞典">瑞典</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">15,000–25,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;;">語言</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="">主要口语语言： <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:" :"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist-pipe dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist-pipe li::after{content:" | ";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist-hyphen dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist-hyphen li::after{content:" - ";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist-comma dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist-comma li::after{content:"、";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:"（"counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li{margin:0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li::after{content:"，"}.mw-parser-output .sslist li::after{content:"；"}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child::after{content:none}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="希伯来语">希伯来语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E8%AF%AD" title="俄语">俄语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AF%AD" title="法语">法语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="西班牙语">西班牙语</a></li><li>其他国家的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E6%96%B9%E8%AF%9D" title="地方话">地方语言</a></li></ul></div> 历史语言： <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%BB%AA%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="意第绪语">意第绪语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E8%BF%AA%E8%AB%BE%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉迪諾語">拉迪诺语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA-%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="猶太-阿拉伯語">犹太-阿拉伯语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="猶太語言">其他</a></li></ul></div> 礼仪语言： <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E7%BB%8F%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="圣经希伯来语">圣经希伯来语</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="亚拉姆语">亚拉姆语</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;;">宗教信仰</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/10px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/15px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/20px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E7%A5%9E%E8%AE%BA" title="无神论">无神论</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;;">相关族群</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="">其他<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%8E%E5%87%A1%E7%89%B9" title="黎凡特">黎凡特</a>人<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-evolutsioon-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-sciencedaily-6">[6]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E9%A6%AC%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E4%BA%BA" title="撒馬利亞人">撒马利亚人</a><a href="#cite_note-evolutsioon-5">[5]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人">阿拉伯人</a><a href="#cite_note-evolutsioon-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E8%BF%B0%E4%BA%BA" title="亚述人">亚述人</a><a href="#cite_note-evolutsioon-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-sciencedaily-6">[6]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7%E4%BA%BA" title="库尔德人">库尔德人</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> 犹太人（<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="希伯來語">希伯來語</a>：יְהוּדִים‎，羅馬化：Yehudim<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>），其祖先为<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E4%BA%BA" title="希伯來人">希伯来人</a>，属于<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%83%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9%E4%BA%BA" title="閃米特人">闪米特人</a>的一支。以色列的《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9E%E6%AD%B8%E6%B3%95" title="回歸法">回归法</a>》界定犹太人的身份是按母系相传为标准，凡是母亲是犹太人的，其子女都会被以色列政府承认为犹太人。<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>然而，在实际生活中，犹太人更近似于一种民族概念。犹太人发源于<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A" title="西亚">西亚</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%A6%E5%8D%97" title="迦南">迦南地</a>。犹太人的民族、文化和宗教信仰之间具有很强的关联性，<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a>是维系全体犹太人之间认同感的传统宗教<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>。犹太教不太欢迎外邦人皈依，虽然如此，历史上世界各地仍有部分不同肤色的族群通过皈依犹太教而成为犹太族群的一部分，而犹太人也由此从<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E5%8D%8A%E5%B2%9B" title="阿拉伯半岛">阿拉伯半岛</a>的一个<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8A%E7%89%A7%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="遊牧民族">遊牧民族</a>，发展成为遍布全球的族群。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="名称及语源">名称及语源</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：名称及语源">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="中文称呼">中文称呼</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：中文称呼">编辑</a>]</div> 中文中的「猶太人」，起源於希伯来語中的「<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r64579242">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"SBL Hebrew","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Ezra SIL","Ezra SIL SR","Frank Ruehl CLM","Taamey Frank CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>יְהוּדִי‬」，古时亦称「朮忽」、「斡脱」、「尤太」等。而其宗教犹太教音译为中文的「一赐乐业教」（音近「以色列」），后来伊斯兰教传入，中国人把犹太人改称为挑筋回回、犹太教叫做刁筋教、刀筋教、挑筋教、挑景教。这个名字源于犹太教的习俗，食肉挑去其筋不食，故而得名挑筋教。 到了元明基本为音译，比如术忽、竹忽、主吾、珠赫、主容、主鹘、祝虎、祝乎德、祝虎德、朱乎得、朱呼得、诸呼得、朱浮得、术忽特等等。 「犹太”正式定名来自道光十三年（1833年），它首次出现于<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%B2%81%E5%A3%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="普鲁士">普鲁士</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E6%95%99%E5%A3%AB" title="传教士">传教士</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%83%AD%E5%AE%9E%E8%85%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="郭实腊">郭实腊</a>于1833年开始编印的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E8%80%83%E6%AF%8F%E6%9C%88%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%98%E5%82%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="東西洋考每月統記傳">东西洋考每月统记传</a>》中，此书中第一次出现了「犹太国」一词。他在和<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%84%92%E7%BF%B0" title="马儒翰">马儒翰</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A3%A8%E6%B2%BB%E6%96%87" title="裨治文">裨治文</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E9%83%BD%E6%80%9D" title="麦都思">麦都思</a>三位传教士一起翻译《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="圣经">圣经</a>》的时候，选择了“猶”这个字。在同为<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%AD%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%9C%88" class="mw-redirect" title="汉字文化圈">汉字文化圈</a>的日本、韩国以及越南，对犹太人的称呼亦源自「猶太」一词（如유태）。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="西方称呼">西方称呼</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：西方称呼">编辑</a>]</div> 英语中的“Jew”一词起源于<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="中古英语">中古英语</a>的“Gyw, Iewe”，后者来自<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%B3%95%E8%AA%9E" title="古法語">古法语</a>中的“giu”以及更早的“juieu”，最初则可以追溯至<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="拉丁语">拉丁语</a>的“Iudaeum”。 拉丁语“Iudaeus”意为“Judaean”，即“来自Judaea地区的人”。该字本身与希腊语中的同义字“Ἰουδαῖος”一样，是从中古时期的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="亚拉姆语">亚拉姆语</a>的“Y'hūdāi‎”、希伯来语的“יְהוּדִי”、“Yehudi”；“<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r64579242">יְהוּדִים‬”、“Yehudim”中演化而来的，含义是“犹大族（tribe of Judah）人”或“<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%A7%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="犹大王国">犹大王国</a>（kingdom of Judah）的国民”。希伯来语的犹太人写作“<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r64579242">יְהוּדִי‬”<a href="#cite_note-EJ253-14">[14]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="犹太西班牙语">拉迪诺语</a>中对应的单词为：“<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r64579242">ג׳ודיו‬”、“Djudio”(sg.);“<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r64579242">ג׳ודיוס‬”、“Djudios”(pl.);“<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%B7%92%E8%AA%9E" title="意第緒語">意第緒語</a>：<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r64579242">יִיד‬:“Yid”‎”;“<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r64579242">יִידן‬”、“Yidn”。 其他语言中，犹太人分别表示为：“Jude”（<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%AF%AD" title="德语">德语</a>）、“juif”（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AF%AD" title="法语">法语</a>）、“jøde”（<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%B9%E9%BA%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="丹麦语">丹麦语</a>）、“judío”（<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="西班牙语">西班牙语</a>），但有些语言中也以“希伯来”的音译来指称犹太人，如“Ebreo”（<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD" title="意大利语">意大利语</a>）和“俄语：Еврей”（<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E8%AF%AD" title="俄语">俄语</a>）<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>。德语单字“Jude”发音作“<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r61209503">.mw-parser-output .IPA{font-family:"Charis SIL","Doulos SIL","Linux Libertine","Segoe UI","Lucida Sans Unicode","Code2000","Gentium","Gentium Alternative","TITUS Cyberbit Basic","Arial Unicode MS","IPAPANNEW","Chrysanthi Unicode","GentiumAlt","Bitstream Vera","Bitstream Cyberbit","Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro","Lucida Grande",sans-serif;text-decoration:none!important}.mw-parser-output .IPA a:link,.mw-parser-output .IPA a:visited{text-decoration:none!important}</style><a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BE%B7%E8%AF%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E9%9F%B3%E6%A0%87" title="Help:德语国际音标">[ˈjuːdə]</a>”，是单字Yiddish的词源<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>。（更全面的介绍请参见犹太人多语言译文对照列表。） 根据2000年第四版《<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%82%B3%E7%B5%B1%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%97%E5%85%B8" title="美國傳統英語字典">美国传统英语词典</a>》的解释：“一般认为，将名词Jew作为修饰性形容词的用法，如犹太人律师（Jew lawyer）和犹太人伦理观（Jew ethics）等类似的说法是带有严重侵犯性的粗俗语言。一般应使用「Jewish」作为形容词来表述带有犹太人特征的事物。”<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="历史">历史</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：历史">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r85100532">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="犹太人历史">犹太人历史</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84913072">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-subgroup,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-pretitle,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-heading,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-above,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-below{background:inherit!important;color:inherit!important;border-color:#54595d!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar a:not(.new):not(.mw-selflink):link{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-subgroup,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-pretitle,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-heading,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-above,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-below{background:inherit!important;color:inherit!important;border-color:#54595d!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar a:not(.new):not(.mw-selflink):link{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA" title="Category:猶太">系列</a>条目</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0 0.2em; font-size:180%; font-weight:bold;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">犹太人</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Star of David"><img alt="Star of David" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/55px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/83px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/110px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Menora.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Menorah"><img alt="Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/55px-Menora.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/83px-Menora.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/110px-Menora.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="621" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0px 5px 5px 5px;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">詞源</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%81%E6%98%AF%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%9F" title="谁是犹太人？">谁是犹太人？</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="犹太文化">文化</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">先祖</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95" title="亞伯拉罕">亞伯拉罕</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%92%92" title="以撒">以撒</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%90%84_(%E8%88%8A%E7%B4%84%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93)" title="雅各 (舊約聖經)">雅各</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%91%9F_(%E8%88%8A%E7%B4%84%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93)" title="約瑟 (舊約聖經)">約瑟</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E8%A5%BF" title="摩西">摩西</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A1%9B%E7%8E%8B" title="大衛王">大衛</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%89%80%E7%BE%85%E9%96%80" title="所羅門">所羅門</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">历史</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="犹太人历史">犹太人历史</a>／<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="以色列历史">以色列历史</a> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E4%BA%BA" title="以色列人">以色列人</a>／<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C%E6%94%AF%E6%B4%BE" title="以色列十二支派">十二支派</a> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B_(%E5%89%8D%E6%9C%9F)" title="以色列王國 (前期)">以色列王國</a> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B_(%E5%BE%8C%E6%9C%9F)" title="以色列王國 (後期)">北國以色列</a> → <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B1%E8%B9%A4%E7%9A%84%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%8D%81%E6%94%AF%E6%B4%BE" title="失蹤的以色列十支派">失蹤的十支派</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%A7%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="猶大王國">南國猶大</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="猶太人大屠殺">猶太人大屠殺</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">典籍與文獻</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E8%AA%A1" title="十誡">十誡</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E7%B4%8D%E8%B5%AB" title="塔納赫">塔納赫</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" title="塔木德">塔木德</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E4%BB%80" title="米德拉什">米德拉什</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%9B%B8%E6%8B%BF" title="米書拿">米書拿</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%A9%E9%A6%AC%E6%8B%89" title="革馬拉">革馬拉</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">節日</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E6%9B%86" title="希伯來曆">希伯來曆</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%83%E4%B8%83%E7%AF%80" title="七七節">七七節</a> <a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BE%E8%B6%8A%E7%AF%80" title="逾越節">逾越節</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%81%AF%E6%97%A5" title="安息日">安息日</a> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8F%E6%A3%9A%E7%AF%80" title="住棚節">住棚節</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%96%E7%BD%AA%E6%97%A5" title="贖罪日">贖罪節</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E7%8F%A5%E7%AF%80" title="普珥節">普珥節</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E6%98%8E%E8%8A%82" title="光明节">光明节</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">教派</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教正統派">正统派</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%BF%9D%E5%AE%88%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教保守派">保守派</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教改革派">改革派</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E9%80%A0%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="重造派">重造派</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">圣地</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7" title="耶路撒冷">耶路撒冷</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E8%90%A8%E8%BE%BE" title="马萨达">马萨达</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#0645AD; font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;">建築</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.6em;;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7%E8%81%96%E6%AE%BF" title="耶路撒冷聖殿">聖殿</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%9C%83%E5%A0%82" title="猶太會堂">猶太會堂</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="line-height:1.6"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84244141">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:110%;margin:0 8em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:110%;margin:0 5em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jew" title="Template:Jew"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Jew"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:Jew" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:Jew"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>根据犹太教典籍《<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E5%9C%A3%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="希伯来圣经">希伯来圣经</a>》的记载，犹太民族的始祖可以追溯到公元前20世纪前后的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95" title="亞伯拉罕">亚伯拉罕</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%92%92" title="以撒">以撒</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%90%84_(%E8%88%8A%E7%B4%84%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93)" title="雅各 (舊約聖經)">雅各</a>等人。犹太人在故乡“以色列地”上共建立过三个政治独立的国家，分别是古代的前后两个以色列王国和于1948年成立的现代<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="以色列国">以色列国</a>。历史上的大多数时期，犹太民族都是长期流浪散居<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1987,_p._82-18">[18]</a>。除了在现代的以色列国，犹太人在其他国家都为少数族群，并曾经经受了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="反犹太主义">反犹主义</a>的迫害，但犹太人在数千年的历史中始终保持了民族信仰的独立性和连续性。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="文化">文化</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：文化">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="宗教信仰">宗教信仰</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：宗教信仰">编辑</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a>是犹太人的特有宗教。由于包含着对犹太人生活的多方面规范，因此犹太教不仅仅被视为一种宗教信仰，同时已经潜移默化地成为犹太人的一种“生活方式”及<a href="/wiki/%E8%BA%AB%E4%BB%BD%E8%AE%A4%E5%90%8C" title="身份认同">身份認同</a><a href="#cite_note-Neusner_1991_p._64-19">[19]</a>，因此很难在犹太教、犹太文化和犹太人身份之间做出清晰的界定。正如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古代希腊</a>社会的多样性一样<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>，犹太文化在漫长的历史和不同的地域中产生了各不相同的特质。例如在<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="启蒙时代">启蒙时代</a>（参见<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="犹太启蒙运动">犹太启蒙运动</a>）前后的欧洲社会<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E5%8D%A2%E6%96%AF" title="安达卢斯">安达卢斯</a>（伊斯兰教统治下的西班牙和葡萄牙）<a href="#cite_note-Sharot2930-22">[22]</a>，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%83%A8%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="北部非洲">北非</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%9C" title="中东">中东</a><a href="#cite_note-Sharot2930-22">[22]</a>，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="印度">印度</a><a href="#cite_note-Sharot_1997,_pp._42–43-23">[23]</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B" title="中國">中国</a><a href="#cite_note-Sharot_1997,_p._42-24">[24]</a>，乃至现代美国<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>和以色列<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>，许多文化现象已与宗教出现了很大程度的分离。 当今犹太人的宗教信仰主要还是犹太教，但也有少部分人转信其他宗教，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99" class="mw-redirect" title="基督宗教">基督宗教</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99" title="佛教">佛教</a>等，亦有不少犹太人成為<a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%A5%9E%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="無神論">無神論</a>者，但仍會保留猶太傳統。这些犹太人大都生活在以色列以外的其他国家（已改信基督教的猶太人若移民至以色列，一律不承認为猶太人）。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="婚丧嫁娶">婚丧嫁娶</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：婚丧嫁娶">编辑</a>]</div> 犹太人为了遵守犹太律法的约束，在其从摇篮到坟墓的每个人生重要阶段，都形成了许多独特的习俗和仪式，这也构成了犹太世俗文化的重要组成部分。 每个犹太男孩在出生后的第八天，其父母都要邀请亲朋好友，为其举行<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%B2%E7%A4%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="割礼">割礼</a>，即用刀子割损其生殖器的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%85%E7%9A%AE" title="包皮">包皮</a>。割礼具有悠久的传统，在《<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E5%9C%A3%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="希伯来圣经">希伯来圣经</a>》中有明文规定。犹太人将割礼视为上帝与犹太人之间神圣的契约，不可违背。除非当天因生病不宜施行手术，否则所有男孩都必须在出生后第八天举行割礼。行割礼后，父母同时要为新生儿取名，一般应包括一个希伯来语名字。另外，皈依犹太教的男子也应在入教时施行割礼，以表示与上帝立约。 当一个犹太人的长子出生满30天后，父母会将其带到祭祀或利未人行赎长子礼。一般父母需要根据《托拉》的规定，支付五舍客勒以色列币以赎回长子。这也是《圣经》《民数记》中规定的犹太人的重要教仪。 当男孩长到十三岁时，就要举行<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B4%E7%A4%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="成年礼">成年礼</a>，又称受诫礼。根据犹太教传统，举行过成年礼后的男子就被视为成年人，可以参加各类正式的宗教活动。成年礼是犹太人家庭的一件大事，一般选择在安息日于犹太会堂举行，并有拉比负责仪式的进行。刚成年的男子应到讲坛上去做「阿利亚」（即诵读颂赞祷文）。从十九世纪起，除正统派外，其他犹太教派一般也为年满十三岁的女孩举行成年礼。 在犹太教看来，婚姻和繁衍后代是人的神圣义务，因此犹太教义鼓励教徒结婚和多生多育。传统的婚姻也是在媒人牵线的情况下有父母做主，经过男方下聘书、订婚、婚礼等环节完成婚姻仪式。犹太人的婚礼也比较隆重，通常会在犹太会堂或露天（正统派）举行。出席婚礼的人数一般与祈祷仪式一样，应不少于十人，并要有两位证婚人。婚礼上比较特别的仪式是由新郎踩碎一只酒杯。据说这可能是为了纪念耶路撒冷圣殿被毁，也可能是为了提醒新人在未来生活中可能面对的困难和痛苦<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>。与其他一些主要宗教不同，犹太教并不禁止人们离婚。只要双方同意，并在拉比的主持下，夫妻可以完成离婚手续，签发离婚书。在<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="性关系">性关系</a>方面，犹太律法禁止女子在其<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%88%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="月经">月经</a>前後12天内与男子同房，这间接促进了夫妻在女子<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%92%E5%8D%B5%E6%9C%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="排卵期">排卵期</a>进行性生活，从而达到多生多育的目的。 在葬礼这个人生的最后阶段，犹太人恪守简朴的作风。一般人死后应在24小时内迅速下葬。葬礼上不准举行任何献祭，只能祈祷和诵经。关于埋葬方式，正统派反对<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E8%91%AC" title="火葬">火葬</a>，但改革派教徒却允许火葬。根据正统派教徒的习俗，葬礼上禁止使用鲜花和音乐等象征欢乐的元素。犹太教主张丧葬从简，一般只是在平地上立一块墓碑，前来吊唁或扫墓的人们一般也只是在墓碑上放一块小石头表示纪念。<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语言文字">语言文字</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：语言文字">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelangelos_David.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Michelangelos_David.jpg/220px-Michelangelos_David.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Michelangelos_David.jpg/330px-Michelangelos_David.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Michelangelos_David.jpg/440px-Michelangelos_David.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>《<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%AB%E7%8E%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="大卫王">大卫</a>》，<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%BC%80%E6%9C%97%E5%9F%BA%E7%BD%97" title="米开朗基罗">米开朗基罗</a>雕像</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="猶太語言">猶太語言</a></div> <a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="希伯来语">希伯来语</a>是犹太民族的正式书面用语（又被称作“lashon ha-kodesh”和“神圣的语言”）。它既是许多犹太教经典（Tanakh）的标准用语，也是数个世纪以来犹太人使用的日常语言。在公元前5世纪，与希伯来语比较近似的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E7%B1%B3%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="阿拉米语">阿拉米语</a>开始渗透进<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%9C%B0%E4%BA%9A" title="犹地亚">犹地亚</a>地区的日常口语<a href="#cite_note-Grintz-29">[29]</a>。到了公元前3世纪，流散的一部分犹太人开始使用古代希腊语<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>。目前，现代希伯来语是以色列国的两种官方语言之一（另一种为<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语">阿拉伯语</a>）<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>。 首位成功地使希伯来语复活的人是1881年到达<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%8B%92%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%9C%B0%E5%8C%BA" title="巴勒斯坦地区">巴勒斯坦地区</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E5%88%A9%E6%BE%A4%C2%B7%E6%9C%AC-%E8%80%B6%E8%83%A1%E9%81%94" title="艾利澤·本-耶胡達">艾利澤·本-耶胡達</a>。这是自从<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%A6%E6%8B%BF" title="坦拿">坦拿</a>时代之后希伯来语第一次恢复为犹太民族的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%8D%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="母语">母语</a><a href="#cite_note-Grintz-29">[29]</a>。16个世纪以来的大多数时间中，这种语言都被作为一种宗教仪式用语和犹太教经典的书面用语，此外仅仅有极少部分犹太人会在<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%81%AF%E6%97%A5" title="安息日">安息日</a>使用希伯来语<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>。长期以来，分布在世界各地的犹太人都已改为使用当地的语言，同时也发展出一些特别的方言或语言支系。其中，<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%B7%92%E8%AA%9E" title="意第緒語">意第绪语</a>是由散居在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%AC%A7" title="中欧">中欧</a>的阿什肯纳兹犹太人使用的语言，其中综合了德语和犹太语言的元素；<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="犹太西班牙语">拉迪诺语</a>则是由<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%8D%8A%E5%B2%9B" title="伊比利亚半岛">伊比利亚半岛</a>的赛法迪犹太人使用的方言，其受到了<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="西班牙语">西班牙语</a>的影响。在经历了<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80" class="mw-redirect" title="犹太人大屠杀">犹太人大屠杀</a>、从阿拉伯地区的撤离以及全球犹太人社群的大融合之后，一些使用人口很少的犹太语支系已大为衰退，例如：犹太-格鲁吉亚语、犹太-阿拉伯语、犹太-柏柏尔语、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A7%86%E6%9F%A5%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD" title="克里姆查克语">猶太-克里米亞韃靼語</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA-%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E9%9B%85%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E8%AF%AD" title="犹太-马拉雅拉姆语">犹太-马拉雅拉姆语</a>等<a href="#cite_note-Languages-33">[33]</a>。 目前在全球犹太人口中使用最多的三种语言分别为：<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="希伯来语">现代希伯来语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E8%AF%AD" title="俄语">俄语</a>。此外，<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AF%AD" title="法语">法语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="西班牙语">西班牙语</a>也在犹太人群中有着较高的使用率<a href="#cite_note-Languages-33">[33]</a>。 尽管犹太人努力将希伯来语恢复为犹太民族语言，但全世界犹太人并不普遍拥有这种语言知识，且通用英语，因此英語已经成为犹太人的通用语。<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>虽然许多犹太人有足够的希伯来语言能力来学习古典文献，而且犹太语和意第緒語、拉丁语一样也是最近在20世纪初被普遍使用的，但現今大多犹太人缺乏这样的语言能力，英语大体上取代了大部分的犹太口头语，一些罗曼语，特别是法语和西班牙语，也被广泛使用。<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>历史中，犹太人说得最多的是意第緒語， <a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>但是，在犹太大屠杀之后、在锡安主义运动之后以及在以色列国采用了现代希伯来语之后，今天已经很少人使用了。在某些地方，犹太人社区的母语与主要社群的母语不同。例如，在魁北克，较大的阿什肯納茲猶太人社群采用英语，而较小的塞法迪犹太人社群使用法语和自己的原初语言。<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>同样地，南非犹太人采用了英语而不是南非语。由于沙皇和苏联的政策，<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>俄罗斯人已经停止将意第绪语视为俄罗斯犹太人的语言，但这些政策也影响到邻国社群。今天，俄语是许多苏维埃解散之后的诸多国家的犹太社群的语言，例如乌克兰乌兹别克斯坦<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>，也包括在<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%A1%9E%E6%8B%9C%E7%96%86" title="阿塞拜疆">阿塞拜疆</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E9%B2%81%E5%90%89%E4%BA%9A" title="格鲁吉亚">格鲁吉亚</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E5%90%89%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="塔吉克斯坦">塔吉克斯坦</a>的阿什肯納茲猶太人的语言。<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>北非的犹太社群雖然很小，但是犹太人已经从一个多语言的组织转变成一个单语（或接近单语）的社群，他们在阿尔及利亚、摩洛哥和突尼斯市中说法语，而大多数北非人继续使用阿拉伯语作为母语。<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="历法节期">历法节期</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：历法节期">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%8E%86" class="mw-redirect" title="犹太历">犹太历</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>犹太曆</th> <th>英文表述</th> <th>巴比倫表述</th> <th>缺年日數</th> <th>常年日數</th> <th>滿年日數 </th> <th style="width:180px">節期 </th> <th>西曆 </th></tr> <tr> <td>1. <a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%95%A3%E6%9C%88" title="尼散月">尼散月</a></td> <td>Nisan/Nissan</td> <td>Nisanu</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>15-21 <a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BE%E8%B6%8A%E7%AF%80" title="逾越節">逾越节</a>, 27 <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E6%97%A5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大屠杀纪念日（页面不存在）">大屠杀纪念日</a></td> <td>三至四月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E7%8F%A5%E6%9C%88" title="以珥月">以珥月</a></td> <td>Iyar</td> <td>Ayaru</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>5 <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E7%8B%AC%E7%AB%8B%E6%97%A5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="以色列独立日（页面不存在）">以色列独立日</a>, 14 <a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BE%E8%B6%8A%E7%AF%80" title="逾越節">補逾越節</a></td> <td>四至五月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3. <a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%BC%AF%E6%9C%88" title="西弯月">西彎月</a></td> <td>Sivan</td> <td>Simanu</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>6 <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E6%97%AC%E7%AF%80" title="五旬節">五旬節</a></td> <td>五至六月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4. <a href="/wiki/%E6%90%AD%E6%A8%A1%E6%96%AF%E6%9C%88" title="搭模斯月">搭模斯月</a></td> <td>Tammuz</td> <td>Du`uzu</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td></td> <td>六至七月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5. <a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E6%B3%A2%E6%9C%88" title="埃波月">埃波月</a></td> <td>Av</td> <td>Abu</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td></td> <td>七至八月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6. <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E7%A5%BF%E6%9C%88" class="mw-redirect" title="以祿月">以祿月</a></td> <td>Elul</td> <td>Ululu</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td></td> <td>八至九月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7. <a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%90%E6%96%AF%E5%88%A9%E6%9C%88" title="提斯利月">提斯利月</a></td> <td>Tishrei</td> <td>Tashritu</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>1 <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%96%B0%E5%B9%B4" title="猶太新年">犹太新年</a>, 10 <a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%96%E7%BD%AA%E6%97%A5" title="贖罪日">贖罪日</a>, 15-21 <a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8F%E6%A3%9A%E7%AF%80" title="住棚節">住棚節</a>, 22 <a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8F%E6%A3%9A%E7%AF%80" title="住棚節">嚴肅會</a>, 23<a href="/wiki/%E5%A6%A5%E6%8B%89%E7%AF%80" class="mw-redirect" title="妥拉節">妥拉节</a></td> <td>九至十月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8. <a href="/wiki/%E7%91%AA%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E6%9C%88" class="mw-redirect" title="瑪西班月">瑪西班月</a>1</td> <td>Cheshvan</td> <td>Arakhsamna</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>30</td> <td></td> <td>十至十一月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9. <a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%AF%E6%B5%81%E6%9C%88" title="基斯流月">基斯流月</a>1</td> <td>Kislev</td> <td>Kislimu</td> <td>29</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E6%98%8E%E8%8A%82" title="光明节">修殿節</a>（25日至次月2日）</td> <td>十一至十二月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10. <a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%90%E5%88%AB%E6%9C%88" title="提别月">提別月</a></td> <td>Tevet</td> <td>Tebetu</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td></td> <td>十二至一月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11. <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E7%BD%A2%E7%89%B9%E6%9C%88" title="细罢特月">細罷特月</a></td> <td>Shevat</td> <td>Shabatu</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td></td> <td>一月至二月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12. <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9E%E9%81%94%E6%9C%88" class="mw-redirect" title="第一亞達月">第一亞達月</a>2</td> <td>Adar I</td> <td>Adaru</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td>30</td> <td></td> <td>二至三月間 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13. <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E4%BA%9E%E9%81%94%E6%9C%88" class="mw-redirect" title="第二亞達月">第二亞達月</a>2</td> <td>Adar II</td> <td>Adaru</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>29</td> <td>14 <a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E7%8F%A5%E7%AF%80" title="普珥節">普珥節</a></td> <td>二至三月間 </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>註1：每年的瑪西班月和基斯流月的日數可以不同，視乎該年所需的日數而定。</dd> <dd>註2：「第一亞達月」只在<a href="/wiki/%E9%97%B0%E5%B9%B4" title="闰年">閏年</a>才有。一般將「第二亞達月」稱為「亞達月」。當閏年時，第6個月之後加插這個閏月，共30日，並稱該月為「第一亞達月」，之前的6月由亞達月改稱為「第二亞達月」。設置閏月的作用是使猶太曆和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E6%9B%86" class="mw-redirect" title="太陽曆">太陽曆</a>大致上沒有太大偏差，尤其是確保將尼散月安排在<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E5%AD%A3" title="春季">春天</a>。）</dd> <dd>注3：表中粗体字为犹太节期中最重要的五个节日。</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="知名人物">知名人物</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：知名人物">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E8%AB%BE%E8%B2%9D%E7%88%BE%E7%8D%8E%E5%BE%97%E4%B8%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="猶太人諾貝爾獎得主列表">猶太人諾貝爾獎得主列表</a></div>占世界人口极少数的犹太人在历史上诞生了大量知名人物，他们主要在科学、艺术、政治和经济等领域为人类做出了不可磨灭的贡献<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>。其中一个明显的例子就是，<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94%E5%A5%96" title="诺贝尔奖">诺贝尔获奖者</a>中犹太人的比例大大超过了犹太民族在世界人口中的比例<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="身份認同">身份認同</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：身份認同">编辑</a>]</div> 一般来说，在现代世俗的犹太人概念中，它包括三个群体： <ol><li>出生于犹太家庭的人（无论他们是否遵循犹太教）；</li> <li>具有犹太祖先背景或血统的人（有时包括没有严格母系血统的人）；</li> <li>没有任何犹太祖先背景或血统的人，但正式转信犹太教。</li></ol> 但嚴格來說猶太人必須信奉猶太教，並遵守猶太律法。就算母親是猶太人，但已改宗者已不算猶太人。 根據以色列國籍法、以色列回歸法，猶太人是指母親為猶太人及沒有改奉其他宗教的人，或已皈依猶太教的人；根據1999年以色列最高法院裁決「積極從事除猶太教以外的其他宗教的猶太人的後裔無權移民以色列，因為根據回歸法，他們將不再被視為猶太人，而不論他們在<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1" title="哈拉卡">哈拉卡</a>下的身分如何」。<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> 对犹太人身份的历史定义在传统上是基于对母系后代的<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1" title="哈拉卡">哈拉卡</a>定义，或哈拉卡的转信。对“谁是犹太人”的历史定义可追溯到公元200年左右，这时犹太人将口述的<a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%94%E6%9B%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="摩西五書">摩西五書</a>编成<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="巴比伦塔木德">巴比伦塔木德</a>。犹太圣人对<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E7%B4%8D%E8%B5%AB" title="塔納赫">塔納赫</a>的解释，例如“申命记7：1-5”是用于警告犹太人与迦南人之间的通婚，因为“（非犹太人的丈夫）会使你的孩子离开了我，他们将崇拜别人的神（即偶像）。”<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E6%9C%AA%E8%A8%98" title="利未記">利未记</a>24:10说，希伯来女人和埃及男人所生的儿子是“属于以色列社群的”。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%96%AF%E6%8B%89%E8%A8%98" title="以斯拉記">以斯拉记</a>10：2-3补充道，从巴比伦返回的以色列人誓言要放弃他们外邦的妻子和他们的孩子。自从18世纪和19世纪后期的哈斯卡拉运动以来，对犹太人身份的哈斯卡拉解释受到了挑战。<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> 历史学家沙耶·科恩（Shaye J.D.Cohen）认为，混血婚姻的后裔在圣经中是由父系决定的。他对<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%9B%B8%E6%8B%BF" title="米書拿">米書拿</a>时代的变化提出了两中可能的解释：首先，<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%9B%B8%E6%8B%BF" title="米書拿">米書拿</a>可能对混血婚姻采用了和其别的动物的混血结合（Kil'ayim）的相同逻辑。因此，混血婚姻被禁止，因为这是一匹马和一只驴一样的结合；而在人和动物的两种情况中，后代的种族都是由母系来判断的。第二，<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%A6%E6%8B%BF" title="坦拿">坦拿</a>可能受到罗马法的影响，后者规定了当父母的结合不是合法婚姻时，后代将跟随母亲。<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> 希伯来圣经提供了一种对犹太人传统和早期犹太民族历史的宗教解读，它建立了第一个亚伯拉罕宗教，现在世界各地已有54％的人信仰这种宗教。犹太教在实践和信仰上引导着信徒，它不仅被称为宗教，而且也被称为“一种生活方式”，<a href="#cite_note-Neusner_1991_p._64-19">[19]</a>它明确区分了犹太教，犹太文化和犹太身份。在整个历史的多个地区和时代中——在古希腊世界<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>、启蒙时代（见<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%96%AF%E5%8D%A1%E6%8B%89%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="哈斯卡拉运动">哈斯卡拉运动</a>）之前和之后的欧洲<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>、伊斯兰的西班牙和葡萄牙<a href="#cite_note-Sharot2930-22">[22]</a>、北非、中东<a href="#cite_note-Sharot2930-22">[22]</a>、印度<a href="#cite_note-Sharot_1997,_pp._42–43-23">[23]</a>、中国<a href="#cite_note-Sharot_1997,_p._42-24">[24]</a>、或当代美国<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>和以色列<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>等——都发展出在某种意义上独特的犹太文化现象，这些文化特征不一定是全是宗教特征。其中，一些因素来自犹太教，而其他因素来自犹太人或犹太人的特定社群与周围环境的相互作用，而另一些因素来自社群的内在社会和文化动力，而不是来自宗教本身。这种现象导致了不同犹太社区具有独特的犹太文化。<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> 理論上，犹太教信徒就是猶太人，這種猶太人与那些血緣上是犹太人的有相同的地位。然而很多<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%B9%E5%AE%97" title="改宗">改宗</a>犹太教的人以及犹太教前信徒都表示，许多一出生就是犹太人的人，将后期<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%88%E4%BE%9D" title="皈依">皈依</a>者视为二等犹太人。主流犹太教并不鼓励改宗，改宗被认为是一项艰巨的任务。大部分的改宗都是混合婚姻的孩子，或是犹太人的配偶或<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AA%E5%A9%9A%E5%A6%BB" class="mw-disambig" title="未婚妻">未婚妻</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AA%E5%A9%9A%E5%A4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="未婚夫">未婚夫</a>（主要是猶太男性要求異教徒女性改宗，以讓子女一出生就是猶太人，因為猶太人身份是母系傳承）。<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="人口及分布">人口及分布</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：人口及分布">编辑</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/306px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="306" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/459px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/612px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption>犹太人在世界的大致分布</figcaption></figure> 根据有关犹太人组织的统计，2007年全球犹太人总数约在1,320万人左右，其中540万人定居在<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>，530万人居住在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="美國">美国</a>，其余则散居世界各地。犹太人口总数仅占全球总人口的0.2%<a href="#cite_note-JPPI2007-53">[53]</a>。根据其他组织的统计，美国国内的犹太人人数则达到650万人或美国人口的2%<a href="#cite_note-JVLPop-54">[54]</a>。截至2021年，犹太人人口为1520-1990万<a href="#cite_note-JDB-1">[1]</a>，占世界总人口的不到0.2%<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="以色列国">以色列国</a>是唯一一个犹太人占人口多数的国家（法律上及人口登記，實際上不少<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%A3%94%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯裔以色列人">阿拉伯裔以色列人</a>不具有以色列的公民權）。<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>上述数据也包含了自认为是犹太人但没有归属于任何犹太社团组织的人群<a href="#cite_note-Pfeffer-58">[58]</a>，但事实上，全球犹太人的总人口数很难得到准确统计，因为犹太人的定义存在多种标准和界定方式，导致统计的准确性受到了影响<a href="#cite_note-Pfeffer-58">[58]</a>。 以色列国成立于1948年5月14日，采用<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83%E5%88%B6" title="議會制">议会民主制</a><a href="#cite_note-cia-59">[59]</a>。在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83_(%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97)" class="mw-redirect" title="議會 (以色列)">以色列国会</a>的120名议员中<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>，目前有12名阿拉伯裔人士代表着以色列国内的阿拉伯族群，國會120名议员由<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E4%BE%8B%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E5%88%B6" title="比例代表制">比例代表制</a>產生，因此出現很多<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E9%BB%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="政黨">政黨</a>，自建國以來歷屆政府全部是<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%AF%E5%90%88%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="聯合政府">聯合政府</a>，政府內閣由<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E7%B8%BD%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="以色列總理">總理</a>領導，總理須獲得至少61名议员的信任投票支持。 另外，在<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="以色列最高法院">以色列最高法院</a>中也有一位<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%A3%94%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯裔以色列人">阿拉伯裔以色列人</a>大法官<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>。在1948年至1958年的十年间，该国犹太人人数从80万激增至200万<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>。目前该国犹太人口约为540万人，占全犹太人总人口的75.8%<a href="#cite_note-JPPI2007-53">[53]</a>。以色列国建国初期接纳了大批抱持<a href="/wiki/%E9%8C%AB%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="錫安主義">锡安主义</a>的犹太裔移民，其中包括在欧洲经历了<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="猶太人大屠殺">犹太人大屠杀</a>的幸存者和从阿拉伯国家迁移过来的人口<a href="#cite_note-persecution-63">[63]</a>。另外从1980年代后期至1990年代早期，以色列也接纳了大批从埃塞俄比亚迁入的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%A1%9E%E4%BF%84%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="埃塞俄比亚犹太人">埃塞俄比亚犹太人</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>。1974年至1979年之间，约有227,258名犹太人从<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联">苏联</a>移民到以色列<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>。这一时期内，从西欧、拉丁美洲和美国移民来的人口也有所增长<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>。另外，也有一少部分从<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="印度">印度</a>归来的犹太人和因躲避大屠杀而定居在美国、阿根廷、澳大利亚和南非的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BB%80%E8%82%AF%E7%B4%8D%E8%8C%B2%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="阿什肯納茲猶太人">阿什肯纳兹犹太人</a>移民至以色列。与此相反，也有一部分犹太人由于经济问题或者对以色列的政治以及以阿冲突等失去信心而迁出以色列。这一群体被称为约迪姆人（ירידה‎）<a href="#cite_note-Dosick_2007,_p._340-67">[67]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="犹太人散居地区">犹太人散居地区</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：犹太人散居地区">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Happynewyearcard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/220px-Happynewyearcard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/330px-Happynewyearcard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>20世纪初的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%96%B0%E5%B9%B4" title="猶太新年">犹太新年</a>贺年卡。背着行李举家迁移的俄罗斯犹太人，望着海峡另一边热情欢迎他们的美国犹太人。在1881年至1924年期间，超过200万犹太人为躲避沙俄大屠杀，举家到美国避难<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></figcaption></figure> 在历史上，犹太人的人口分布发生过多次变动，其中下列事件对于20世纪末的犹太人分布格局有着比较重要的影响：19世纪中叶的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="美國">美国</a>移民潮、<a href="/wiki/%E9%8C%AB%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="錫安主義">锡安主义运动</a>的兴起、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="俄罗斯帝国">沙俄时代</a>对犹太人的大屠杀、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%E7%B2%B9%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B" title="納粹德國">纳粹德国</a>的犹太人大屠杀、以色列国建国、犹太人大批撤离阿拉伯地区<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>。 现今拥有最多犹太人口的国家是美国。根据不同统计数据，约有530万至650万的犹太人生活在美国。此外，拥有较多犹太人的美洲国家有：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7" title="加拿大">加拿大</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%A0%B9%E5%BB%B7" title="阿根廷">阿根廷</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E8%A5%BF" title="巴西">巴西</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E8%A5%BF%E5%93%A5" title="墨西哥">墨西哥</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%AD" title="乌拉圭">乌拉圭</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A7%94%E5%85%A7%E7%91%9E%E6%8B%89" title="委內瑞拉">委內瑞拉</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E5%88%A9" title="智利">智利</a>等（参见拉丁美洲犹太人历史）<a href="#cite_note-JPPI2007-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-JVLPop-54">[54]</a>。 西欧地区最大的犹太人社区在法国，包括约49万犹太人，其中大多数是来自<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%8F%8A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="阿尔及利亚">阿尔及利亚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E6%B4%9B%E5%93%A5" title="摩洛哥">摩洛哥</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="突尼斯">突尼斯</a>等北非伊斯兰教国家的移民或难民及其后代<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>。另外，<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a>的犹太人人数达29万人。东欧曾是历史上大批犹太人聚居的地区，据粗略估计目前约有35万至100万左右的犹太人生活在原苏联统治的地区。除了以色列外，现代犹太人人口增长最快的国家为德国，尤其在其首都——<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97" title="柏林">柏林</a>。自从<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E5%9C%8D%E7%89%86" title="柏林圍牆">柏林墙</a>倒塌之后，数以万计的犹太人从原<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E5%BE%B7" title="東德">民主德国</a>地区迁移至德国全境居住<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>。 在1945年前后，北非和中东地区的伊斯兰世界居住着大约90万犹太人。随着<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>建国和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="反犹太主义">反锡安主义</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>的升温，阿拉伯地区对犹太人采取了有组织有计划的迫害及驅行动，最终导致绝大多数犹太人在1950年代被迫前往以色列、北美及欧洲等地定居，而不少原居於巴勒斯坦的阿拉伯人則被迫遷到約旦、埃及及沙特阿拉伯等地。 在1979年<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="伊朗伊斯蘭革命">伊朗革命</a>前，该国有10万左右的犹太人，但现在的伊朗国内犹太人人数下降至10800人左右。在革命后，小部分犹太人逃离到以色列或欧洲，但大多数都撤离到了美国（其中<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%9B%E6%9D%89%E7%9F%B6" title="洛杉矶">洛杉矶</a>是主要目的地之一，当地的犹太人社群被称为“Tehrangeles”）<a href="#cite_note-littman3-73">[73]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="增长与发展">增长与发展</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：增长与发展">编辑</a>]</div> 目前欧洲和北美的犹太人口增长主要归因于移民，与此相对，以色列是唯一一个依靠犹太人自然增长而维持人口扩大的国家。在大多数海外犹太人社群，犹太人人口或停滞不前，或缓慢下降，只有在<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教正統派">犹太教正统派</a>控制的地区，其社群成员往往基于宗教原因而不采取控制生育的措施，从而导致较快的人口增长率<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>。一般正统派和保守派都不鼓励促使异教人士改宗犹太教，但是有许多犹太团体开始尝试让一些已被流散地的异文化融合的犹太人社团重新建立犹太教信仰。此外，尽管<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教改革派">犹太教改革派</a>在原则上提倡吸纳新成员，但这并不意味着积极的传教或劝说改宗活动，而仅仅限于通过与非犹太人通婚而吸收异族配偶进入犹太人社群<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>。与此同时，正统派人士却倾向于劝说普通犹太人强化其犹太人身份意识，从而往往会减少异族通婚的机会。结果有分析表明，最近25年来，世俗犹太人逐渐加强了其种族身份的认同感，开始严格遵守宗教信仰（这一运动被称为“Baal Teshuva”），但这一趋势尚未能得出统计数据的支持<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>。另外，由非犹太人士发起的“自由选择做犹太人”（Jews by Choice）的运动也逐渐产生了一定影响<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="内部族群">内部族群</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：内部族群">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%97%8F%E7%BE%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="猶太族群">猶太族群</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg/220px-Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg/330px-Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg/440px-Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1647" data-file-height="2130" /></a><figcaption>Maurycy Gottlieb画作《赎罪节在会堂祈祷》（1878年）。画中描绘了19世纪后期东欧地区的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BB%80%E8%82%AF%E7%BA%B3%E5%85%B9%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="阿什肯纳兹犹太人">阿什肯纳兹犹太人</a>的形象</figcaption></figure> 现代<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>雖然被定義為犹太人国家，但實際上為非單一民族國家的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%85%83%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="多元文化">多元文化</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E4%BF%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="世俗主義">世俗主義</a>社會，亦是「民族大熔爐」。因猶太人分散超過千年，經過通婚、混血，導致各地猶太人長相差別極大：有金髮碧眼的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E7%BE%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="歐美">歐美</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E4%BA%BA" title="白人">白人</a>混血，與<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人">阿拉伯人</a>長相相近的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="西亞">西亞</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%9D%9E" title="北非">北非</a>混血，與非洲黑人<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A3%E7%B4%A2%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="衣索比亞">衣索比亞</a>混血等。以色列官員承認：「沒法憑外在判斷誰是猶太人。」 散居在世界各地的犹太人，可以根据各自的特征划分为多个不同的族群。犹太人的起源同为生活在迦南地区的古以色列人（Israelite），但是在数千年的大流散中与各地民族的融合混同产生了犹太人内部各个独立的分支。由于各个族群居住的地域相隔甚远，并在相当长的时期内独自平行发展，互相之间在体貌外观、语言、宗教风俗、文化等方面产生了极明显的差异<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>。 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galician_Jew.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Galician_Jew.jpg/220px-Galician_Jew.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Galician_Jew.jpg/330px-Galician_Jew.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Galician_Jew.jpg/440px-Galician_Jew.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E5%88%A9%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A_(%E4%B8%9C%E6%AC%A7)" title="加利西亚 (东欧)">加利西亚</a>犹太人</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_woman_of_Teutonic_Type,_United_States.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Jewish_woman_of_Teutonic_Type%2C_United_States.jpg/220px-Jewish_woman_of_Teutonic_Type%2C_United_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Jewish_woman_of_Teutonic_Type%2C_United_States.jpg/330px-Jewish_woman_of_Teutonic_Type%2C_United_States.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Jewish_woman_of_Teutonic_Type%2C_United_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="美国犹太人">美国犹太人</a>妇女</figcaption></figure> 犹太人中最主要的两个分支为：<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BB%80%E8%82%AF%E7%BA%B3%E5%85%B9%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="阿什肯纳兹犹太人">阿什肯纳兹犹太人</a>（又称“德国系犹太人”，阿什肯纳兹在希伯来语中意为德国）和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E6%B3%95%E8%BF%AA%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="塞法迪犹太人">塞法迪犹太人</a>（又称“西班牙系犹太人，塞法迪在希伯来语中意为西班牙或伊比利亚半岛）。此外，第三个主要族群被称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%85%B9%E6%8B%89%E5%B8%8C%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="米兹拉希犹太人">米兹拉希犹太人</a>（又称“东方系犹太人”，米兹拉希在希伯来语中意为东方），主要包括中东和北非的犹太人。值得注意的是，出于宗教仪式的原因，米兹拉希犹太人有时也被称为“塞法迪人”<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>。 除了上述主要分支外，犹太人中还包括一些人数较少的群体：印度犹太人（其中包括Bene Israel、Bnei Menashe、Cochin Jews和Bene Ephraim等）、希腊犹太人（Romaniotes）、意大利犹太人（Italkim或Bené Roma）、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%9F%E9%97%A8" title="也门">也门</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%9B%BC" title="阿曼">阿曼</a>地区的犹太人（Teimanim）、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="非洲犹太人">非洲犹太人</a>（其中以<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%A1%9E%E4%BF%84%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9A" title="埃塞俄比亚">埃塞俄比亚</a>地区的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E5%A1%94%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="贝塔以色列">贝塔以色列</a>人为代表）以及中国犹太人（尤以<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">开封犹太人</a>为代表）等等<a href="#cite_note-EJ571-80">[80]</a>。 很多时候，上述分支和族群之间的区别并非清晰可辨。例如，米兹拉希族犹太人就融合了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%83%A8%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="北部非洲">北非</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%BA%9A" title="中亚">中亚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2" title="高加索">高加索</a>地区和中东地区的犹太人的血统。在现代用语中，“米兹拉希族”有时被称为“赛法迪族”，因为两者具有近似的礼拜仪式，但其实前者的宗教仪式是独立于后者发展起来的。而在米兹拉希族之中，又可以细分为：<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="伊拉克犹太人">伊拉克犹太人</a>、埃及犹太人、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9F%8F%E7%88%BE%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="柏柏爾猶太人">柏柏尔犹太人</a>、黎巴嫩犹太人、库尔德犹太人、利比亚犹太人、叙利亚犹太人、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="布哈拉猶太人">布哈拉犹太人</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%B1%E5%9C%B0%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="山地犹太人">山地犹太人</a>、格鲁吉亚犹太人等等。虽然也门和阿曼的犹太人有着独特的礼拜仪式等习惯，但有时他们也被归类于米兹拉希族之中。另外，一部分赛法迪族人也声称他们是因1490年代西班牙和葡萄牙大规模排犹运动才迁移至中东和北非的，因此与原先生活在这些地区的犹太人也有了明显的区分<a href="#cite_note-EJ571-80">[80]</a>。 尽管犹太人内部有着如此众多的分支，但阿什肯纳兹族犹太人仍占据了现代全球犹太人口中的绝对多数。他们约占所有犹太人口数的70%以上（在二战和犹太人大屠杀之前，这一比例更是高达90%）。作为从欧洲大批移民的结果，阿什肯纳兹族人在所谓<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86" class="mw-redirect" title="新大陆">新大陆</a>地区（包括美国、加拿大、巴西、澳大利亚和阿根廷）的犹太人中更是占据了绝对多数。而在法国，从北非移民来的米兹拉希族犹太人的规模开始超过当地的阿什肯纳兹人和赛法迪人，成为该国犹太人中的最大族群<a href="#cite_note-EJ572-81">[81]</a>。而犹太人国家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>才是各个分支的犹太人的大熔炉，但是十分不幸的是来自各个地区的犹太人并没有都在这里获得一席之地和平等地位。比如说在教育方面，以色列对埃塞俄比亚裔犹太人就具有着严重的歧视。<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="中国">中国</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：中国">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">开封犹太人</a></div> 流落到中国的犹太人，成规模进入及有史可考者为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B" title="北宋">北宋</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E5%B8%82" title="开封市">开封</a>的「<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">一赐乐业</a>」人，目前发现的家谱共有七姓八家，人数不详。“一赐乐业”为北宋皇帝赐名，当为“以色列”的音译。由于犹太教与大约同时代进入中国的伊斯兰教徒拥有同样不食<a href="/wiki/%E8%B1%AC%E8%82%89" title="豬肉">豬肉</a>的宗教信仰，因此北宋时代的中国人将两者在一定程度上混淆，称其宗教为：「<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">古教</a>」、「<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">藍帽回回</a>」、「<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">朮忽回回</a>」，称犹太人为：“朮忽”、“竹忽”、“主吾”、“主鹘”、“朱乎得”、“祝虎”、“珠赫”等。历史上的中国从来没成為政教合一的宗教国家，因此进入中国的犹太人不像其它地方的同族那样受到宗教迫害，北宋时的开封“一赐乐业”人拥有与中国<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%97%8F" title="汉族">汉族</a>人同样的科举考试的权利，至明朝建立时，中国的犹太人已经完全丧失犹太人的信仰（可能尚保存有少量传统习俗，但其本人已经不了解此习俗含义），与周围的汉族无异。明朝建立后，明太祖朱元璋明文规定“色目人”“回回人”不许本族内通婚<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>，从此时的开封“一赐乐业”人遗留的家谱来看，他们此时已经是可以和“色目人”“回回人”通婚的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%97%8F" title="汉族">汉族</a>人。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="人口变化">人口变化</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节：人口变化">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="移民">移民</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节：移民">编辑</a>]</div> 在整个犹太历史上，犹太人不停地被直接或间接驱逐出他们原来的祖国以色列地以及许多已定居的地区。这种作为难民的经历在很多方面都塑造了犹太人的身份和宗教习俗，因此，成为犹太历史的重要组成元素。<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a>猶太人曾被<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="古埃及人">古埃及人</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="古羅馬人">古羅馬人</a>勞役<a href="#cite_note-times-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-ancientsudan.org-87">[87]</a>，作為<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%B4%E9%9A%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="奴隸">奴隸</a>被帶到帝國的各處，隨後在那裡定居下來。因此他們的足跡遍佈<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="歐洲">歐洲</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%9D%9E" title="北非">北非</a>各地。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="融合与混同">融合与混同</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节：融合与混同">编辑</a>]</div> 早在古希腊时期，一部分犹太人就开始或自愿或被迫被融合同化到周边非犹太人社会中，不再信仰犹太教，其对犹太人身份的自我意识也逐渐消失<a href="#cite_note-Johnson171-88">[88]</a>。犹太人在各个地区和各个时期都在不断与周边民族进行融合<a href="#cite_note-Johnson171-88">[88]</a>，其中一些社群最终完全消失，如中国的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">开封犹太人</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>。1700年代出现的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="犹太启蒙运动">犹太启蒙运动</a>和之后的欧美各地的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="犹太解放运动">犹太解放运动</a>也很大程度地促进了犹太人参与并融入到世俗社会中，其结果是犹太人开始与非犹太人通婚，并不再参加犹太人社团的活动<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a>。异教徒通婚的比率在各地有很大差别：在美国，该比率低于50%<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>；在英国，该比率约为53%；在法国，约为30%<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a>；而在澳大利亚及墨西哥等地，上述比率则低至10%<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>。在美国，父母中只有一方为犹太人的孩子中，只有三分之一会参加犹太人社团的宗教活动<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a>。从结果来看，大多数犹太人流散地的犹太人口或保持动态稳定，或在以较慢的速度逐步缩小，犹太人正在持续不断地融合于周边的文化中。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="战争与迫害">战争与迫害</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节：战争与迫害">编辑</a>]</div> 在历史上，许多地区和国家的统治者和政府都对犹太人社群实施过种族压迫甚至彻底性的摧毁。从被驱逐出境到被种族灭绝，占人口极少数的犹太人遭受了各种磨难和迫害。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="反犹太主义">反犹主义</a>史上的主要事件包括：<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E5%86%9B%E4%B8%9C%E5%BE%81" title="第一次十字军东征">第一次十字军东征</a>对犹太人的屠杀<a href="#cite_note-Johnson207-208-96">[96]</a>；<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%89%98%E5%B0%94%E5%85%8B%E9%A9%AC%E8%BE%BE" title="托马斯·德·托尔克马达">托马斯·德·托尔克马达</a>（Tomás de Torquemada）领导的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80" title="西班牙宗教裁判所">西班牙宗教裁判所</a>以及<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E7%89%99%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="葡萄牙宗教裁判所（页面不存在）">葡萄牙宗教裁判所</a>（Portuguese Inquisition）通过<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80" title="宗教裁判所">宗教裁判</a>的形式对<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%95%99" title="新教">新教</a>徒和<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%AA%E6%8B%89%E8%AB%BE" title="瑪拉諾">瑪拉诺</a>犹太人的迫害<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a>；<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E5%85%8B%E5%85%B0" title="乌克兰">乌克兰</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%A5%E8%96%A9%E5%85%8B" title="哥薩克">哥萨克族</a>首领<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E6%A0%BC%E4%B8%B9%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E6%A2%85%E5%88%A9%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%A8%E5%9F%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="博格丹·赫梅利尼茨基">博格丹·克米尔尼茨基</a>对犹太人的屠杀<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a>；俄国<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%99%E7%9A%87" title="沙皇">沙皇</a>指使的对犹太人的集体迫害<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1987,_pp._364–365-99">[99]</a>以及发生在西班牙、葡萄牙、英国、法国、德国等地对犹太人的隔离驱逐行动<a href="#cite_note-Johnson213plus-100">[100]</a>。对犹太人的迫害在20世纪30年代发展到了极致，<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E5%B8%8C%E7%89%B9%E5%8B%92" title="阿道夫·希特勒">希特勒</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%B2%B9%E5%85%9A" title="纳粹党">纳粹党</a>人炮制的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E7%BB%88%E8%A7%A3%E5%86%B3%E6%96%B9%E6%A1%88" title="最终解决方案">最终解决方案</a>导致了惨绝人寰的犹太人大屠杀，在1939年至1945年期间，约600万犹太人惨遭杀害<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>。而自1948年以色列建國以來，伊斯蘭世界由於對猶太政權的敵視也系統性的迫害過去長期居住阿拉伯地區的米茲拉希猶太人，從1948年阿拉伯聯軍向以色列發動第一次以阿戰爭起，阿拉伯地區有超過90萬的米茲拉希猶太人因穆斯林社會的排擠與壓迫而離開家園，逃往以色列或西方國家。<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="科学研究">科学研究</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节：科学研究">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cochin_Jew.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Cochin_Jew.png/220px-Cochin_Jew.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Cochin_Jew.png/330px-Cochin_Jew.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Cochin_Jew.png/440px-Cochin_Jew.png 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="印度">印度</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%AF%E9%92%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="柯钦">柯钦</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%AF%E6%9E%9D%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="柯枝猶太人">柯枝犹太人</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samarkand_Jew.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Samarkand_Jew.jpg/220px-Samarkand_Jew.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Samarkand_Jew.jpg/330px-Samarkand_Jew.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Samarkand_Jew.jpg/440px-Samarkand_Jew.jpg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="562" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E9%85%8B%E9%95%BF%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="布哈拉酋长国">布哈拉酋长国</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%94%E7%BD%95" class="mw-redirect" title="撒马尔罕">撒马尔罕</a>的犹太人</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="遗传学研究">遗传学研究</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节：遗传学研究">编辑</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学">遗传学</a>研究表明，现代犹太人民族中含有多种不同的血统，但大多数人口的血统仍可以追溯到一个居住在特定地域并经过独立演化的古老种族<a href="#cite_note-hammer-103">[103]</a>。尽管DNA测试结果论证了各个犹太人支系中都存在着3000年以上的族内通婚，但这其实仍低于其他民族的程度。<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times_Y_Chromosome-104">[104]</a>目前为止的研究结果不仅证实了传统意义上的犹太人的祖先可以追溯到古代被迫流亡异乡的以色列人，同时也推翻了那些主张绝大多数现代犹太人仅仅是具有犹太教信仰而不带有古代以色列人血缘的论点<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times_Y_Chromosome-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a>。 DNA分析结果进一步表明，现代犹太人中的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%AD%E5%8F%B8" title="祭司">祭司</a>家族（“Kohen”）都源自大约3000年前的同一个祖先<a href="#cite_note-hammer2-106">[106]</a>。这一结论适用于全世界各地犹太人<a href="#cite_note-hammer2-106">[106]</a>。研究人员猜测现代犹太祭司家族的“共同最近祖先”生活在公元前1000年（大致相当于圣经《<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%BA%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E8%A8%98" title="出埃及記">出埃及记</a>》发生的时期）至公元前586年（巴比伦人摧毁<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%80%E7%BD%97%E9%97%A8%E5%9C%A3%E6%AE%BF" title="所罗门圣殿">第一圣殿</a>）之间<a href="#cite_note-American_Society_For_Technion-107">[107]</a>。此外，他们也发现阿什肯纳兹犹太人和赛法迪犹太人之中也存在类似现象<a href="#cite_note-American_Society_For_Technion-107">[107]</a>。专家根据基因学的分析，推测第一代祭司与现代人相隔可能有106代，时间上约相隔2650年至3180年，后者取决于平均每一代人以25年计算还是以30年计算<a href="#cite_note-American_Society_For_Technion-107">[107]</a>。此外，正如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%90%A8%E4%BA%BA" title="可萨人">可萨人</a>被融合入阿什肯纳兹犹太人一样，一部分异族个人和群体通过皈依信奉犹太教而影响了现代犹太人的基因结构，但相对于犹太人整体而言，这一比例仍非常小<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a>。 <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2" title="美国国家科学院">美国国家科学院</a>发表的研究报告显示，“欧洲、北非和中东地区的犹太人群体的父系基因库均源自中东地区的同一个民族，自大流散以来，大多数犹太人群体与周边的非犹太人保持着相对隔离的发展过程”<a href="#cite_note-hammer-103">[103]</a>。研究者惊奇地发现，无论犹太人散居在哪一地区，他们基因中的同一性程度都相当高<a href="#cite_note-hammer-103">[103]</a>。 此外，Y染色体研究结果也表明，全球犹太人族群的基因与<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7%E4%BA%BA" title="库尔德人">库尔德人</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E4%BA%BA" title="敘利亞人">叙利亚人</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%8B%92%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E4%BA%BA" title="巴勒斯坦人">巴勒斯坦人</a>都比较近似<a href="#cite_note-hammer2-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>。科学家斯科雷吉（Skorecki）及其研究组成员认为，“据我们研究的犹太人和中东非犹太族群的标本体现出的高度近似性而言，…可以证实他们拥有同一个中东地区的先祖的假说。”<a href="#cite_note-hammer2-106">[106]</a>。另一份研究报告推断，82%的阿拉伯人和70%的犹太人包含了分别来自三个单倍群的混合染色体池。<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="基因研究">基因研究</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=23" title="编辑章节：基因研究">编辑</a>]</div> Y染色体的研究往往能够确定在古代人口中少数创始人，这些创始人的成员经常分离，并遵循不同的迁移路径。在大多数犹太人口中，这些男性祖先似乎主要是中东地区。例如，阿什肯纳兹犹太人与其他犹太人、中东群体而不是居住在东欧、德国和法国莱茵河谷的非犹太人群体有着更多的共同父系。这与犹太传统一致，因为这个传统将大多数犹太父系的来源认定在中东地区。相反，通过观察犹太群体的线粒体DNA，人们发现他们的母系一般更为异质。哈里·奥斯特勒（Harry Ostrer）和拉斐尔·法尔（Raphael Falk）等学者认为，这表明许多犹太男性在逃离古代以色列后，在流散迁徙的地方（欧洲和其他社区）找到了新的伴侣。相比之下，Behar已经发现有40％的阿什肯纳兹犹太人来自于只有四名中东地区的女性创始人。塞法迪和米兹拉希犹太群体的人口“没有显示出受到狭窄的创始人影响的证据。”Feder等人进行的后续研究确证了在阿什肯纳兹犹太人中有大量非本地母系来源。研究者在反思阿什肯纳兹犹太人的母系来源发现时，总结道：“显然，犹太人和非犹太人之间的差异远远大于犹太社区内所观察到的差距，所以，当比较犹太人与非犹太人时，犹太社区之间的差异可以被忽略。”<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> 随着技术的发展，对常染色体DNA的研究（这种研究观察整个DNA mixture）变得越来越重要。它们表明，犹太人口往往在独立社区中形成相对密切关联的群体，一个社区中的大多数人拥有共同的祖先。对于流散的犹太群体来说，<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BB%80%E8%82%AF%E7%B4%8D%E8%8C%B2%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="阿什肯納茲猶太人">阿什肯纳兹犹太人</a>，塞法迪犹太人和米兹拉希犹太人的基因组成显示了他们有着共同的中东祖先。Behar认为，对这个共同的中东祖先最简单的解释是，它符合犹太人的历史背景，因为犹太人是<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%8E%E5%87%A1%E7%89%B9" title="黎凡特">黎凡特</a>的古代希伯来人和以色列人的后代”，而且“在古代，古以色列的人民分散在整个世界。”而基因中的北非、意大利和其他<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%8D%8A%E5%B2%9B" title="伊比利亚半岛">伊比利亚半岛</a>起源显示了在母系的历史中常常与非犹太的主导人种群混合。在阿什肯纳兹犹太人和塞法迪犹太人（特别是摩洛哥犹太人）的案例中（这两派是紧密相连的），非犹太人混血来源主要是南欧，而米兹拉希犹太人显示出与其他中东人口和<a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E4%BB%A5%E5%8D%97%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" title="撒哈拉以南非洲">撒哈拉以南非洲</a>人的混血的证据。 Behar等人提到了阿什肯纳兹犹太人和现代意大利人特别密切的关系。人们发现犹太人与<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9C%88%E6%B2%83%E5%9C%9F" title="新月沃土">新月沃土</a>北部的群体（<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7%E4%BA%BA" title="库尔德人">库尔德人</a>，土耳其人和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E4%BA%BA" title="亚美尼亚人">亚美尼亚人</a>）而不是阿拉伯人的血缘关系更亲近。<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> 研究还显示，今天的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="伊比利亚">伊比利亚</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99" title="西班牙">西班牙</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E7%89%99" title="葡萄牙">葡萄牙</a>）和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="伊比利亚美洲">伊比利亚美洲</a>（西班牙裔美国人和巴西）遍布着具有Sephardic Bnei Anusim（那些被迫转信天主教的anusim的后裔）血统的人，据估计，伊比利亚近现代人口的19.8％，和至少10％的伊比利亚美洲人口在过去几个世纪中都有<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E6%B3%95%E8%BF%AA%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="塞法迪犹太人">塞法迪犹太人</a>血统。同时，印度的Bene Israel以及埃塞俄比亚<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E5%A1%94%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="贝塔以色列">贝塔以色列</a>，以及南部非洲的一部分伦Lemba人尽管与当地国家的人口更加相似，但他们也有一些偏远的古代犹太人血统。<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="考古学研究">考古学研究</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=24" title="编辑章节：考古学研究">编辑</a>]</div> 现代考古学在很大程度上摒弃了<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E5%9C%A3%E7%BB%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="希伯来圣经">希伯来圣经</a>的历史真实性，认为这是被重新构建的以色列民族神话故事。<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> 根据现代考古报告，以色列人和他们的文化從没有用武力侵占这个地区，而是通过发展一种以<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E5%92%8C%E5%8D%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="耶和华">耶和华</a>（古代迦南诸神中的一位）为中心的独特一神宗教，進而冲淡及同化迦南人的文化。<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a>以耶和华为中心的信仰得到发展，与此同时很多宗教实践也在发展，这逐渐形成了独特的以色列民族，将他们与迦南人区分开来。在中古<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E5%99%A8%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="青铜器时代">青铜器时代</a>的迦南人已经得到考古学证明，<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a>希伯来语是迦南语最后的一个现存语种。在铁器时代I时期（公元前1200-1000年），以色列文化在性质上主要是迦南文化。 对犹太人的遗传研究表明，全世界大多数犹太人都有一个共同的基因遗传，它起源于中东，并且与<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9C%88%E6%B2%83%E5%9C%9F" title="新月沃土">新月沃土</a>的人最相似。不同犹太群体的基因组成表明，犹太人分享了一个可追溯到4000年前的共同基因库，这是他们拥有共同祖先起源的标志。虽然犹太社群长期彼此分离，但他们在文化、传统和语言方面保持着共同点。<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> 对犹太人起源事实的重建是一项艰巨而复杂的工作。它需要考察用十种以上的东方语言写成的大量文献，从而研究超過3000年的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="古人类">古人类</a>历史。而且，由于考古发现依赖于各个学科的研究人员和学者，其研究目的在于解读所有事实数据，强调其最具一致性的理论，加之长期的政治、宗教和文化偏见的存在，因此，这个任务变得颇为复杂。<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参见">参见</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=25" title="编辑章节：参见">编辑</a>]</div> <dl><dd>更多内容参见本页面内相关模板。主要的相关条目、列表、分类和主题如下：</dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82553231">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tr>td,.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important;padding:0!important}}.mw-parser-output table.multicol{border:0;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;color:inherit;padding:0}.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tr>td,.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tbody>tr>td{vertical-align:top!important}</style> <div> <table class="multicol" role="presentation" style="width:100%;"><tbody><tr> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太人口（页面不存在）">犹太人口</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A9%9A%E5%A7%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太人婚姻（页面不存在）">犹太人婚姻</a></li> <li><a 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1em;border:solid #aaa 1px"> <ul style="display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:var(--background-color-base,#f9f9f9);font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-weight:bold"> <li style="display:table-row"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="Portal:犹太教">犹太教主题</a></li> <li style="display:table-row"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" 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id="註釋">註釋</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=26" title="编辑章节：註釋">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-JDB-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JDB_1-0">1.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JDB_1-1">1.1</a> <cite class="citation report"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arnold_Dashefsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arnold Dashefsky（页面不存在）">Dashefsky, Arnold</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sergio_Della_Pergola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sergio Della Pergola（页面不存在）">Della-Pergola, Sergio</a>; Sheskin, Ira (编). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishdatabank.org/api/download/?studyId=1185&mediaId=bjdb%5c2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_(DellaPergola)_DB_Public.pdf">World Jewish Population</a> (PDF) (报告). <a 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Human Genetics. 2000, 107 (6): 630–41 [2015-04-22]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0340-6717">ISSN 0340-6717</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11153918">PMID 11153918</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs004390000426">doi:10.1007/s004390000426</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224213531/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Nebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf%20">存档</a> (PDF)于2018-12-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=High-resolution+Y+chromosome+haplotypes+of+Israeli+and+Palestinian+Arabs+reveal+geographic+substructure+and+substantial+overlap+with+haplotypes+of+Jews&rft.au=Faerman%2C+Marina&rft.au=Filon%2C+Dvora&rft.au=Oppenheim%2C+Ariella&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Mark+G.&rft.au=Weale%2C+Michael&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Deborah+A.&rft.aufirst=Almut&rft.aulast=Nebel&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0340-6717&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Human+Genetics&rft.pages=630-41&rft.volume=107&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Ftcga%2Ftcgapdf%2FNebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs004390000426&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11153918&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-evolutsioon-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-evolutsioon_5-0">5.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-evolutsioon_5-1">5.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-evolutsioon_5-2">5.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-evolutsioon_5-3">5.3</a> <cite class="citation journal">Shen, P; Lavi, T; Kivisild, T; Chou, V; Sengun, D; Gefel, D; Shpirer, I; Woolf, E; Hillel, J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf">Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence variation</a> (PDF). Human Mutation. 2004, 24 (3): 248–60 [2015-04-22]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15300852">PMID 15300852</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhumu.20077">doi:10.1002/humu.20077</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508024921/http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2013-05-08）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+of+patrilineages+and+matrilineages+of+Samaritans+and+other+Israeli+populations+from+Y-chromosome+and+mitochondrial+DNA+sequence+variation&rft.au=Chou%2C+V&rft.au=Gefel%2C+D&rft.au=Hillel%2C+J&rft.au=Kivisild%2C+T&rft.au=Lavi%2C+T&rft.au=Sengun%2C+D&rft.au=Shpirer%2C+I&rft.au=Woolf%2C+E&rft.aufirst=P&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Human+Mutation&rft.pages=248-60&rft.volume=24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolutsioon.ut.ee%2Fpublications%2FShen2004.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhumu.20077&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15300852&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-sciencedaily-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sciencedaily_6-0">6.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sciencedaily_6-1">6.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm">Jews Are The Genetic Brothers Of Palestinians, Syrians, And Lebanese</a>. Sciencedaily.com. 2000-05-09 [2013-04-12]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224213533/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm%20">存档</a>于2018-12-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.btitle=Jews+Are+The+Genetic+Brothers+Of+Palestinians%2C+Syrians%2C+And+Lebanese&rft.date=2000-05-09&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Sciencedaily.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2000%2F05%2F000509003653.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Atzmon, G; Hao, L; Pe'Er, I; Velez, C; Pearlman, A; Palamara, PF; Morrow, B; Friedman, E; Oddoux, C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032072">Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry</a>. 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Haaretz.com. [2015-04-22]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924230839/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/study-finds-close-genetic-connection-between-jews-kurds-1.75273">存档</a>于2015-09-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Study+Finds+Close+Genetic+Connection+Between+Jews%2C+Kurds&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Haaretz.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fprint-edition%2Fnews%2Fstudy-finds-close-genetic-connection-between-jews-kurds-1.75273&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishjournal.com/you_tai_ren/item/jews_origin_etymology_20110224/">犹太人的由来Jews, Origin, Etymology</a>. [2011-03-20]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819094640/http://www.jewishjournal.com/you_tai_ren/item/jews_origin_etymology_20110224">存档</a>于2016-08-19）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.btitle=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E7%94%B1%E6%9D%A5Jews%2C+Origin%2C+Etymology&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishjournal.com%2Fyou_tai_ren%2Fitem%2Fjews_origin_etymology_20110224%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supoya.weebly.com/15061500-149215061501-149214971492149314911497293692282627665260633161620171.html">על העם היהודי犹太民族简介</a>. Ludwig Supoya 路德维希·苏柏亚   The Official Website. 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Brandeis School of Law, Retrieved on June 15, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pPcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=%22jewish+nation%22+people&source=bl&ots=mwcd98d6Hx&sig=snSbv5ryENiSr-a9Kkfc4Ycs7h4&hl=en&ei=A0o2SvmeI-PBtwed0qj5Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=33">[2]</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110511203705/http://books.google.com/books?id=pPcOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=%22jewish+nation%22+people&source=bl&ots=mwcd98d6Hx&sig=snSbv5ryENiSr-a9Kkfc4Ycs7h4&hl=en&ei=A0o2SvmeI-PBtwed0qj5Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=33">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） Palmer, Henry, A History of the Jewish Nation (1875), D. 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Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. 1996: 131. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-8386-3660-8" title="Special:网络书源/0-8386-3660-8">ISBN 0-8386-3660-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Avner&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.btitle=A+Psychoanalytic+History+of+the+Jews&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8386-3660-8&rft.pages=131&rft.place=Madison%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Yiddish. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary 11th. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster: 1453. 2004. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-87779-809-5" title="Special:网络书源/0-87779-809-5">ISBN 0-87779-809-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Yiddish&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Collegiate+Dictionary&rft.date=2004&rft.edition=11th&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-87779-809-5&rft.pages=1453&rft.place=Springfield%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/J0037500.html">"Jew"</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20080421173638/http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/J0037500.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）,《The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language》，第四版，2000年。 </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson_1987,_p._82-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_1987,_p._82_18-0">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Neusner_1991_p._64-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Neusner_1991_p._64_19-0">19.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Neusner_1991_p._64_19-1">19.1</a> Neusner (1991) p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Patai, Raphael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishmind0000pata">The Jewish Mind</a>. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1996: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishmind0000pata/page/7">7</a> [1977]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-8143-2651-X" title="Special:网络书源/0-8143-2651-X">ISBN 0-8143-2651-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft.aulast=Patai&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Mind&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8143-2651-X&rft.pages=7&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjewishmind0000pata&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Johnson, Lonnie R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centraleuropeene00john">Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centraleuropeene00john/page/n157">145</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-19-510071-9" title="Special:网络书源/0-19-510071-9">ISBN 0-19-510071-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Lonnie+R.&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.btitle=Central+Europe%3A+Enemies%2C+Neighbors%2C+Friends&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-510071-9&rft.pages=145&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcentraleuropeene00john&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharot2930-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot2930_22-0">22.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot2930_22-1">22.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot2930_22-2">22.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot2930_22-3">22.3</a> Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharot_1997,_pp._42–43-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot_1997,_pp._42–43_23-0">23.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot_1997,_pp._42–43_23-1">23.1</a> Sharot (1997), pp. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharot_1997,_p._42-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot_1997,_p._42_24-0">24.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot_1997,_p._42_24-1">24.1</a> Sharot (1997), p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Fishman, Sylvia Barack. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish">Jewish Life and American Culture</a>. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. 2000: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-7914-4546-1" title="Special:网络书源/0-7914-4546-1">ISBN 0-7914-4546-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Sylvia+Barack&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.btitle=Jewish+Life+and+American+Culture&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-7914-4546-1&rft.pages=38&rft.place=Albany%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjewishlifeameric0000fish&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Kimmerling, Baruch. The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. 1996: 169. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-88706-849-9" title="Special:网络书源/0-88706-849-9">ISBN 0-88706-849-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Baruch&rft.aulast=Kimmerling&rft.btitle=The+Israeli+State+and+Society%3A+Boundaries+and+Frontiers&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-88706-849-9&rft.pages=169&rft.place=Albany%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite class="citation book">肖宪. 谜一般的犹太人. 北京: 中国工人出版社. 2007: 147. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-5008-3758-9" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-5008-3758-9">ISBN 978-7-5008-3758-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.au=%E8%82%96%E5%AE%AA&rft.btitle=%E8%B0%9C%E4%B8%80%E8%88%AC%E7%9A%84%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-7-5008-3758-9&rft.pages=147&rft.place=%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%B7%A5%E4%BA%BA%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> 美国电影《辛德勒的名单》最后的镜头，便是被辛德勒拯救的犹太人及其后代将纪念的小石子堆放在辛德勒的墓碑上 </li> <li id="cite_note-Grintz-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grintz_29-0">29.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grintz_29-1">29.1</a> Grintz, Jehoshua M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9231(196003)79%3A1%3C32%3AHATSAW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M">"Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple."</a> Journal of Biblical Literature. March, 1960. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Feldman (2006), p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.israelemb.org/US-Israel-Relations/landl.html">Language and Literature</a>. Embassy of Israel. [2009-01-10]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100712134341/http://www.israelemb.org/US-Israel-Relations/landl.html">存档</a>于2010-07-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.btitle=Language+and+Literature&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Embassy+of+Israel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.israelemb.org%2FUS-Israel-Relations%2Flandl.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Parfitt, T. V. "The Use of Hebrew in Palestine 1800–1822." Journal of Semitic Studies , 1972. </li> <li id="cite_note-Languages-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Languages_33-0">33.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Languages_33-1">33.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080725085641/http://www.bh.org.il/Links/JewishLangs.asp">Jewish Languages</a>. Beth Hatefutsoth, The Nahum Goldmann Museum of the Jewish Diaspora. [2008-07-03]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp">原始内容</a>存档于2008-07-25）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.btitle=Jewish+Languages&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Beth+Hatefutsoth%2C+The+Nahum+Goldmann+Museum+of+the+Jewish+Diaspora&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bh.org.il%2Flinks%2Fjewishlangs.asp&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Nava Nevo (2001). International Handbook of Jewish Education. Springer. p. 428. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9789400703544" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9789400703544</a>. In contrast to other peoples who are masters of their national languages, Hebrew is not the 'common possession' of all Jewish people, and it mainly—if not exclusively—lives and breathes in Israel.... Although there are oases of Hebrew in certain schools, it has not become the Jewish lingua franca and English is rapidly taking its place as the Jewish people's language of communication. Even Hebrew-speaking Israeli representatives tend to use English in their public appearances at international Jewish conventions. Chaya Herman (2006). Prophets and Profits: Managerialism and the Restructuring of Jewish Schools in South Africa. HSRC Press. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780796921147" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780796921147</a>. It is English rather than Hebrew that emerged as the lingua franca of the Jews towards the late 20th century.... This phenomenon occurred despite efforts to make Hebrew a language of communication, and despite the fact that the teaching of Hebrew was considered the raison d'être of the Jewish day schools and the 'nerve center' of Jewish learning. Elana Shohamy (2010). Negotiating Language Policy in Schools: Educators as Policymakers. Routledge. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781135146214" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9781135146214</a>. This priority given to English is related to the special relationship between Israel and the United States, and the current status of English as a lingua franca for Jews worldwide. Elan Ezrachi (2012). Dynamic Belonging: Contemporary Jewish Collective Identities. Bergahn Books. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780857452580" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780857452580</a>. As Stephen P. Cohen observes: 'English is the language of Jewish universal discourse.' "Jewish Languages – How Do We Talk To Each Other?". Jewish Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2014. Retrieved 5 April 2014. Only a minority of the Jewish people today can actually speak Hebrew. In order for a Jew from one country to talk to another who speaks a different language, it is more common to use English than Hebrew. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Beth_Hatefutsoth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beth Hatefutsoth（页面不存在）">Beth Hatefutsoth</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bh.org.il/links.aspx">the original</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090326102214/http://www.bh.org.il/links.aspx">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-36">'<a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985)Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> "Quebec Sephardim Make Breakthroughs – Forward.com". forward.com. Retrieved 12 March 2015. "Quebec, Canada | Jewish Virtual Library". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 12 March 2015. Edna Aizenberg (2012). Contemporary Sephardic Identity in the Americas: An Interdisciplinary Approach. p. xxii. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780815651659" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780815651659</a>. Gerald Tulchinsky (2008). Canada's Jews: A People's Journey. pp. 447–49. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780802093868" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780802093868</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Jessica Piombo (3 August 2009). Institutions, Ethnicity, and Political Mobilization in South Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780230623828" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780230623828</a>. Andrew Noble Koss (dissertation) (2010). "World War I and the Remaking of Jewish Vilna, 1914–1918". Stanford University: 30–31. Paul Wexler (2006). "Chapter 38: Evaluating Soviet Yiddish Language Policy Between 1917–1950". Jewish and Non-Jewish Creators of "Jewish Languages". Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 780. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9783447054041" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9783447054041</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Bukharan_Jews.html">Bukharan Jews | Jewish Virtual Library"</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20170113035036/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Bukharan_Jews.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 12 March 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Anna Verschik (25 May 2007). "Jewish Russian". Jewish Languages Research Website. Ehrlich, Mark Avrum (2009). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1. p. 1007. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781851098736" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9781851098736</a>. Subtelny, O. (2009). Ukraine: A History, 4th Edition. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781442697287" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-4426-9728-7</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2015. Congress, E.P.; Gonzalez, M.J. (2005). Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families. Springer Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780826131461" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8261-3146-1</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2015. Anshel Pfeffer (14 March 2014). "The Jews who said 'no' to Putin". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. "Bukharan Jews | Jewish Virtual Library". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 12 March 2015. Moshe Ma'oz (2011). Muslim Attitudes towards Jews and Israel. pp. 135, 160. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781845195274" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9781845195274</a>. Yaakov Kleiman (2004). DNA & Tradition: The Genetic Link to the Ancient Hebrews. Devora Publishing. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781930143890" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9781930143890</a>. The community is divided between 'native' Georgian Jews and Russian-speaking Ashkenazim who began migrating there at the beginning of the 19th century, and especially during World War II. Joshua A. Fishman (1985). Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages. pp. 165, 169–74. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9004072373" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9004072373</a>. Jews in Tadzhikistan have adopted Tadzhik as their first language. The number of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews in that region is comparatively low (cf. 2,905 in 1979). Both Ashkenazic and Oriental Jews have assimilated to Russian, the number of Jews speaking Russian as their first language amounting to a total of 6,564. It is reasonable to assume that the percentage of assimilated Ashkenazim is much higher than the portion of Oriental Jews. Harald Haarmann (1986). Language in Ethnicity: A View of Basic Ecological Relations. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 70–73, 79–82. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9783110862805" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9783110862805</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Moshe Ma'oz (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q&f=false">Muslim Attitudes towards Jews and Israel</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20170309154635/https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q&f=false">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. pp. 135, 160. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781845195274" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9781845195274</a>.Gafaiti, Hafid (1 July 2009). Transnational Spaces and Identities in the Francophone World. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0803224656" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0803224656</a>. Gottreich, Emily Benichou; Schroeter, Daniel J (1 July 2011). Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa. pp. 258, 270. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0253001463" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0253001463</a>. "Tunisia". jdc.org. Retrieved 12 March 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Schwartz, Richard H. Judaism and Global Survival. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0195100719" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-510071-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Fishman, Sylvia Barack (2000). Jewish Life and American Culture. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 38.<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0791445461" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-7914-4546-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Kimmerling, Baruch (1996). The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0887068499" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-88706-849-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Lowenstein, Steven M. (2000). The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0195134257" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-513425-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml">"BBC Religions/Converting to Judaism: "A person who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in every sense of the word, and is just as Jewish as someone born into Judaism.""</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20161201120016/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. Bbc.co.uk. 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American Jewish Committee. 2006 [2010-08-20]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190505002513/http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142">存档</a>于2019-05-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.btitle=Annual+Assessment+2007&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=American+Jewish+Committee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajcarchives.org%2Fmain.php%3FGroupingId%3D10142&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-JVLPop-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JVLPop_54-0">54.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JVLPop_54-1">54.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/usjewpop.html">Jewish Population of the United States by State</a> (dateformat:mdy). 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Jews worldwide share genetic ties. 2010. doi:10.1038/news.2010.277.Zoossmann-Diskin, Avshalom. The Origin of Eastern European Jews Revealed by Autosomal, Sex Chromosomal and mtDNA Polymorphisms. Biol Direct. 2010, 5 (57): 57. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-5-57. PMC 2964539. PMID 20925954. 内容存档于16 November 2012）. Did Modern Jews Originate in Italy?. Science. 8 October 2013 [21 October 2013]. PubMed </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Jews Are a 'Race,' Genes Reveal –. Forward.com. [12 April 2013]. Genetics & the Jews (it's still complicated) : Gene Expression. Blogs.discovermagazine.com. 10 June 2010 [12 April 2013]. doi:10.1038/nature09103. Begley, Sharon. Genetic study offers clues to history of North Africa's Jews | Reuters. In.reuters.com. [12 April 2013]. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Dever, William (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC">What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210118093308/https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/3927120375" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 3-927120-37-5</a>. <q>After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.</q> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14；Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)；Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Jonathan M Golden,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC&pg=PA3">Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction,</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210118093312/https://books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC&pg=PA3">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）OUP USA, 2009 pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a>  Jared Diamond (1993). "Who are the Jews?" (PDF). Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.；Hammer, MF; Redd, AJ; Wood, ET; et al. (June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/97/12/6769.full">"Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes"</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200401012719/http://www.pnas.org/content/97/12/6769.full">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.97: 6769–74. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a href="//doi.org/10.1073/pnas.100115997" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997">10.1073/pnas.100115997</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18733">18733</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210129000134/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18733">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）.<a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801975">10801975</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200518053140/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10801975">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. Retrieved 11 October 2012.；Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/09/science/y-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html">"Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora"</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200401093728/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/09/science/y-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. The New York Times. Retrieved10 October 2012.Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment:: Moving Beyond the Nature ...By Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social, Behavioral, and Genetic Factors in Health, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Lyla M. Hernandez P:100 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/06/israel-archaeology-findings-ideology-politics-moshe-dayan.html">Israel Archaeology Findings Ideology Politics"</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210118093303/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/06/israel-archaeology-findings-ideology-politics-moshe-dayan.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考文獻">參考文獻</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=27" title="编辑章节：參考文獻">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul><li>《天擇一猶太人的故事》（主編：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%AD%E6%BB%82%E6%B2%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="彭滂沱（页面不存在）">彭滂沱</a>（維基數據所列：<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120581345" class="extiw" title="d:Q120581345">Q120581345</a>），臺灣商務印書館 2013年6月第7次印刷）頁25至頁28，頁156至159</li> <li>《猶太民族不滅之謎》</li> <li>《猶太文明（修訂插圖本）》，（中國：2008，福建教育出版社），潘光、陳超南、余建華等著，<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787533449568" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-7-5334-4956-8</a></li> <li>《世界猶太人歷史：從〈創世記〉到二十一世紀》，（中國：2007，中國人民大學出版社），［以色列］埃利‧巴爾納維主編，<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787300080505" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-7-300-08050-5</a></li> <li>《开封一赐乐业教考》，（中國：2009，安徽大学出版社，《陈垣全集》第二册），<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787811103885" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-7-81110-388-5</a></li> <li>《犹太人的故事》，（中国：2006，山东画报出版社，徐新著），<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787807132899" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-7-80713-289-9</a></li> <li>《犹太文化之旅：走进犹太人的信仰、传统与生活》，（中国：2009，江西人民出版社，［美］）Rabbi Wayne Dosick 著、刘幸枝译），<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787210040019" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9787210040019</a></li> <li>《中国境内犹太人的若干历史问题——开封的中国犹太人》，（中国：1983，北京大学出版社，潘光旦著）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%96%A9%E7%BE%85%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E5%80%AB" title="薩羅·巴倫">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a> (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Carr, David R. Judaism in Christendom. Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (编). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. 2003 [2000]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:网络书源/1-57718-058-5">ISBN 1-57718-058-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Judaism+in+Christendom&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Cowling, Geoffrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontowo2005unse">Introduction to World Religions</a>. Singapore: First Fortress Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-8006-3714-3" title="Special:网络书源/0-8006-3714-3">ISBN 0-8006-3714-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.aulast=Cowling&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+World+Religions&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8006-3714-3&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=First+Fortress+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontowo2005unse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Danzger, M. Herbert. The "Return" to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons. Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (编). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. 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State University of New York Press. 1975. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/087395291X" title="Special:网络书源/087395291X">ISBN 087395291X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=R.+Hrair&rft.aulast=Dekmejian&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Political+Leadership%3A+Egypt%2C+Israel%2C+Lebanon&rft.date=1975&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=087395291X&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_e1h5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">de Lange, Nicholas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju00nich">An Introduction to Judaism</a>. 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New York: HarperCollins. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-06-062179-6" title="Special:网络书源/0-06-062179-6">ISBN 0-06-062179-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft.aulast=Dosick&rft.btitle=Living+Judaism&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-06-062179-6&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Elazar, Daniel J. Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon. Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (编). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. 2003 [2000]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:网络书源/1-57718-058-5">ISBN 1-57718-058-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Judaism+as+a+Theopolitical+Phenomenon&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rft.aulast=Elazar&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Feldman, Louis H. Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/90-04-14906-6" title="Special:网络书源/90-04-14906-6">ISBN 90-04-14906-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Louis+H.&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.btitle=Judaism+and+Hellenism+Reconsidered&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=90-04-14906-6&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pub=Brill&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Gartner, Lloyd P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart">History of the Jews in Modern Times</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-19-289259-2" title="Special:网络书源/0-19-289259-2">ISBN 0-19-289259-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+P.&rft.aulast=Gartner&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jews+in+Modern+Times&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-289259-2&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewsinm00gart&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Goldenberg, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofjud_gold_2007_000_9051243">The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-521-84453-3" title="Special:网络书源/0-521-84453-3">ISBN 0-521-84453-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Judaism%3A+From+Canaan+to+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-84453-3&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofjud_gold_2007_000_9051243&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Goldstein, Joseph. Jewish History in Modern Times. Sussex Academic Press. 1995. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1898723060" title="Special:网络书源/1898723060">ISBN 1898723060</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.btitle=Jewish+History+in+Modern+Times&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1898723060&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Johnson, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjews0000john">A History of the Jews</a>. New York: HarperCollins. 1987. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-06-091533-1" title="Special:网络书源/0-06-091533-1">ISBN 0-06-091533-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews&rft.date=1987&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-06-091533-1&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjews0000john&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Kaplan, Dana Evan. Reform Judaism. Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (编). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. 2003 [2000]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:网络书源/1-57718-058-5">ISBN 1-57718-058-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Reform+Judaism&rft.aufirst=Dana+Evan&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Katz, Shmuel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/battlegroundfact0000katz">Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine</a>. Taylor Productions. 1974. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-929093-13-5" title="Special:网络书源/0-929093-13-5">ISBN 0-929093-13-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.btitle=Battleground%3A+Fact+and+Fantasy+in+Palestine&rft.date=1974&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-929093-13-5&rft.pub=Taylor+Productions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbattlegroundfact0000katz&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>Bernard Lewis (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780691008073" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3</a></li> <li>Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780393318395" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-393-31839-5</a></li> <li><cite class="citation journal">Littman, David. Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia. The Wiener Library Bulletin. 1979, XXXII (New series 49/50).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Jews+Under+Muslim+Rule%3A+The+Case+Of+Persia&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Littman&rft.date=1979&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=New+series+49%2F50&rft.jtitle=The+Wiener+Library+Bulletin&rft.volume=XXXII&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Neusner, Jacob. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studyingclassica0000neus">Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. 1991. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0664251366" title="Special:网络书源/0664251366">ISBN 0664251366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.btitle=Studying+Classical+Judaism%3A+A+Primer&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0664251366&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudyingclassica0000neus&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>Leon Poliakov (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press.</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Sharot, Stephen. Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities. Endelman, Todd M. (编). Comparing Jewish Societies. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press. 1997. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-472-06592-0" title="Special:网络书源/0-472-06592-0">ISBN 0-472-06592-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=Religious+Syncretism+and+Religious+Distinctiveness%3A+A+Comparative+Analysis+of+Pre-Modern+Jewish+Communities&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.aulast=Sharot&rft.btitle=Comparing+Jewish+Societies&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-472-06592-0&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Mich.&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>Norman Stillman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780827601987" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7</a></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Sweeney, Marvin A. The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE. Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (编). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. 2003 [2000]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:网络书源/1-57718-058-5">ISBN 1-57718-058-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&rft.atitle=The+Religious+World+of+Ancient+Israel+to+586+BCE&rft.aufirst=Marvin+A.&rft.aulast=Sweeney&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部链接">外部链接</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&section=28" title="编辑章节：外部链接">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655521">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="font-size:small;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655520">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%AB%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90" title="维基共享资源">维基共享资源</a>上的相关多媒体资源：<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jews" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jews">犹太人</a></div></div> </div> （以下未特别注明者，均为英文网站。） <dl><dt>一般性网站</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org">Jewish Virtual Library（犹太虚拟图书馆）</a>（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110221195128/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190603002018/http://www.jewfaq.org/">Judaism 101（犹太教101）</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/indi.asp">Maps related to Jewish history（犹太历史相关地图集）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090806051805/http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/indi.asp">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li></ul> <dl><dt>社会性组织</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajc.org">American Jewish Committee（美国犹太人委员会）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20201212131056/http://www.ajc.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajcongress.org">American Jewish Congress（美国犹太人议会）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210126053717/http://www.ajcongress.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adl.org">Anti-Defamation League（反诽谤联盟）</a>（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190524042237/http://www.adl.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bnaibrith.org">B'nai B'rith International</a>（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090921055840/http://www.bnaibrith.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hillel.org">Hillel: The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life（犹太校园生活基金会）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210130065913/http://www.hillel.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ujc.org">United Jewish Communities: The Federations of North America（北美犹太社团联合会）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20080611083741/http://www.ujc.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li></ul> <dl><dt>宗教性组织</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r82553231"> <div> <table class="multicol" role="presentation" style="width:100%;"><tbody><tr> <td style="width: 50%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aish.com">Aish HaTorah</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210201144420/http://www.aish.com/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教正統派">正统派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aleph.org">ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20050910065633/http://www.aleph.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%9B%B4%E6%96%B0%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教更新派（页面不存在）">更新派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americansephardifederation.org">American Sephardi Federation</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210129185512/http://www.americansephardifederation.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E6%B3%95%E8%BF%AA%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="塞法迪犹太人">塞法迪派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org">Chabad Lubavitch</a>（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20040526044623/http://www.chabad.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9F%A5%E5%B7%B4%E5%BE%B7%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="查巴德派（页面不存在）">查巴德派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220012139/http://www4.jrf.org/">Jewish Reconstructionist Federation</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E9%87%8D%E5%BB%BA%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教重建派">重建派</a>）</li></ul> </td> <td style="width: 50%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.karaite-korner.org">The Karaite Korner</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090728041356/http://www.karaite-korner.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E6%8B%89%E6%B4%BE" title="卡拉派">卡拉派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ou.org">The Orthodox Union</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210126172731/http://ou.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教正統派">正统派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shj.org">Society for Humanistic Judaism</a>（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110322083828/http://www.shj.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教人文派（页面不存在）">人文派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191107223803/https://urj.org/">Union for Reform Judaism</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教改革派">改革派</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscj.org">The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism</a>（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20021021152938/http://www.uscj.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%BF%9D%E5%AE%88%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教保守派">保守派</a>）</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <dl><dt>犹太复国主义组织</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r82553231"> <div> <table class="multicol" role="presentation" style="width:100%;"><tbody><tr> <td style="width: 50%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ameinu.net">Ameinu</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210126131717/http://www.ameinu.net/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hadassah.org">Hadassah: the Women's Zionist Organization of America（美国妇女锡安主义组织）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210126104309/http://www.hadassah.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100120112846/http://www.jafi.org.il/">The Jewish Agency for Israel（以色列犹太人代理处）</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rza.org/">Religious Zionists of America（美国宗教锡安主义组织）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210118094115/http://www.rza.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li></ul> </td> <td style="width: 50%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mizrachi.org">World Mizrachi Movement（世界米兹拉齐运动组织）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210123103017/http://www.mizrachi.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090307013342/http://www.wzo.org.il/en/default.asp">World Zionist Organization（世界锡安主义组织）</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zoa.org">Zionist Organization of America（美国锡安主义组织）</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210129021407/http://www.zoa.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style 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title="Template:犹太人和犹太教"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%92%8C%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="Template talk:猶太人和猶太教"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%92%8C%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:犹太人和犹太教"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="犹太人和犹太教" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">犹太人</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">犹太教</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">民系</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E6%B3%95%E8%BF%AA%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="塞法迪犹太人">塞法迪犹太人</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%AA%E6%8B%89%E8%AB%BE" title="瑪拉諾">瑪拉諾</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BB%80%E8%82%AF%E7%B4%8D%E8%8C%B2%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="阿什肯納茲猶太人">阿什肯納茲猶太人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%85%B9%E6%8B%89%E5%B8%8C%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="米兹拉希犹太人">米兹拉希犹太人</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%A0%BC%E8%BE%BE%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="巴格达犹太人">巴格达</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="布哈拉猶太人">布哈拉</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="高加索犹太人">高加索犹太人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9F%8F%E7%88%BE%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="柏柏爾猶太人">柏柏爾猶太人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E6%A0%BC%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%83%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="馬格里布猶太人">馬格拉布猶太人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%88%BE%E5%8F%8A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E7%9A%84%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="阿爾及利亞的猶太人">阿爾及利亞的猶太人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E9%A6%AC%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E4%BA%BA" title="撒馬利亞人">撒馬利亞人</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地族群</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89%E9%96%80%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="葉門猶太人">葉門</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%81%96%E9%A6%AC%E5%8A%9B%E8%AB%BE%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="聖馬力諾猶太人">聖馬利諾</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B0%BC%E5%A5%A7%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="羅馬尼奧猶太人">東地中海</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="中國猶太人">中国大陆</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%81%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="开封犹太人">開封</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%B4%A5%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E7%A7%BB%E6%B0%91" title="天津犹太移民">天津</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="香港猶太人">香港</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E7%88%BE%E6%BF%B1%E5%83%91%E6%B0%91#猶太僑民" title="哈爾濱僑民">哈爾濱</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A8%E8%87%BA%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="在臺猶太人">臺灣</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%89%99%E8%B2%B7%E5%8A%A0%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="牙買加猶太人">牙買加</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A7%86%E6%9F%A5%E5%85%8B%E4%BA%BA" title="克里姆查克人">克里米亞</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E4%B9%8B%E5%AD%90" title="以色列之子">印度</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%AF%E6%9E%9D%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="柯枝猶太人">印度喀拉拉邦</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B7%B4%E5%B0%A4%E9%81%94%E4%BA%9E" title="阿巴尤達亞">烏干達</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E5%A1%94%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="贝塔以色列">衣索比亞</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="日本猶太人">日本</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%AC%E7%94%B8%E7%9A%84%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="緬甸的猶太人">緬甸</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB%E5%B7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="猶太自治州">俄羅斯</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="14" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Menorah_blue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Menorah_blue.svg/80px-Menorah_blue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Menorah_blue.svg/120px-Menorah_blue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Menorah_blue.svg/160px-Menorah_blue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="393" data-file-height="356" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="猶太語言">语言</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="希伯来语">希伯来语</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA-%E6%91%A9%E6%B4%9B%E5%93%A5%E8%AA%9E" title="猶太-摩洛哥語">猶太-摩洛哥語</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA-%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="猶太-阿拉伯語">猶太-阿拉伯語</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="犹太西班牙语">拉迪諾語</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E7%89%99%E8%AA%9E" title="猶太葡萄牙語">猶太-葡萄牙語</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%B7%92%E8%AA%9E" title="意第緒語">意第緒語</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA-%E7%BD%97%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="犹太-罗曼语支">犹太-罗曼语支</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E8%AA%9E%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" title="希伯來語復興">希伯來語復興</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教">宗教运动</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教正統派">正统派</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E9%81%94%E7%88%BE" title="哈達爾">哈达尔</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardal" class="extiw" title="en:Hardal">Hardal</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E9%9B%B7%E8%BF%AA%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="哈雷迪猶太教">哈雷迪</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E8%A5%BF%E8%BF%AA%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="哈西迪猶太教">哈西迪</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%E6%B4%BE%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="现代正统派犹太教（页面不存在）">现代正统派</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%85%95%E6%B2%99%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="慕沙运动（页面不存在）">慕沙运动</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musar_Movement" class="extiw" title="en:Musar Movement">Musar Movement</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%BF%9D%E5%AE%88%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教保守派">保守派</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%BF%9D%E5%AE%88%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教保守正统派（页面不存在）">保守正统派</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E9%87%8D%E5%BB%BA%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教重建派">重建派</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="猶太教復興派（页面不存在）">復興運動</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" class="extiw" title="en:Jewish Renewal">Jewish_Renewal</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E6%B4%BE" title="猶太教改革派">改革派</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E6%AF%94%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="拉比猶太教">拉比派</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%8D%A1%E6%8B%89%E6%B4%BE" title="犹太教卡拉派">卡拉派</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%8A%E5%A7%86%E4%BA%BA" title="卡拉伊姆人">卡拉伊姆人</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E9%A9%AC%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E6%95%99" title="撒马利亚教">撒马利亚派</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%AE%97%E6%B4%BE%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教宗派分立（页面不存在）">宗派分立</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_schisms" class="extiw" title="en:Jewish schisms">Jewish schisms</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教人文派（页面不存在）">人文派</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" class="extiw" title="en:Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a>） · <a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E7%84%A1%E7%A5%9E%E8%AB%96%E8%80%85" title="Category:猶太無神論者">无神论</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="猶太教哲學">哲学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太基本信仰（页面不存在）">基本信仰</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%80%89%E6%B0%91_(%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99)" class="mw-redirect" title="选民 (宗教)">选民观念</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%9C%AB%E4%B8%96%E8%AE%BA" title="犹太教末世论">末世论</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太伦理（页面不存在）">伦理</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1" title="哈拉卡">哈拉卡</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%E7%B2%B9%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="納粹大屠殺">大屠杀理论</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B7%B4%E6%8B%89" title="卡巴拉">卡巴拉</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E5%90%88%E6%95%99%E8%A6%8F%E7%9A%84%E9%A3%9F%E7%89%A9_(%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99)" title="符合教規的食物 (猶太教)">洁食</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%8C%E8%B3%BD%E4%BA%9E" title="彌賽亞">彌賽亞</a> · <a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%B8%AD%E7%A5%9E%E7%9A%84%E5%90%8D%E5%AD%97" title="Category:犹太教中神的名字">神的名字</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%AA%E4%BA%9E%E4%B8%83%E5%BE%8B" title="挪亞七律">挪亞七律</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%85%88%E5%96%84%E8%A7%82&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太慈善观（页面不存在）">慈善观</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzedakah" class="extiw" title="en:Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E7%9D%80%E8%A3%85%E6%9D%A1%E4%BE%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太着装条例（页面不存在）">着装条例</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzniut" class="extiw" title="en:Tzniut">Tzniut</a>）</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="猶太文學">文學</a>·宗教文献</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E7%B4%8D%E8%B5%AB" title="塔納赫">塔納赫</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%A6%A5%E6%8B%89" title="妥拉">妥拉</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%94%E7%BB%8F" title="摩西五经">摩西五经</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%85%88%E7%9F%A5%E4%B9%A6" title="先知书">先知书</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%BA%E6%85%A7%E4%B9%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="智慧书（页面不存在）">智慧书</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" title="塔木德">塔木德</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%9B%B8%E6%8B%BF" title="米書拿">米書拿</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%A9%E9%A6%AC%E6%8B%89" title="革馬拉">革馬拉</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E4%BB%80" title="米德拉什">米德拉什</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E9%99%80%E7%91%9F%E4%BB%96" title="陀瑟他">陀瑟他</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E6%AF%94%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="拉比文学（页面不存在）">拉比文学</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%86%E8%A5%BF%E6%8B%BF%E6%89%98%E6%8B%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="密西拿托拉（页面不存在）">密西拿托拉</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E6%B3%95%E5%85%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="四部法典（页面不存在）">四部法典</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" class="extiw" title="en:Arba'ah Turim">Arba'ah Turim</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" title="塔木德">犹太法典</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B8%85%E6%99%B0%E6%95%99%E5%B0%8E%E9%9B%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="清晰教導集（页面不存在）">清晰教導集</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishnah_Berurah" class="extiw" title="en:Mishnah Berurah">Mishnah Berurah</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E6%98%8E%E7%AF%87" title="光明篇">光明篇</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E5%8A%A0%E8%BE%BE" title="哈加达">哈加达</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E8%AF%97%E6%AD%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太诗歌（页面不存在）">诗歌</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piyyut" class="extiw" title="en:Piyyut">Piyyut</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E7%A5%88%E7%A5%B7%E4%B9%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教祈祷书（页面不存在）">祈祷书</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddur" class="extiw" title="en:Siddur">Siddur</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="希伯來文學">希伯來文學</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">圣经人物</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95" title="亞伯拉罕">亞伯拉罕</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%92%92" title="以撒">以撒</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%90%84_(%E8%88%8A%E7%B4%84%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93)" title="雅各 (舊約聖經)">雅各</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E6%8B%89" title="撒拉">撒拉</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E7%99%BE%E5%8A%A0" title="利百加">利百加</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E7%BB%93" title="拉结">拉结</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" title="利亞">利亞</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E8%A5%BF" title="摩西">摩西</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%95%E6%B3%A2%E6%8B%89" title="底波拉">底波拉</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%98" title="路得記">路得</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A1%9B%E7%8E%8B" title="大衛王">大衛王</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%89%80%E7%BE%85%E9%96%80" title="所羅門">所羅門</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" title="以利亞">以利亞</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E9%A2%86%E8%A2%96" title="Category:犹太教宗教领袖">犹太教领袖</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E5%8B%92%E5%B0%94%E9%95%BF%E8%80%81" title="希勒尔长老">老希列</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%85%9E%E8%B2%B7" title="煞買">煞買</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%93%88-%E7%BA%B3%E8%A5%BF" title="犹大·哈-纳西">犹大·哈-纳西</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E9%98%BF%E8%BF%AA%E4%BA%9A%C2%B7%E6%9E%9C%E6%98%82" title="萨阿迪亚·果昂">萨蒂亚·高安</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9D%B0%E9%A1%BA%C2%B7%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="杰顺·本·犹大（页面不存在）">杰顺·本·犹大</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gershom_ben_Judah" class="extiw" title="en:Gershom ben Judah">Gershom_ben_Judah</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%A5%E6%92%92%C2%B7%E5%A5%A5%E6%B3%95%E8%A5%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="以撒·奥法西（页面不存在）">以撒·奥法西</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Alfasi" class="extiw" title="en:Isaac Alfasi">Isaac_Alfasi</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%BB%80" title="拉什">拉什</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%93%88%E5%88%97%E7%BB%B4" title="犹大·哈列维">犹大·哈列维</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E5%9F%83%E8%8C%B2%E6%8B%89" title="阿伯拉罕·伊本·埃茲拉">亚伯拉罕·伊本·以斯拉</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%96%A9%E8%8F%B2%E6%96%AF%E8%8C%A8%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="薩菲斯茨列表（页面不存在）">中世纪犹太教士</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tosafists" class="extiw" title="en:List of Tosafists">List_of_Tosafists</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E9%82%81%E8%92%99%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="邁蒙尼德">邁蒙尼德</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%E8%B3%80%E8%92%99%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="納賀蒙尼德">纳曼尼德</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E8%88%8D%C2%B7%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E6%9D%B0%E5%B8%8C%E5%8B%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿舍·本·杰希勒（页面不存在）">阿舍·本·杰希勒</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asher_ben_Jehiel" class="extiw" title="en:Asher ben Jehiel">Asher_ben_Jehiel</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E6%9D%BE%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7" title="吉尔松尼德">盖森尼德</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="约瑟夫·埃尔伯（页面不存在）">约瑟夫·埃尔伯</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Albo" class="extiw" title="en:Joseph Albo">Joseph_Albo</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B7%B4%E4%BC%AF%E5%85%A7%E7%88%BE" title="阿巴伯內爾">以撒·亚伯拉班内尔</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%A5%E6%92%92%E2%80%A2%E5%8D%A2%E9%87%8C%E4%BA%9A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="以撒•卢里亚（页面不存在）">以撒•卢里亚</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Luria" class="extiw" title="en:Isaac Luria">Isaac_Luria</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%B0%A2%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E6%89%98%E5%A4%AB" title="巴尔·谢姆·托夫">巴尔·闪·托夫</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%E9%98%81%E4%B8%8B" title="维尔纳阁下">维尔纳·高安</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E8%A5%BF%C2%B7%E9%97%A8%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%94%E6%9D%BE" title="摩西·门德尔松">摩西·门德尔松</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%A9%E5%A5%A5%E6%B3%A2%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%81%AA%E8%8C%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="利奥波德·聪茨（页面不存在）">利奥波德·聪茨</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Zunz" class="extiw" title="en:Leopold Zunz">Leopold_Zunz</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A1%91%E6%9D%BE%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E6%96%90%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%B8%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="桑松·拉斐尔·赫希（页面不存在）">桑松·拉斐尔·赫希</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" class="extiw" title="en:Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson_Raphael_Hirsch</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%9A%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95%C2%B7%E7%9B%96%E9%9D%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="亚伯拉罕·盖革（页面不存在）">亚伯拉罕·盖革</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Geiger" class="extiw" title="en:Abraham Geiger">Abraham_Geiger</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%89%80%E7%BD%97%E9%97%A8%C2%B7%E8%B0%A2%E5%85%8B%E7%89%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="所罗门·谢克特（页面不存在）">所罗门·谢克特</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Schechter" class="extiw" title="en:Solomon Schechter">Solomon_Schechter</a>）</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%96%E4%BF%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太世俗文化（页面不存在）">世俗文化</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E4%BF%97%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世俗猶太人（页面不存在）">世俗</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiloni" class="extiw" title="en:Hiloni">Hiloni</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%81%E6%98%AF%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%9F" title="谁是犹太人？">谁是犹太人?</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%88%E7%A5%B7%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%95%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="祈祷最低人数（页面不存在）">祈祷最低人数</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyan" class="extiw" title="en:Minyan">Minyan</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E6%88%90%E4%BA%BA%E7%A6%AE" title="猶太教成人禮">成人礼</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%B8%A7%E7%A4%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教丧礼（页面不存在）">丧礼</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%89%B2%E7%A6%AE" title="割禮">割禮</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E8%AF%8D%E6%BA%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太人词源（页面不存在）">犹太人词源</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A9%9A%E5%A7%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太人婚姻（页面不存在）">婚姻</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A9%9A%E7%A4%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太人婚礼（页面不存在）">婚礼</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%B4%81%E5%87%80%E8%A7%82%E5%BF%B5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太洁净观念（页面不存在）">犹太洁净观念</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%95%BF%E5%AD%90%E8%B5%8E%E9%93%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="长子赎银（页面不存在）">长子赎银</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E9%A3%B2%E9%A3%9F" title="猶太人飲食">犹太人饮食</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%AA%92%E5%A6%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太媒妁（页面不存在）">犹太媒妁</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shidduch" class="extiw" title="en:Shidduch">Shidduch</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%A5%B3%E5%A9%B4%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E4%BB%AA%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太女婴命名仪式（页面不存在）">犹太女婴命名仪式</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeved_habat" class="extiw" title="en:Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%88%E4%BE%9D%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="皈依猶太教">皈依犹太教</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%A4%B4%E8%A1%94" title="Category:犹太教头衔">神职</a>·圣迹</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%A7%E5%9C%A3%E5%9F%8E" title="犹太教四大圣城">四大圣城</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7" title="耶路撒冷">耶路撒冷</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%87%87%E6%B3%95%E7%89%B9" title="采法特">采法特</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BC%A6" title="希伯伦">希伯仑</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%90%E6%AF%94%E9%87%8C%E4%BA%9E" title="提比里亞">提比里亞</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E6%B3%95%E5%BA%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太宗教法庭（页面不存在）">法庭</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth_din" class="extiw" title="en:Beth din">Beth din</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%9A%E5%A0%82%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="会堂管理人（页面不存在）">会堂管理人</a>（英语：<a 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title="犹太披巾（页面不存在）">披巾</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E7%BB%8F%E6%96%87%E5%8C%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太经文匣（页面不存在）">经文匣</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%B8%E5%AD%90" title="繸子">流苏</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E7%B6%93%E6%A8%99" title="指經標">读经之手</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%B8%95_(%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99)" title="基帕 (猶太教)">基巴</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"> 与其他宗教的关系</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E5%AF%B9%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%A4%9A%E5%85%83%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E8%A7%82%E7%82%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教对宗教多元化的观点（页面不存在）">犹太教对宗教多元化的观点</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99" class="mw-redirect" title="亚伯拉罕宗教">亚伯拉罕宗教</a> · <a 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title="伊斯兰教与犹太教（页面不存在）">伊斯兰教</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99%E5%BE%92" title="犹太佛教徒">犹太佛教徒</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%95%B0%E6%95%99%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="新異教主義">新异教主义</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E8%A3%94%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非洲裔希伯来以色列人（页面不存在）">非洲裔希伯来以色列人</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%A1%E5%B7%B4%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="卡巴拉中心（页面不存在）">卡巴拉中心</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9B%BF%E4%BB%A3%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="替代犹太教（页面不存在）">其他</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="犹太人历史">历史</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2#古代" title="以色列历史">古代</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7%E8%81%96%E6%AE%BF" title="耶路撒冷聖殿">耶路撒冷聖殿</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6%E5%9B%9A%E8%99%8F" title="巴比伦囚虏">巴比伦囚徒</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7" title="耶路撒冷">耶路撒冷</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太教中的耶路撒冷（页面不存在）">意义</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%B6%E8%B7%AF%E6%92%92%E5%86%B7%E5%A4%A7%E4%BA%8B%E8%AE%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="耶路撒冷大事记（页面不存在）">大事记</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%96%AF%E8%92%99%E5%B0%BC%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="哈斯蒙尼王朝">哈斯蒙尼</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%8C%E5%BE%8B%E7%8E%8B" title="大希律王">希律王</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E5%85%AC%E6%9C%83" title="猶太公會">猶太公會</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%88%A9%E8%B5%9B%E4%BA%BA" title="法利赛人">法利赛人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%92%92%E9%83%BD%E8%AF%A5%E4%BA%BA" title="撒都该人">撒都该人</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%B3%BD%E5%B0%BC%E6%B4%BE" title="艾賽尼派">艾賽尼派</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%AE%E9%8A%B3%E9%BB%A8" title="奮銳黨">奮銳黨</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E2%80%93%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="第一次猶太–羅馬戰爭">第一次犹太罗马战争</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E7%88%BE%E7%A7%91%E8%B5%AB%E5%B7%B4%E8%B5%B7%E7%BE%A9" title="巴爾科赫巴起義">科赫巴大起义</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E6%B5%81%E6%95%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="犹太人大流散">流散</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%BD%E6%96%AF" title="维尔纽斯">维尔纽斯</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中世纪犹太人（页面不存在）">中世纪</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%90%A8%E4%BA%BA" title="可萨人">可萨人</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E7%9A%84%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="穆斯林世界的犹太人历史（页面不存在）">穆斯林统治</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B5%9B%E5%B7%B4%E8%92%82%E6%95%99%E5%BE%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="赛巴蒂教徒（页面不存在）">赛巴蒂教徒</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%96%AF%E5%8D%A1%E6%8B%89%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="哈斯卡拉运动">哈斯卡拉運動</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="犹太解放运动">解放</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%E7%B2%B9%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="納粹大屠殺">大屠杀</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="阿利亞運動">阿利亚</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%A4%8D%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太复国主义历史（页面不存在）">犹太复国主义历史</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="以色列历史">以色列历史</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BB%A5%E5%86%B2%E7%AA%81" title="阿以冲突">阿以冲突</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E5%B7%B4%E5%86%B2%E7%AA%81" title="以巴冲突">以巴冲突</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E5%9C%B0" title="以色列地">以色列地</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%82%94%E6%94%B9%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="悔改運動（页面不存在）">巴尔特舒华运动</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="extiw" title="en:Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva movement</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E5%90%84%E5%9B%BD%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="各国犹太教">各国犹太教</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" title="以色列政治">政治</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E9%8C%AB%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="錫安主義">錫安主義</a> · （<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%80%E8%88%AC%E9%94%A1%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E8%80%85&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="一般锡安主义者（页面不存在）">一般</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%9E%E5%B7%A5%E9%8C%AB%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="勞工錫安主義">勞工</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E9%8C%AB%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="宗教錫安主義">宗教</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3%E6%B4%BE%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%A4%8D%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="修正派犹太复国主义">修正</a>） · <a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%A6%E5%8D%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="迦南主義">迦南主義</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太政治运动（页面不存在）">政治运动</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%B7%A6%E7%BF%BC" title="犹太左翼">左派</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%8F%B3%E7%BF%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太右翼（页面不存在）">右派</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%97%A0%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太无政府主义（页面不存在）">犹太无政府主义</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%8F%A4%E8%BE%BE%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿古达运动（页面不存在）">阿古达运动</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" class="extiw" title="en:World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a>） · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E5%A5%B3%E6%9D%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="犹太女权主义（页面不存在）">女权主义</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="反犹太主义">反犹太主义</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding：0.25em 0;line-height：1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="反犹主义历史（页面不存在）">历史</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%B9%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E8%BF%AB%E5%AE%B3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="对犹太人的迫害（页面不存在）">迫害</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="新反犹主义（页面不存在）">新反犹主义</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%8D%E6%97%8F%E6%AD%A7%E8%A7%86%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="种族歧视反犹太主义（页面不存在）">种族性</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E5%8F%8D%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="宗教反犹太主义（页面不存在）">宗教性</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E9%8C%AB%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="反錫安主義">反锡安主义</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%81%9A%E9%9B%86%E5%8D%80" class="mw-redirect" title="聚集區">隔都</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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/></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">国际</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/983135/">FAST</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526628">西班牙</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932167h">法国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932167h">BnF data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4028808-0">德国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533616205171">以色列</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85070361">美国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054696&P_CON_LNG=ENG">拉脱维亚</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574413">日本</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127782&CON_LNG=ENG">捷克</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=17343">现代乌克兰百科全书</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10638706">NARA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/04072851X">IdRef</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/yahudi">伊斯兰百科全书</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">检索自“<a dir="ltr" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=犹太人&oldid=85147655">https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=犹太人&oldid=85147655</a>”</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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