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id="toc-Responsibilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responsibilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Responsibilities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Responsibilities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Responsibilities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Responsibilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oral_Arguments_in_a_Courtroom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_Arguments_in_a_Courtroom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Oral Arguments in a Courtroom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_Arguments_in_a_Courtroom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_drafting_of_court_papers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_drafting_of_court_papers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Research and drafting of court papers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_and_drafting_of_court_papers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advocacy_in_administrative_hearings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advocacy_in_administrative_hearings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Advocacy in administrative hearings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advocacy_in_administrative_hearings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Client_intake_and_counseling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Client_intake_and_counseling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Client intake and counseling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Client_intake_and_counseling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_advice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_advice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Legal advice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_advice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protecting_intellectual_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protecting_intellectual_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Protecting intellectual property </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protecting_intellectual_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negotiating_and_drafting_contracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negotiating_and_drafting_contracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Negotiating and drafting contracts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negotiating_and_drafting_contracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conveyancing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conveyancing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Conveyancing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conveyancing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carrying_out_the_intent_of_the_deceased" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carrying_out_the_intent_of_the_deceased"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Carrying out the intent of the deceased </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carrying_out_the_intent_of_the_deceased-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosecution_and_defense_of_criminal_suspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosecution_and_defense_of_criminal_suspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Prosecution and defense of criminal suspects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosecution_and_defense_of_criminal_suspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Education and training </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Education_and_training-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Education and training subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Education_and_training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earning_the_right_to_practice_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earning_the_right_to_practice_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Earning the right to practice law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earning_the_right_to_practice_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Career_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Career_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Career structure </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Career_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Career structure subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Career_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common_and_civil_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_and_civil_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Common and civil law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_and_civil_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Specialization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_associations_and_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_associations_and_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Professional associations and regulation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Professional_associations_and_regulation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Professional associations and regulation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Professional_associations_and_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mandatory_licensing_and_membership_in_professional_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandatory_licensing_and_membership_in_professional_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mandatory licensing and membership in professional organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandatory_licensing_and_membership_in_professional_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_lawyers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_lawyers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Regulation of lawyers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_lawyers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voluntary_associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voluntary_associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Voluntary associations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voluntary_associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Cultural perception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Compensation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Ancient Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Ancient Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Lawyer</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 118 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-118" aria-hidden="true" > 118 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsanwalt" title="Rechtsanwalt – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Rechtsanwalt" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85" title="محام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogau" title="Avogau – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Avogau" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Փաստաբան – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փաստաբան" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abog%C3%A1u" title="Abogáu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Abogáu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDng%C3%A1ra" title="Ñe'ẽngára – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ẽngára" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arxatiri" title="Arxatiri – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Arxatiri" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C9%99kil" title="Vəkil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vəkil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84" title="وکیل – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="وکیل" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80" title="আইনজীবী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইনজীবী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвакат – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Адвакат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвакат – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Адвакат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abogado" title="Abogado – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Abogado" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsanwoit" title="Rechtsanwoit – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Rechtsanwoit" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%81%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%A9%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="ཁྲིམས་རྩོད་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཁྲིམས་རྩོད་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokat" title="Advokat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Advokat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvokad" title="Alvokad – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Alvokad" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advocat" title="Advocat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Advocat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Ваккат – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ваккат" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advok%C3%A1t" title="Advokát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Advokát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gweta" title="Gweta – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Gweta" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfreithiwr" title="Cyfreithiwr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfreithiwr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsanwalt" title="Rechtsanwalt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rechtsanwalt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokaat" title="Advokaat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Advokaat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B7%CE%B3%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Δικηγόρος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δικηγόρος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abogado" title="Abogado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Abogado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokato" title="Advokato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Advokato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abokatu" title="Abokatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Abokatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84" title="وکیل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="وکیل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocat_(m%C3%A9tier)" title="Avocat (métier) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Avocat (métier)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbekaat" title="Abbekaat – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Abbekaat" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neach-lagha" title="Neach-lagha – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Neach-lagha" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogado,_avogada" title="Avogado, avogada – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Avogado, avogada" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%CC%8Dt-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%82" title="Li̍t-sṳ̂ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Li̍t-sṳ̂" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%80%ED%98%B8%EC%82%AC" title="변호사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="변호사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauya" title="Lauya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Lauya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Փաստաբան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փաստաբան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odvjetnik" title="Odvjetnik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Odvjetnik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokato" title="Advokato – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Advokato" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengacara" title="Pengacara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengacara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitquraliqiri" title="Pitquraliqiri – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Pitquraliqiri" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6gma%C3%B0ur" title="Lögmaður – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lögmaður" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avvocato" title="Avvocato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Avvocato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9A_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9F" title="עורך דין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עורך דין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%94m_y%C9%94%C9%94_kand%C9%A9y%CA%8A_(Avocat_-_m%C3%A9tier)" title="Tɔm yɔɔ kandɩyʊ (Avocat - métier) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɔm yɔɔ kandɩyʊ (Avocat - métier)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B2" title="ವಕೀಲ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಕೀಲ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ადვოკატი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ადვოკატი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A4%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%96%D9%84" title="ؤکیٖل – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ؤکیٖل" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwanasheria" title="Mwanasheria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mwanasheria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%AAzer" title="Parêzer – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Parêzer" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%83" title="Жактоочу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жактоочу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iuris_consultus" title="Iuris consultus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iuris consultus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advok%C4%81ts" title="Advokāts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Advokāts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affekot" title="Affekot – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Affekot" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokatas" title="Advokatas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Advokatas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocatt" title="Avocatt – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Avocatt" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jog%C3%A1sz" title="Jogász – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jogász" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avukat" title="Avukat – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Avukat" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2" title="वकील – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वकील" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89" title="محامى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="محامى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peguam" title="Peguam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peguam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abogado" title="Abogado – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Abogado" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BC%D0%B3%D3%A9%D3%A9%D0%BB%D3%A9%D0%B3%D1%87" title="Өмгөөлөгч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Өмгөөлөгч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advocaat_(beroep)" title="Advocaat (beroep) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Advocaat (beroep)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avvekaot_(beroep)" title="Avvekaot (beroep) – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Avvekaot (beroep)" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="अधिवक्ता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अधिवक्ता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%81%E8%AD%B7%E5%A3%AB" title="弁護士 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="弁護士" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakf%C3%B8rer" title="Sakfører – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sakfører" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocat_(mesti%C3%A8r)" title="Avocat (mestièr) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Avocat (mestièr)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokat" title="Advokat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Advokat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afkaat" title="Afkaat – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Afkaat" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adwokat" title="Adwokat – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Adwokat" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advogado" title="Advogado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Advogado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocat" title="Avocat – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Avocat" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remaskro" title="Remaskro – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Remaskro" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taripay_amachaq" title="Taripay amachaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Taripay amachaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9E" title="ᱩᱠᱤᱞ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱩᱠᱤᱞ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawer" title="Lawer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Lawer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avokati" title="Avokati – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Avokati" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A5%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F" title="නීතිඥයා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නීතිඥයා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Lawyer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advok%C3%A1t" title="Advokát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Advokát" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odvetnik" title="Odvetnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Odvetnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8E%D8%B2%DB%95%D8%B1" title="پارێزەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پارێزەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afk%C3%A1ti" title="Afkáti – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Afkáti" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advokat" title="Advokat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Advokat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengacara" title="Pengacara – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pengacara" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juristi" title="Juristi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juristi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abogado" title="Abogado – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Abogado" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9E%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="வழக்கறிஞர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வழக்கறிஞர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BF" title="న్యాయవాది – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="న్యాయవాది" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2" title="นักกฎหมาย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นักกฎหมาย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Адвокат – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Адвокат" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avukat" title="Avukat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Avukat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%CC%B1uya" title="La̱uya – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="La̱uya" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lawyer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lawyer (disambiguation)">Lawyer (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Legal counsel" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Counsellor_at_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Counsellor at law">Counsellor at law</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Lawyer</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Helena_Normanton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Helena_Normanton.jpg/220px-Helena_Normanton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Helena_Normanton.jpg/330px-Helena_Normanton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Helena_Normanton.jpg/440px-Helena_Normanton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="560" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Helena_Normanton" title="Helena Normanton">Helena Normanton</a> in English <a href="/wiki/Court_dress" title="Court dress">court dress</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1950<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advocate" title="Advocate">advocate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">barrister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">counsel</a>, counsellor, <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_executive" title="Legal executive">legal executive</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Competencies</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_skill" title="Analytical skill">Analytical skills</a> <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_research" title="Legal research">Legal research</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_writing" title="Legal writing">Legal writing</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_practice_law" title="Admission to practice law">Professional requirements</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Courts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_firms" class="mw-redirect" title="Law firms">law firms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGOs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_aid" title="Legal aid">legal aid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporations" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporations">corporations</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Related jobs</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legislator" title="Legislator">legislator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">judge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advocate" title="Advocate">advocate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">attorney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_executive" title="Legal executive">legal executive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">law clerk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_professor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law professor">law professor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_notary" title="Civil law notary">civil law notary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politician</a></td></tr></tbody></table> A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">legal jurisdiction</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal system</a>, as well as the lawyer's area of practice. In many jurisdictions, the legal profession is divided into various branches — including <a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">barristers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conveyancer" title="Conveyancer">conveyancers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_notary" title="Civil law notary">notaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Canonist">canon lawyer</a> — who perform different tasks related to the law.<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a> Historically, the role of lawyers can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as Greece and Rome. In modern times, the practice of law includes activities such as representing clients in criminal or civil court, advising on business transactions, protecting intellectual property, and ensuring compliance with laws and regulations. Depending on the country, the education required to become a lawyer can range from completing an undergraduate law degree to undergoing postgraduate education and professional training. In many jurisdictions, passing a <a href="/wiki/Bar_examination" title="Bar examination">bar examination</a> is also necessary before one can practice law. Working as a lawyer generally involves the practical application of abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific problems. Some lawyers also work primarily in upholding the rule of law, human rights, and the interests of the legal profession.<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> Some jurisdictions have multiple types of lawyers, while others only have one or two. England, the mother of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> with a complexity in its legal professions similar to that of civil law jurisdictions, but then evolved by the 19th century to a single division between <a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">barristers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitors</a>. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since <a href="/wiki/Fused_profession" title="Fused profession">fused</a> or united their professions into a single type of lawyer.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, a civil law country, merged its jurists in 1990 and 1991 in response to Anglo-American competition.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> In countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. In some jurisdictions descended from the English common law tradition, including England and Wales, there are often two kinds of lawyers. A barrister (also known as an advocate or counselor) is a lawyer who typically specializes in arguing before courts, particularly in higher courts. A solicitor (or attorney) is a lawyer who prepares cases and gives advice on legal subjects. In some jurisdictions, solicitors also represent people in court. Fused professions, where lawyers have rights of both barristers and solicitors, have emerged in other former English common law jurisdictions, such as the United States, India, and Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-:1-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[10]</a> On the other hand, civil law jurisdictions do not have "lawyers" in terms of a single general-purpose legal services provider.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> Rather, their legal professions consist of a large number of different kinds of legally-trained persons, known as <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurists</a>, some of whom are <a href="/wiki/Advocate" title="Advocate">advocates</a> who are licensed to practice in the courts.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> In some civil law countries, a similar distinction to the common law tradition exists between advocates and <a href="/wiki/Legal_procurator" title="Legal procurator">procurators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Because each country has traditionally had its own method of dividing up legal work among its legal professionals, it has been difficult to formulate accurate generalizations that cover all the countries with multiple legal professions.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Other kinds of legal practitioners include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent_attorney" title="Patent attorney">Patent attorneys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_attorney" title="Trademark attorney">Trademark attorneys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conveyancer" title="Conveyancer">Conveyancers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notary" title="Notary">Notaries</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-21">[20]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrivener" title="Scrivener">Scriveners</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-21">[20]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_executive" title="Legal executive">Legal executives</a></li></ul> While some jurisdictions regulate the use of the title "lawyer", others do not.<a href="#cite_note-:1-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Titles">Titles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Titles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg/220px-Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg/330px-Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg/440px-Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1626" /></a><figcaption>Example of a diploma from <a href="/wiki/Suffolk_University_Law_School" title="Suffolk University Law School">Suffolk University Law School</a> conferring the Juris Doctor degree</figcaption></figure> Historically, lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor. The first <a href="/wiki/University_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="University degree">university degrees</a>, starting with the law school of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> in the 11th century, were all law degrees and doctorates.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> Therefore, in many southern European countries, including Portugal, Italy and Malta, lawyers have traditionally been addressed as "doctor", a practice which was transferred to many countries in South America and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. In some jurisdictions, the term "doctor" has since fallen into disuse, but it is still in use in many countries within and outside of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> The title of doctor has traditionally not been used to address lawyers in England or other common law countries. Until 1846, lawyers in England were trained by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court, with no undergraduate degree being required.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> Although the most common law degree in the United States is the <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> most J.D. holders in the United States do not use the title "doctor".<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> It is, however, common for lawyers in the United States to use the honorific suffix "Esq." (for "<a href="/wiki/Esquire" title="Esquire">Esquire</a>"). In <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (<a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/French-speaking_area_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="French-speaking area of Switzerland">French-speaking area of Switzerland</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>-speaking countries (<a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>), legal professionals are addressed as Maître ..., abbreviated to Me ... (in French) or Meester ..., abbreviated to mr. ... (in Dutch). In <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, the title Mecenas is used to refer to advocates and attorneys at law,<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> although as an informal title its status is not protected by law.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> In South Africa and India, lawyers who have been admitted to the bar may use the title "Advocate", abbreviated to "Adv" in written correspondence. Lawyers who have completed two years of clerkship with a principal Attorney and passed all four board exams may be admitted as an "Attorney". Likewise, Italian law graduates who have qualified for the bar use the title "Avvocato", abbreviated in "Avv." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responsibilities">Responsibilities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Responsibilities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oral_Arguments_in_a_Courtroom">Oral Arguments in a Courtroom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Oral Arguments in a Courtroom">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg/250px-New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg/375px-New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg/500px-New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3778" data-file-height="2527" /></a><figcaption>Oral arguments being made before the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals" title="New York Court of Appeals">New York Court of Appeals</a></figcaption></figure> Some lawyers, particularly barristers and advocates, argue the legal cases of clients case before a <a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">judge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a> in a court of law.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> In some jurisdictions, there are specialist lawyers who have exclusive rights of audience before a court.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> In others, particularly fused legal jurisdictions, there are lawyers who specialize in courtroom advocacy but who do not have a <a href="/wiki/Legal_monopoly" title="Legal monopoly">legal monopoly</a> over the profession. In some countries, litigants have the option of arguing on their own behalf.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> In other countries, like Venezuela, no one may appear before a judge unless represented by a lawyer.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> The advantage of the latter regime is that lawyers are familiar with the court's customs and procedures, making the legal system more efficient for all involved. Unrepresented parties often damage their own credibility or slow the court down as a result of their inexperience.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_and_drafting_of_court_papers">Research and drafting of court papers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Research and drafting of court papers">edit</a>]</div> Often, lawyers brief a court in writing on the issues in a case before the issues can be orally argued. They may have to perform extensive research into relevant facts. Also, they draft legal papers and prepare for an oral argument. In split common law jurisdictions, the usual division of labor is that a <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitor</a> will obtain the facts of the case from the client and then brief a barrister, usually in writing.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> The barrister then researches and drafts the necessary court pleadings, which will be filed and served by the solicitor, and orally argues the case.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> In Spanish civil law, the procurator merely signs and presents the papers to the court, but it is the advocate who drafts the papers and argues the case.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> In other civil law jurisdictions, like Japan, a <a href="/wiki/Scrivener" title="Scrivener">scrivener</a> or clerk may fill out court forms and draft simple papers for laypersons who cannot afford or do not need attorneys, and advise them on how to manage and argue their own cases.<a href="#cite_note-Rokumoto,_164-43">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advocacy_in_administrative_hearings">Advocacy in administrative hearings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Advocacy in administrative hearings">edit</a>]</div> In most developed countries, the legislature has granted <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> over highly technical matters to <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a> administrative agencies which oversee such things. As a result, some lawyers have become specialists in <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>. In a few countries, there is a special category of jurists with a monopoly over this form of advocacy; for example, France formerly had conseils juridiques (who were merged into the main legal profession in 1991).<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> In other countries, like the United States, lawyers have been effectively barred by statute from certain types of administrative hearings in order to preserve their informality.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Client_intake_and_counseling">Client intake and counseling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Client intake and counseling">edit</a>]</div> In some fused common law jurisdictions, the client-lawyer relationship begins with an <a href="/wiki/Intake_interview" title="Intake interview">intake interview</a> where the lawyer gets to know the client personally, following which the lawyer discovers the facts of the client's case, clarifies what the client wants to accomplish, and shapes the client's expectations as to what actually can be accomplished. The second to last step begins to develop various claims or defenses for the client. Lastly, the lawyer explains her or his fees to the client.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> In England, only solicitors were traditionally in direct contact with the client,<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] but barristers nowadays may apply for rights to liaise with clients directly. The solicitor retained a barrister if one was necessary and acted as an intermediary between the barrister and the client.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> In most cases barristers were obliged, under what is known as the "cab rank rule", to accept instructions for a case in an area in which they held themselves out as practicing, at a court at which they normally appeared and at their usual rates.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_advice">Legal advice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legal advice">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_advice" title="Legal advice">Legal advice</a></div> Legal advice is the application of abstract principles of law to the concrete facts of the client's case to advise the client about what they should do next. In some jurisdictions, only a properly licensed lawyer may provide legal advice to clients for good <a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">consideration</a>, even if no <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> is contemplated or is in progress.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> In these jurisdictions, even conveyancers and corporate in-house counsel must first get a license to practice, though they may actually spend very little of their careers in court. Some jurisdictions have made the violation of such a rule the crime of <a href="/wiki/Unauthorized_practice_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Unauthorized practice of law">unauthorized practice of law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> In other countries, jurists who hold law degrees are allowed to provide legal advice to individuals or to corporations, and it is irrelevant if they lack a license and cannot appear in court.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Some countries go further; in England and Wales, there is no general prohibition on the giving of legal advice.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> does not have any admission requirements for in-house counsel.<a href="#cite_note-hollandandmarie1-59">[58]</a> Sometimes civil law notaries are allowed to give legal advice, as in Belgium.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> In many countries, non-jurist accountants may provide what is technically legal advice in tax and accounting matters.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protecting_intellectual_property">Protecting intellectual property</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Protecting intellectual property">edit</a>]</div> In virtually all countries, <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial design rights">industrial designs</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> must be formally registered with a government agency in order to receive maximum protection under the law. The division of such work among lawyers, licensed non-lawyer jurists/agents, and ordinary clerks or scriveners varies greatly from one country to the next.<a href="#cite_note-Rokumoto,_164-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negotiating_and_drafting_contracts">Negotiating and drafting contracts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Negotiating and drafting contracts">edit</a>]</div> In some countries, the negotiating and drafting of contracts is considered to be similar to the provision of legal advice, so that it is subject to the licensing requirement explained above.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> In others, jurists or notaries may negotiate or draft contracts.<a href="#cite_note-Huyse,_227-64">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conveyancing">Conveyancing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Conveyancing">edit</a>]</div> Conveyancing is the drafting of the documents necessary for the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">deeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_law" title="Mortgage law">mortgages</a>. In some jurisdictions, all <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a> transactions must be carried out by a lawyer.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> Historically, conveyancing accounted for about half of English solicitors' income, though this has since changed,<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> and a 1978 study showed that conveyancing "accounts for as much as 80 percent of solicitor-client contact in <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>."<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> In most common law jurisdictions outside of the United States, this monopoly arose from an 1804 law<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> that was introduced by <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">William Pitt the Younger</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Quid_pro_quo" title="Quid pro quo">quid pro quo</a> for the raising of fees on the certification of legal professionals such as barristers, solicitors, attorneys, and notaries.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> In others, the use of a lawyer is optional and banks, title companies, or <a href="/wiki/Realtor" class="mw-redirect" title="Realtor">realtors</a> may be used instead.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> In some civil law jurisdictions, real estate transactions are handled by civil law notaries.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> In England and Wales, a special class of legal professionals–the <a href="/wiki/Licensed_conveyancer" title="Licensed conveyancer">licensed conveyancer</a>–is also allowed to carry out conveyancing services for reward.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carrying_out_the_intent_of_the_deceased">Carrying out the intent of the deceased</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Carrying out the intent of the deceased">edit</a>]</div> In many countries, only lawyers have the legal authority to draft <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a>, and any other documents that ensure the efficient disposition of a person's property after death. In some civil law countries, this responsibility is handled by civil law notaries.<a href="#cite_note-Huyse,_227-64">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosecution_and_defense_of_criminal_suspects">Prosecution and defense of criminal suspects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Prosecution and defense of criminal suspects">edit</a>]</div> In many civil law countries, <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutors</a> are trained and employed as part of the judiciary. They are law-trained jurists, but may not necessarily be lawyers in the sense that the word is used in the common law world.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> In common law countries, prosecutors are usually lawyers holding regular licenses who work for the government office that files criminal charges against suspects. <a href="/wiki/Criminal_defense_lawyer" title="Criminal defense lawyer">Criminal defense lawyers</a> specialize in the defense of those charged with any crimes.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education_and_training">Education and training</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Education and training">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UK_budova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/UK_budova.jpg/220px-UK_budova.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/UK_budova.jpg/330px-UK_budova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/UK_budova.jpg/440px-UK_budova.jpg 2x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>Law Faculty of <a href="/wiki/Comenius_University" title="Comenius University">Comenius University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> (Slovakia)</figcaption></figure> The educational prerequisites for becoming a lawyer vary greatly across countries. In some countries, law is an undergraduate degree culminating in a bachelors or master's degree in law. In some of these jurisdictions, it is common or even required for students to earn another bachelor's degree at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> Where law is taught as an undergraduate degree, legal training after law school may comprise advanced examinations, apprenticeships, and additional coursework at special government institutes. For example, in many English common law jurisdictions, individuals with a law degree have to undergo further education and professional training before qualifying as a lawyer, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Professional_Training_Course" title="Bar Professional Training Course">Bar Professional Training Course</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BPTC-77">[76]</a> In other jurisdictions, particularly the United States and Canada, law is taught at the graduate level following the completion of an unrelated bachelor's degree.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> In America, the American Bar Association decides which law schools to approve for the purposes of admission to the bar.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> Law schools in the United States and Canada award graduating students a J.D. (<a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a>) as a professional law degree.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> In a handful of <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a>, one may become an attorney (a so-called <a href="/wiki/Country_lawyer" title="Country lawyer">country lawyer</a>) by simply "<a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">reading law</a>" and passing the bar examination, without having to attend law school first, although very few people actually become lawyers that way.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> The methods and quality of legal education vary widely. Some countries require extensive clinical training in the form of apprenticeships or special clinical courses.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> Others, like Venezuela, do not.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> A few countries prefer to teach through assigned readings of judicial opinions (the <a href="/wiki/Casebook_method" title="Casebook method">casebook method</a>) followed by intense in-class cross-examination by the professor (the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>).<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> Many others focus on theoretical aspects of law, leaving the professional and practical training of lawyers to apprenticeship and employment contexts.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> Some countries, particularly industrialized ones, have a traditional preference for full-time law programs,<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> while in developing countries, students often work full- or part-time to pay the tuition and fees of their part-time law programs.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> Law schools in developing countries share several common problems, such as an over reliance on practicing judges and lawyers who treat teaching as a part-time commitment, a concomitant scarcity of full-time law professors),<a href="#cite_note-Lopez-Ayllon,_324-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> incompetent faculty with underqualified credentials,<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> and textbooks that lag behind the current state of the law.<a href="#cite_note-Lopez-Ayllon,_324-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earning_the_right_to_practice_law">Earning the right to practice law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Earning the right to practice law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_practice_law" title="Admission to practice law">Admission to practice law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg/220px-Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg/330px-Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg/440px-Clara_Shortridge_Foltz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Clara_Shortridge_Foltz" title="Clara Shortridge Foltz">Clara Shortridge Foltz</a>, admitted to the California Bar through an examination before attending law school</figcaption></figure> Some jurisdictions grant a "<a href="/wiki/Diploma_privilege" title="Diploma privilege">diploma privilege</a>" to certain institutions, so that merely earning a degree or credential from those institutions is the primary qualification for practicing law.<a href="#cite_note-Abel_AmLaw_62-97">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> allows anyone with a law degree to practice law.<a href="#cite_note-Lopez-Ayllon,_330-98">[97]</a> However, in a large number of countries, a law student must pass a <a href="/wiki/Bar_examination" title="Bar examination">bar examination</a> (or a series of such examinations) before receiving a license to practice.<a href="#cite_note-Abel_AmLaw_62-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> Some countries require a formal apprenticeship with an experienced practitioner, while others do not.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> A few jurisdictions still allow an apprenticeship in place of any kind of formal legal education, though the number of persons who actually become lawyers that way is increasingly rare.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_structure">Career structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Career structure">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg/170px-Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg/255px-Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg/340px-Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2850" data-file-height="3742" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.</figcaption></figure> The career structure of lawyers varies widely from one country to the next. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_and_civil_law">Common and civil law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Common and civil law">edit</a>]</div> In most <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> countries, especially those with fused professions, lawyers have many options over the course of their careers. Besides private practice, they can become a <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a>, government counsel, corporate in-house counsel, <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law_judge" title="Administrative law judge">administrative law judge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">judge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arbitrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbitrator">arbitrator</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Law_professor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law professor">law professor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> There are also many non-legal jobs for which legal training is good preparation, such as <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporate_executive" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate executive">corporate executive</a>, government administrator, <a href="/wiki/Investment_banker" class="mw-redirect" title="Investment banker">investment banker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneur</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> In developing countries like India, a large majority of law students never actually practice, but simply use their law degree as a foundation for careers in other fields.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> In most civil law countries, lawyers generally structure their legal education around their chosen specialty; the boundaries between different types of lawyers are carefully defined and hard to cross.<a href="#cite_note-Legomsky-106">[105]</a> After one earns a law degree, career mobility may be severely constrained.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> For example, unlike their Anglo-American counterparts,<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> it is difficult for German judges to leave the bench and become advocates in private practice.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Another interesting example is France, where for much of the 20th century, all judiciary officials were graduates of an elite professional school for judges.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> In a few civil law countries, such as Sweden,<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> the legal profession is not rigorously bifurcated and everyone within it can easily change roles and arenas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialization">Specialization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Specialization">edit</a>]</div> In many countries, lawyers are general practitioners who represent clients in a broad field of legal matters.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> In others, there has been a tendency since the start of the 20th century for lawyers to specialize early in their careers.<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> In countries where specialization is prevalent, many lawyers specialize in representing one side in one particular area of the law; thus, it is common in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> to hear of plaintiffs' <a href="/wiki/Personal_injury" title="Personal injury">personal injury</a> attorneys.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Organizations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law_firm" title="Law firm">Law firm</a></div> Lawyers in private practice generally work in specialized <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">businesses</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Law_firm" title="Law firm">law firms</a>,<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> with the exception of English barristers. The vast majority of law firms worldwide are <a href="/wiki/Small_business" title="Small business">small businesses</a> that range in size from 1 to 10 lawyers.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> The United States,<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> United Kingdom and Australia are exceptions, home to several firms with more than 1,000 lawyers after a wave of mergers in the late 1990s. Notably, <a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">barristers</a> in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and some states in Australia do not work in law firms. Those who offer their services to members of the general public—as opposed to those working in-house — are generally self-employed.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> Most work in groupings known as "sets" or "chambers", where some administrative and marketing costs are shared. An important effect of this different organizational structure is that there is no <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a> where barristers in the same chambers work for opposing sides in a case, and in some specialized chambers this is commonplace. Some large businesses employ their own legal staff in a legal department.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> Other organizations buy in legal services from outside companies.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_associations_and_regulation">Professional associations and regulation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Professional associations and regulation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg/220px-American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg/330px-American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg/440px-American_Bar_Association_3c_1953_issue_U.S._stamp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1322" data-file-height="849" /></a><figcaption>Stamp issued to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandatory_licensing_and_membership_in_professional_organizations">Mandatory licensing and membership in professional organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mandatory licensing and membership in professional organizations">edit</a>]</div> In some jurisdictions, either the judiciary<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> or the Ministry of Justice<a href="#cite_note-Johnsen,_86-124">[123]</a> directly supervises the admission, licensing, and regulation of lawyers. Other jurisdictions, by statute, tradition, or court order, have granted such powers to a professional association which all lawyers must belong to.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> In the U.S., such associations are known as mandatory, integrated, or unified <a href="/wiki/Bar_association" title="Bar association">bar associations</a>. In the Commonwealth of Nations, similar organizations are known as <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_council" title="Bar council">bar councils</a> or <a href="/wiki/Law_society" title="Law society">law societies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> In civil law countries, comparable organizations are known as Orders of Advocates,<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> Chambers of Advocates,<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> Colleges of Advocates,<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> Faculties of Advocates,<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> or similar names. Generally, a nonmember caught practicing law may be liable for the crime of <a href="/wiki/Unauthorized_practice_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Unauthorized practice of law">unauthorized practice of law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> In common law countries with divided legal professions, barristers traditionally belong to the bar council (or an Inn of Court) and solicitors belong to the law society. In the English-speaking world, the largest mandatory professional association of lawyers is the <a href="/wiki/State_Bar_of_California" title="State Bar of California">State Bar of California</a>, with 230,000 members. Some countries admit and regulate lawyers at the national level, so that a lawyer, once licensed, can argue cases in any court in the land. This can be seen in countries including New Zealand, Japan, and Belgium.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> Others, especially those with federal governments, tend to regulate lawyers at the state or provincial level; this is the case in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> Canada,<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> Australia,<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> and Switzerland,<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> to name a few. Brazil is the most well-known federal government that regulates lawyers at the national level.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> Some countries, like Italy, regulate lawyers at the regional level,<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> and a few, like Belgium, even regulate them at the local level (that is, they are licensed and regulated by the local equivalent of bar associations but can advocate in courts nationwide).<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> In Germany, lawyers are admitted to regional bars and may appear for clients before all courts nationwide with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Justice_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Court of Justice of Germany">Federal Court of Justice of Germany</a> (Bundesgerichtshof or BGH.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> Generally, geographic limitations can be troublesome for a lawyer who discovers that his client's cause requires him to litigate in a court beyond the normal geographic scope of his license. Although most courts have special <a href="/wiki/Pro_hac_vice" title="Pro hac vice">pro hac vice</a> rules for such occasions, the lawyer will still have to deal with a different set of <a href="/wiki/Professional_responsibility" title="Professional responsibility">professional responsibility</a> rules, as well as the possibility of other differences in substantive and procedural law. Some countries grant licenses to non-resident lawyers, who may then appear regularly on behalf of foreign clients. Others require all lawyers to live in the jurisdiction or to even hold national citizenship as a prerequisite for receiving a license to practice. But the trend in industrialized countries since the 1970s has been to abolish citizenship and residency restrictions. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> struck down a citizenship requirement on equality rights grounds in 1989,<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> and similarly, American citizenship and residency requirements were struck down as unconstitutional by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> in 1973 and 1985, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a> made similar decisions in 1974 and 1977 striking down citizenship restrictions in Belgium and France.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_lawyers">Regulation of lawyers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Regulation of lawyers">edit</a>]</div> A key difference among countries is whether lawyers should be regulated solely by an independent judiciary and its subordinate institutions (a self-regulating legal profession),<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> or whether lawyers should be subject to supervision by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Justice">Ministry of Justice</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a>. In most civil law countries, the government has traditionally exercised tight control over the legal profession in order to ensure a steady supply of loyal judges and bureaucrats. That is, lawyers were expected first and foremost to serve the state, and the availability of counsel for private litigants was an afterthought.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> Even in civil law countries like Norway which have partially self-regulating professions, the Ministry of Justice is the sole issuer of licenses, and makes its own independent re-evaluation of a lawyer's fitness to practice after a lawyer has been expelled from the Advocates' Association.<a href="#cite_note-Johnsen,_86-124">[123]</a> Brazil is an unusual exception in that its national Order of Advocates has become a fully self-regulating institution with direct control over licensing and has successfully resisted government attempts to place it under the control of the Ministry of Labor.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> Of all the civil law countries, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a> countries historically went the farthest towards total state control, with all communist lawyers forced to practice in collectives by the mid-1950s.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> China is a prime example: technically, the People's Republic of China did not have lawyers, and instead had only poorly trained, state-employed "legal workers" prior to the enactment of a comprehensive reform package in 1996 by the <a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee of the National People's Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> In contrast, common law lawyers have traditionally regulated themselves through institutions where the influence of non-lawyers, if any, was weak and indirect, despite nominal state control.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> Such institutions have been traditionally dominated by private practitioners who opposed strong state control of the profession on the grounds that it would endanger the ability of lawyers to zealously and competently advocate their clients' causes in the <a href="/wiki/Adversarial_system" title="Adversarial system">adversarial system</a> of justice.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> However, the concept of the self-regulating profession has been criticized as a sham which serves to legitimize the professional monopoly while protecting the profession from public scrutiny.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> In some jurisdictions, mechanisms have been astonishingly ineffective, and penalties have been light or nonexistent.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voluntary_associations">Voluntary associations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Voluntary associations">edit</a>]</div> Voluntary lawyer associations may exist at all geographic levels from the provincial to the global.<a href="#cite_note-Lopez-Ayllon,_330-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> Some associations are termed voluntary bar associations.<a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> In some countries, lawyers have also formed <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_perception">Cultural perception</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cultural perception">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg/220px-Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg/330px-Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg/440px-Men_throwing_black_paint_at_a_woman_seeking_justice_Wellcome_V0050338.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="3372" /></a><figcaption>A British political cartoon showing a barrister and a solicitor throwing black paint at a woman sitting at the feet of a statue representing Justice</figcaption></figure> Hostility towards the legal profession is a widespread phenomenon. For example, William Shakespeare famously wrote, "The first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers" in Henry VI, Part 2, Act IV, Scene 2. The legal profession was abolished in <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> in 1780 and in France in 1789, though both countries eventually realized that their judicial systems could not function efficiently without lawyers.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> Complaints about too many lawyers were common in both England and the United States in the 1840s,<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> Germany in the 1910s,<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> and in Australia,<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> Canada,<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> the United States,<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spence-168">[167]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> in the 1980s. Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Spence-168">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> Lawyer jokes also soared in popularity in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> as a result of Watergate.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> In Adventures in Law and Justice, legal researcher <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Horrigan" title="Bryan Horrigan">Bryan Horrigan</a> dedicated a chapter to "Myths, Fictions, and Realities" about law and illustrated the perennial criticism of lawyers as "amoral [...] guns for hire"<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> with a quote from <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Bierce" title="Ambrose Bierce">Ambrose Bierce</a>'s satirical <a href="/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Dictionary" title="The Devil's Dictionary">The Devil's Dictionary</a> that summarized the noun as: "LAWYER, n. One skilled in circumvention of the law."<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> More generally, in Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study, law professor <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_C._Hazard,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr.">Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr.</a> with Angelo Dondi briefly examined the "regulations attempting to suppress lawyer misconduct" and noted that their similarity around the world was paralleled by a "remarkable consistency" in certain "persistent grievances" about lawyers that transcends both time and locale, from the Bible to medieval England to dynastic China.<a href="#cite_note-Hazard,_60-175">[174]</a> The authors then generalized these common complaints about lawyers as being classified into five "general categories" as follows: <ul><li>abuse of litigation in various ways, including using dilatory tactics and false evidence and making frivolous arguments to the courts</li> <li>preparation of <a href="/wiki/False_documentation" title="False documentation">false documentation</a>, such as false deeds, contracts, or wills</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deceiving" class="mw-redirect" title="Deceiving">deceiving</a> clients and other persons and misappropriating property</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procrastination" title="Procrastination">procrastination</a> in dealings with clients</li> <li>charging excessive <a href="/wiki/Fee" title="Fee">fees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a></li></ul> Some studies have shown that suicide rates among lawyers in certain jurisdictions may be as much as six times higher than the average population, and commentators suggest that the low opinion the public has of lawyers, combined with their own high ideals of justice, which in practice they may see denied, increase the depression rates of those in this profession.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> Additionally, lawyers are twice as likely to suffer from addiction to alcohol and other drugs.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compensation">Compensation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Compensation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attorney%27s_fee" title="Attorney's fee">Attorney's fee</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg/220px-Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg/330px-Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg/440px-Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger_-_Village_Lawyer_-_WGA3633.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Peasants paying for legal services with produce in The Village Lawyer, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1621, by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger" title="Pieter Brueghel the Younger">Pieter Brueghel the Younger</a></figcaption></figure> In the United States, lawyers typically earn between $45,000 and $160,000 per year, although earnings vary by age, experience, and practice setting.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> Solo practitioners typically earn less than lawyers in corporate law firms but more than those working for state or local government. Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways. In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee according to a billable hour structure,<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Contingency_fee" class="mw-redirect" title="Contingency fee">contingency fee</a>,<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> or a lump sum payment. Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable <a href="/wiki/Advance_payment" title="Advance payment">retainer</a> in advance. Recent studies suggest that when lawyers charge a fixed fee rather than billing by the hour, they work less hard on behalf of clients, and clients get worse outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs; the United States is the major exception,<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> although in turn, its legislators have carved out many exceptions to the so-called "American Rule" of no fee shifting. Lawyers working directly on the payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> In many countries, with the notable exception of Germany,<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called <a href="/wiki/Pro_bono_publico" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro bono publico">pro bono</a> (short for pro bono publico, "for the common good").<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes such as <a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">environmental law</a>. In some countries, there are <a href="/wiki/Legal_aid" title="Legal aid">legal aid</a> lawyers who specialize in providing legal services to the indigent.<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> France and Spain even have formal fee structures by which lawyers are compensated by the government for legal aid cases on a per-case basis.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> A similar system, though not as extensive or generous, operates in Australia, Canada, and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> In other countries, legal aid specialists are practically nonexistent. This may be because non-lawyers are allowed to provide such services; in both <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, trade unions and political parties provide what can be characterized as legal aid services. Some legal aid in Belgium is also provided by young lawyer apprentices subsidized by local bar associations (known as the pro deo system), as well as consumer protection nonprofit organizations and Public Assistance Agencies subsidized by local governments.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> In Germany, mandatory fee structures have enabled widespread implementation of affordable <a href="/wiki/Legal_expense_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal expense insurance">legal expense insurance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Lawyer" title="Talk:Lawyer">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate. (December 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg/170px-Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg/255px-Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg/340px-Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="1551" /></a><figcaption>16th-century painting of a <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_notary" title="Civil law notary">civil law notary</a>, by Flemish painter <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Massys" class="mw-redirect" title="Quentin Massys">Quentin Massys</a>. A civil law notary is roughly analogous to a common law <a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">solicitor</a>, except that, unlike solicitors, civil law notaries do not practice litigation to any degree.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece">edit</a>]</div> The earliest people who could be described as "lawyers" were probably the <a href="/wiki/Orators" class="mw-redirect" title="Orators">orators</a> of ancient <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. However, Athenian orators faced serious structural obstacles. First, there was a rule that individuals were supposed to plead their own cases, which was soon bypassed by the increasing tendency of individuals to ask a "friend" for assistance.<a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> However, around the middle of the fourth century, the Athenians disposed of the perfunctory request for a friend.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a> Second, a more serious obstacle, which the Athenian orators never completely overcame, was the rule that no one could take a fee to plead the cause of another. This law was widely disregarded in practice, but was never abolished, which meant that orators could never present themselves as legal professionals or experts.<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> They had to uphold the <a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">legal fiction</a> that they were merely an ordinary citizen generously helping out a friend for free, and thus they could never organize into a real profession.<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> If one narrows the definition of lawyers to people who could practice the legal profession openly and legally, then the first lawyers would be the orators of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Rome">Ancient Rome</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ancient Rome">edit</a>]</div> A law enacted in 204 BC barred Roman advocates from taking fees, but the law was widely ignored.<a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a> The ban on fees was abolished by <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Emperor Claudius</a>, who legalized advocacy as a profession and allowed the Roman advocates to become the first lawyers who could practice openly—but he also imposed a fee ceiling of 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">sesterces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a> This was apparently not much money; the <a href="/wiki/Satires_of_Juvenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Satires of Juvenal">Satires of Juvenal</a> complained that there was no money in working as an advocate.<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> Like their Greek contemporaries, early Roman advocates were trained in <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, not law, and the judges before whom they argued were also not legally trained.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a> But very early on, unlike Athens, Rome developed a class of specialists who were learned in the law, known as jurisconsults (iuris consulti).<a href="#cite_note-Crook,_88-207">[206]</a> Jurisconsults were wealthy amateurs who dabbled in law as an intellectual hobby; they did not make their primary living from it.<a href="#cite_note-Crook,_88-207">[206]</a> They gave legal opinions (responsa) on legal issues to all comers (a practice known as publice respondere).<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a> Roman judges and governors would routinely consult with an advisory panel of jurisconsults before rendering a decision, and advocates and ordinary people also went to jurisconsults for legal opinions.<a href="#cite_note-Crook,_88-207">[206]</a> The Romans were the first to have a class of people who spent their days thinking about legal problems, and this is why their law developed in a systematic and technical way.<a href="#cite_note-Crook,_88-207">[206]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg/220px-Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg/330px-Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg/440px-Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>Detail from the sarcophagus of Roman lawyer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Valerius_Petronianus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valerius Petronianus (page does not exist)">Valerius Petronianus</a> 315–320 AD. Picture by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_Dall%27Orto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovanni Dall'Orto (page does not exist)">Giovanni Dall'Orto</a>.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, jurisconsults and advocates were unregulated, since the former were amateurs and the latter were technically illegal.<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a> Any citizen could call himself an advocate or a legal expert, though whether people believed him would depend upon his personal reputation. This changed once Claudius legalized the legal profession. By the start of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, the legal profession had become well-established, heavily regulated, and highly stratified.<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a> The centralization and bureaucratization of the profession was apparently gradual at first, but accelerated during the reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> At the same time, the jurisconsults went into decline during the imperial period.<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a> By the fourth century, advocates had to be enrolled on the bar of a court to argue before it, they could only be attached to one court at a time, and there were restrictions on how many advocates could be enrolled at a particular court.<a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> By the 380s, advocates were studying law in addition to rhetoric, thus reducing the need for a separate class of jurisconsults; in 460, <a href="/wiki/Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Emperor Leo</a> imposed a requirement that new advocates seeking admission had to produce testimonials from their teachers; and by the sixth century, a regular course of legal study lasting about four years was required for admission.<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a> Claudius's fee ceiling lasted all the way into the Byzantine period, though by then it was measured at 100 <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_511-215">[214]</a> It was widely evaded, either through demands for maintenance and expenses or a <a href="/wiki/Sub_rosa" title="Sub rosa">sub rosa</a> <a href="/wiki/Barter_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barter (economics)">barter</a> transaction.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_511-215">[214]</a> The latter was cause for disbarment.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_511-215">[214]</a> The notaries (tabelliones) appeared in the late Roman Empire. Like their modern-day descendants, the civil law notaries, they were responsible for drafting wills, conveyances, and contracts.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_515-216">[215]</a> They were ubiquitous and most villages had one.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_515-216">[215]</a> In Roman times, notaries were widely considered to be inferior to advocates and jury consults. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Initial_N-_James_I_of_Aragon_Overseeing_a_Court_of_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3025" data-file-height="4623" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_I_of_Aragon" title="James I of Aragon">King James I</a> overseeing a medieval court, from an illustrated manuscript of a legal code</figcaption></figure> After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the legal profession of Western Europe collapsed. As James Brundage has explained: "[by 1140], no one in Western Europe could properly be described as a professional lawyer or a professional canonist in anything like the modern sense of the term 'professional.' "<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> However, from 1150 (when <a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Decretum Gratiani</a> was compiled) onward, a small but increasing number of men became experts in <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">canon law</a> but only in furtherance of other occupational goals, such as serving the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> as priests.<a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a> From 1190 to 1230, however, there was a crucial shift in which some men began to practice canon law as a lifelong profession in itself.<a href="#cite_note-219">[218]</a> The legal profession's return was marked by the renewed efforts of church and state to regulate it. In 1231, two French councils mandated that lawyers had to swear an oath of admission before practicing before the bishop's courts in their regions, and a similar oath was promulgated by the <a href="/wiki/Papal_legate" title="Papal legate">papal legate</a> in London in 1237.<a href="#cite_note-220">[219]</a> During the same decade, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a>, the king of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, imposed a similar oath in his civil courts.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a> By 1250, the nucleus of a new legal profession had clearly formed.<a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> The new trend towards professionalization culminated in a controversial proposal at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a> in 1275 that all ecclesiastical courts should require an oath of admission.<a href="#cite_note-Brundage,_189-223">[222]</a> Although not adopted by the council, it was highly influential in many such courts throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brundage,_189-223">[222]</a> The civil courts in England also joined the trend towards professionalization; in 1275 a statute was enacted that prescribed punishment for professional lawyers guilty of <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deceit</a>,<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a> and in 1280 the mayor's court of the city of London promulgated regulations concerning admission procedures, including the administering of an oath.<a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a> And in 1345, the French crown promulgated a royal ordinance which set forth 24 rules governing advocates, of which 12 were integrated into the oath to be taken by them.<a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a> The French medieval oaths were widely influential and of enduring importance; for example, they directly influenced the structure of the advocates' oath adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva" title="Canton of Geneva">Canton of Geneva</a> in 1816.<a href="#cite_note-rice-227">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-Boon_Page_215-228">[227]</a> In turn, the 1816 Geneva oath served as the inspiration for the attorney's oath drafted by <a href="/wiki/David_Dudley_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="David Dudley Field">David Dudley Field</a> as Section 511 of the proposed New York Code of Civil Procedure of 1848, which was the first attempt in the United States at a comprehensive statement of a lawyer's professional duties.<a href="#cite_note-rice-227">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avocats_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Avocats Sans Frontières">Avocats Sans Frontières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_lawyer" title="Cause lawyer">Cause lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_lawyer" title="Corporate lawyer">Corporate lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_dress" title="Court dress">Court dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">Fiduciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_lawyer" title="Ghost lawyer">Ghost lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_broker" title="Law broker">Law broker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer-supported_mediation" title="Lawyer-supported mediation">Lawyer-supported mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalese" class="mw-redirect" title="Legalese">Legalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jurists" title="List of jurists">List of jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notary_public" title="Notary public">Notary public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privilege_of_the_predecessors" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege of the predecessors">Privilege of the predecessors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_defender" title="Public defender">Public defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_lawyer" title="Rules lawyer">Rules lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shyster" title="Shyster">Shyster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sole_practitioner_(lawyer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sole practitioner (lawyer)">Sole practitioner (lawyer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Ivo_of_Kermartin" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Ivo of Kermartin">St. Ivo of Kermartin</a> (patron saint of lawyers)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trainee_solicitor" title="Trainee solicitor">Trainee solicitor</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> She is wearing the ceremonial robes of a <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Counsel" title="King's Counsel">King's Counsel</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Campbell_Black" title="Henry Campbell Black">Henry Campbell Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black%27s_Law_Dictionary" title="Black's Law Dictionary">Black's Law Dictionary</a>, 5th ed. (<a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota" title="Saint Paul, Minnesota">St. Paul</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomson_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson West">West Publishing Co.</a>, 1979), 799. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_C._Hazard,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr.">Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr.</a> & Angelo Dondi, Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study (<a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, 2004, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4882-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4882-9">0-8047-4882-9</a>), 20–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> John Henry Merryman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, 3rd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007),102–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Bastard, 299, and Hazard, 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Harry W. Arthurs, Richard Weisman, and Frederick H. Zemans, "Canadian Lawyers: A Peculiar Professionalism", in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 123–185 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> David Weisbrot, "The Australian Legal Profession: From Provincial Family Firms to Multinationals", in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 244–317 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Georgina Murray, "New Zealand Lawyers: From Colonial GPs to the Servants of Capital", in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 318–368 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Anne Boigeol, "The Rise of Lawyers in France", in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, 185–219 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080819185257/http://barcouncilofindia.nic.in/disk1/196125.pdf">"THE ADVOCATES ACT, 1961"</a> (PDF). Bar Council of India. 1961. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://barcouncilofindia.nic.in/disk1/196125.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 Aug 2008. Retrieved 1 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bar+Council+of+India&rft.atitle=THE+ADVOCATES+ACT%2C+1961&rft.date=1961&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbarcouncilofindia.nic.in%2Fdisk1%2F196125.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanbar.org/groups/professional_responsibility/publications/model_rules_of_professional_conduct/rule_5_5_unauthorized_practice_of_law_multijurisdictional_practice_of_law.html">"Rule 5.5: Unauthorized Practice of Law; Multijurisdictional Practice of Law"</a>. American Bar Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150602162551/http://www.americanbar.org/groups/professional_responsibility/publications/model_rules_of_professional_conduct/rule_5_5_unauthorized_practice_of_law_multijurisdictional_practice_of_law.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-06-02. Retrieved 2015-04-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rule+5.5%3A+Unauthorized+Practice+of+Law%3B+Multijurisdictional+Practice+of+Law&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanbar.org%2Fgroups%2Fprofessional_responsibility%2Fpublications%2Fmodel_rules_of_professional_conduct%2Frule_5_5_unauthorized_practice_of_law_multijurisdictional_practice_of_law.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Walter O. 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Jeffrey MacDonald, "The self-made lawyer: Not every attorney goes to law school", <a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a>, 3 June 2003, 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Hazard, 127–129; Merryman, 103; and Olgiati, 345. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuelan Legal Profession", 384. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Robert H. Miller, Law School Confidential: A Complete Guide to the Law School Experience, By Students, for Students (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2000), 25–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Anderson, 4–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Blankenburg, 132; Friedman and Pérez-Perdomo, 6; Hazard, 124–128; and Olgiati, 345. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Sergio Lopez-Ayllon and Hector Fix-Fierro, " 'Faraway, So Close!' 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Lewis, 369–382 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 375. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lopez-Ayllon,_324-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lopez-Ayllon,_324_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lopez-Ayllon,_324_93-1">b</a> Lopez-Ayllon, 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Eliane Botelho Junqueira, "Brazil: The Road of Conflict Bound for Total Justice", in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, 64–107 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Junqueira, 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo, "Venezuela, 1958–1999: The Legal System in an Impaired Democracy", in Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe, eds. Lawrence M. Friedman and Rogelio Perez-Perdomo, 414–478 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 459. For example, a 1997 study found that not a single law school in Venezuela had bothered to integrate any part of the Convention on Children's Rights into its curriculum, even though Venezuela had signed the treaty in 1990 and subsequently modified its domestic laws to bring them into compliance. Rather than embark on curriculum reform, Venezuelan law schools now offer special postgraduate courses so that recent graduates can bring their legal knowledge up-to-date with current law. </li> <li id="cite_note-Abel_AmLaw_62-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abel_AmLaw_62_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abel_AmLaw_62_97-1">b</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lopez-Ayllon,_330-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lopez-Ayllon,_330_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lopez-Ayllon,_330_98-1">b</a> Lopez-Ayllon, 330. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Hazard, 127, 129, & 133; Miller, 335–341. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Alan A. Paterson, "The Legal Profession in Scotland: An Endangered Species or a Problem Case for Market Theory?" in Lawyers in Society: The Common Law World, vol. 1, eds. Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, 76–122 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Hazard, 129 & 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Weisbrot, 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 167–175; Abel, England and Wales, 214; Arthurs, 131; Gandhi, 374; Merryman, 102, and Weisbrot, 277. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Anderson, 124–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Gandhi, 374. </li> <li id="cite_note-Legomsky-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Legomsky_106-0">^</a> In general, see, Legomsky, Stephen H. (1990) Specialized Justice: Courts, Administrative Tribunals, and a Cross-National Theory of Specialization Oxford University Press, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825429-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825429-4">978-0-19-825429-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Merryman, 102–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Although it is common for former American judges to return to private practice, it is highly controversial for them to suggest that they still retain any judicial powers (for example, by wearing judicial robes in advertisements). Brad McElhinny, "<a href="/wiki/Margaret_Workman" title="Margaret Workman">Workman</a> criticized for using robe in ad: Group files State Bar complaint about the way former justice seeks clients", <a href="/wiki/Charleston_Daily_Mail" title="Charleston Daily Mail">Charleston Daily Mail</a>, 3 February 2005, 1A. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Blankenburg, 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Boigeol, "The Rise of Lawyers", 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Bernard Michael Ortwein II, "The Swedish Legal System: An Introduction", 13 Ind. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 405, 440–445 (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Hazard, 39–43; Olgiati, 353. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Michael H. Trotter, Profit and the Practice of Law: What's Happened to the Legal Profession (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Herbert M. Kritzer, "The fracturing legal profession: the case of plaintiffs' personal injury lawyers", 8 Int'l J. Legal Prof. 225, 228–231 (2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Information for lawyers – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abogadomartin.es/hurto/">Penalista para hurto</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151228183435/http://abogadomartin.es/hurto/">Archived</a> 2015-12-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Anderson, 111–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Hazard, 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Junqueira, 92. According to this source, as of 2003, there were 901 law firms with more than 50 lawyers in the United States. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Gary Slapper and David Kelly, The English Legal System, 7th ed. (London: Cavendish Publishing Ltd., 2004), 550. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Sobowale, J., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cba.org/Publications-Resources/CBA-Practice-Link/Young-Lawyers/2015/Becoming-an-in-house-lawyer">BECOMING AN IN-HOUSE LAWYER</a>, Canadian Bar Association, published 1 January 2015, accessed 15 March 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Charlson, J. and Chinyio, E., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wlv.aws.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/2436/560384/ARCOM%202013_Charlson_Chinyio.pdf">A case study of joint procurement and provision of legal services to a group of a universities in the Midlands</a>, published in Smith, S.D and Ahiaga-Dagbui, D.D (eds), Procs 29th Annual ARCOM Conference, 2–4 September 2013, Reading, UK, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, 493-502, accessed 15 March 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Weisbrot, 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnsen,_86-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnsen,_86_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnsen,_86_124-1">b</a> Johnsen, 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Boigeol, "The French Bar", 271; Merryman, 106, and Junqueira, 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Abel, England and Wales, 127 and 243–249; Arthurs, 135; and Weisbrot, 279. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Bastard, 295; and Falcão, 401. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Blankenburg, 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Jene, 370. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Paterson, 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Arthurs, 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Murray, 339; Rokumoto, 163; and Schuyt, 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Arthurs, 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Weisbrot, 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Bastard, 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Falcão, 404. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Olgiati, 343. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Huyse, 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Howard D. Fisher, The German Legal System and Legal Language, 3rd ed. (London: Routledge Cavendish, 2002), 208–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrews_v_Law_Society_of_British_Columbia" title="Andrews v Law Society of British Columbia">Andrews v Law Society of British Columbia</a> [1989] 1 SCR 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Mary C. Daly, "Ethical and Liability Issues in International Legal Practice", in Comparative Law Yearbook of International Business, vol. 17, eds. Dennis Campbell and Susan Cotter, 223–268 (London: Kluwer Law International, 1995), 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> For a classic explanation of the self-regulating legal profession, see the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abanet.org/cpr/mrpc/preamble.html">Preamble</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081219021122/http://www.abanet.org/cpr/mrpc/preamble.html">Archived</a> 2008-12-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> to the <a href="/wiki/ABA_Model_Rules_of_Professional_Conduct" class="mw-redirect" title="ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct">ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct</a>, ¶¶ 10–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Abel, Civil Law World, 10; Johnsen, 70; Olgiati, 339; and Rokumoto, 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Falcão, 423. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Maria da Gloria Bonelli, "Lawyers' Associations and the Brazilian State, 1843–1997", 28 Law & Soc. Inquiry 1045, 1065 (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Kandis Scott, "Decollectivization and Democracy: Current Law Practice in Romania", 36 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 817, 820. (2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Timothy J. Tyler, "Judging the Past: Germany's Post-Unification Lawyers' Admissions Review Law", 29 Tex. Int'l L.J. 457, 472 (1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Michael J. Moser, "Globalization and Legal Services in China: Current Status and Future Directions", in The Internationalization of the Practice of Law, eds. Jens I. Drolhammer and Michael Pfeifer, 127–136 (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001), 128–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 142–143; Abel, England and Wales, 29; and Arthurs, 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Arthurs, 138; and Weisbrot, 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 246–247. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 147; Abel, England and Wales, 135 and 250; Arthurs, 146; Hazard, 135; Paterson, 104; and Weisbrot, 284. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Richard L. Abel, English Lawyers Between Market and State: The Politics of Professionalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 374–375. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> William T. Gallagher, "Ideologies of Professionalism and the Politics of Self-Regulation in the California State Bar", 22 Pepp. L. Rev. 485, 490–491 (1995). </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Abel, England and Wales, 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Arthurs, 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Boigeol, "The French Bar", 274; and Olgiati, 344. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Blankenburg, 126; and Boigeol, "The French Bar", 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Abel, England and Wales, 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Gerald W. Gawalt, "Sources of Anti-Lawyer Sentiment in Massachusetts, 1740–1840", in Essays in Nineteenth-Century American Legal History, ed. Wythe Holt, 624–648 (<a href="/wiki/Westport,_Connecticut" title="Westport, Connecticut">Westport, CT</a>: Greenwood Press, 1976), 624–625. According to this source, the strong anti-lawyer sentiment of the period was rather ironic, since lawyers were actually so scarce in the American colonies that a 1715 Massachusetts law forbade litigants from retaining two lawyers because of the risk of depriving one's opponent of counsel. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Blankenburg, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Weisbrot, 246. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Arthurs, 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Marc Galanter, "Predators and Parasites: Lawyer-Bashing and Civil Justice, " 28 Ga. L. Rev. 633, 644–648 (1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Stephen D. Easton, "Fewer Lawyers? Try Getting Your Day in Court", Wall Street Journal, 27 November 1984, 1. This article rebuts the common complaint of too many lawyers in the U.S. by pointing out that it is virtually impossible for a plaintiff to prevail in the vast majority of countries with less lawyers, like Japan, because there are simply not enough lawyers or judges to go around. Even wrongful death cases with clear evidence of fault can drag on for decades in Japan. Thus, any reduction in the number of lawyers would result in reduced enforcement of individual rights. </li> <li id="cite_note-Spence-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spence_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spence_168-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Spence" title="Gerry Spence">Gerry Spence</a>, With Justice For None: Destroying An American Myth (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: Times Books, 1989), 27–40 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Paterson, 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerold_Auerbach" title="Jerold Auerbach">Jerold Auerbach</a>, Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> For examples of legal self-help books written by lawyers which concede that the profession has a bad image, see <a href="/wiki/Mark_McCormack" title="Mark McCormack">Mark H. McCormack</a>, The Terrible Truth About Lawyers (New York: Beech Tree Books, 1987), 11; Kenneth Menendez, Taming the Lawyers (<a href="/wiki/Santa_Monica,_California" title="Santa Monica, California">Santa Monica, CA</a>, Merritt Publishing, 1996), 2; and Stuart Kahan and Robert M. Cavallo, Do I Really Need A Lawyer? (<a href="/wiki/Radnor,_Pennsylvania" title="Radnor, Pennsylvania">Radnor, PA</a>: Chilton Book Company, 1979), 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Gayle White, "So, a lawyer, a skunk and a catfish walk into a bar...: No shortage of jokes", <a href="/wiki/National_Post" title="National Post">National Post</a>, 27 May 2006, FW8. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Horrigan" title="Bryan Horrigan">Bryan Horrigan</a>, "Myths, Fictions, and Realities" (chap. 2), in Adventures in Law and Justice: Exploring Big Legal Questions in Everyday Life, Law at Large, 55–82 (Sydney: <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales_Press" title="University of New South Wales Press">University of New South Wales Press</a>, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86840-572-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-86840-572-8">0-86840-572-8</a>), 55 & 62–66. Bierce is quoted p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ncdieVR930MC&pg=PA64">64</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415091550/https://books.google.com/books?id=ncdieVR930MC&pg=PA64">Archived</a> 2016-04-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Bierce" title="Ambrose Bierce">Ambrose Bierce</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict?Form=Dict2&Database=devils&Query=Lawyer">"Lawyer"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214527/http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict?Form=Dict2&Database=devils&Query=Lawyer">Archived</a> 2015-09-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a href="/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Dictionary" title="The Devil's Dictionary">The Devil's Dictionary</a> (1911), electronic entry at <a href="/wiki/Dict.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Dict.org">Dict.org</a>. Also found quoted in many legal books. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hazard,_60-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Hazard,_60_175-0">^</a> Hazard, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1pcFGm5DZDkC&pg=PA60">60</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415121423/https://books.google.com/books?id=1pcFGm5DZDkC&pg=PA60">Archived</a> 2016-04-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Hazard, 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jdjournal.com/2013/06/04/increase-of-kentucky-lawyer-suicides-exposes-the-unique-stresses-of-the-profession/">"June, Daniel, "Increase of Kentucky Lawyer Suicides Exposes the Unique Stresses of the Profession""</a>. 4 June 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220221113515/https://www.jdjournal.com/2013/06/04/increase-in-kentucky-lawyer-suicides-exposes-the-unique-stresses-of-the-profession/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-21. Retrieved 2013-06-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=June%2C+Daniel%2C+%22Increase+of+Kentucky+Lawyer+Suicides+Exposes+the+Unique+Stresses+of+the+Profession%22&rft.date=2013-06-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jdjournal.com%2F2013%2F06%2F04%2Fincrease-of-kentucky-lawyer-suicides-exposes-the-unique-stresses-of-the-profession%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bcgsearch.com/article/900044981/Seven-Reasons-Why-Practicing-Law-is-More-Stressful-than-Spending-18-Months-in-a-POW-Camp/">"Seven Reasons Why Practicing Law Might Be More Stressful Than Spending 18 Months in a POW Camp"</a>. BCGSearch.com. 2015-05-11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703083457/http://www.bcgsearch.com/article/900044981/Seven-Reasons-Why-Practicing-Law-is-More-Stressful-than-Spending-18-Months-in-a-POW-Camp/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-03. Retrieved 2017-06-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BCGSearch.com&rft.atitle=Seven+Reasons+Why+Practicing+Law+Might+Be+More+Stressful+Than+Spending+18+Months+in+a+POW+Camp&rft.date=2015-05-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcgsearch.com%2Farticle%2F900044981%2FSeven-Reasons-Why-Practicing-Law-is-More-Stressful-than-Spending-18-Months-in-a-POW-Camp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2017" class="citation news cs1">Murray, Bob (2017-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/opinion/20324-dealing-with-depression">"Dealing with depression"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170105091942/http://www.lawyersweekly.com.au/opinion/20324-dealing-with-depression">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-01-05. Retrieved 2017-01-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Dealing+with+depression&rft.date=2017-01-04&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawyersweekly.com.au%2Fopinion%2F20324-dealing-with-depression&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> United States Census Bureau, American Community Survey </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> United States Census Bureau, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-income-people.html">Current Population Survey</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170110070850/http://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-income-people.html">Archived</a> 2017-01-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> United States Department of Labor, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes231011.htm">Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Employment Statistics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060507031120/http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes231011.htm">Archived</a> 2006-05-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.du.edu/documents/directory/publications/sterling/AJD2.pdf">"After the JD II"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231930/http://www.law.du.edu/documents/directory/publications/sterling/AJD2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-07-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=After+the+JD+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.du.edu%2Fdocuments%2Fdirectory%2Fpublications%2Fsterling%2FAJD2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Anderson, 111–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Herbert M. Kritzer, Risks, Reputations, and Rewards: Contingency Fee Legal Practice in the United States (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), 258–259. According to this source, contingency fees (or de facto equivalents) are allowed, as of 2004, in Canada, England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, the Dominican Republic, Greece, France, Brazil, Japan, and the United States. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwall2015" class="citation journal cs1">Schwall, Benjamin (2015-06-25). "High-Powered Attorney Incentives: A Look at the New Indigent Defense System in South Carolina". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2623202">2623202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=High-Powered+Attorney+Incentives%3A+A+Look+at+the+New+Indigent+Defense+System+in+South+Carolina&rft.date=2015-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2623202%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Schwall&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/amandayagan/research">"Research – Amanda Y. Agan"</a>. sites.google.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160925014424/https://sites.google.com/site/amandayagan/research">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-09-25. Retrieved 2016-05-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sites.google.com&rft.atitle=Research+%E2%80%93+Amanda+Y.+Agan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fsite%2Famandayagan%2Fresearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> See Fleischmann Distilling Corp. v. Maier Brewing Co., <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_386" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 386">386</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/386/714/">714</a> (1967) (reviewing history of the American Rule). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Anderson, 120–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Matthias Kilian and Francis Regan, "Legal expenses insurance and legal aid—two sides of the same coin? The experience from Germany and Sweden", 11 Int'l J. Legal Prof. 233, 239 (2004). According to this article, pro bono arrangements are illegal in Germany. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Abel, American Lawyers, 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Arthurs, 161; Murray, 342; Pérez-Perdomo, 392; Schuyt, 211; and Weisbrot, 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Boigeol, "The French Bar", 280; and Jene, 376. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legal-aid.co.za/">"We provide professional legal advice and representation to those who can't afford it"</a>. Legal Aid South Africa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150223134247/http://www.legal-aid.co.za/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Aid+South+Africa&rft.atitle=We+provide+professional+legal+advice+and+representation+to+those+who+can%27t+afford+it.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legal-aid.co.za%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Huyse, 240–241. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Blankenburg, 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Robert J. Bonner, Lawyers and Litigants in Ancient Athens: The Genesis of the Legal Profession (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1927), 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Bonner, 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Bonner, 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Bonner, 208–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Hazard, 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Crook_(classicist)" title="John Crook (classicist)">John A. Crook</a>, Law and Life of Ancient Rome (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967), 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Crook, 90. Crook cites <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, Annals VI, 5 and 7 for this point. For more information about the complex political affair that forced Emperor Claudius to decide this issue, see The Annals of Tacitus, Book VI (<a href="/wiki/Franklin_Township,_Erie_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Franklin Township, Erie County, Pennsylvania">Franklin Center, PA</a>: The Franklin Library, 1982), 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Crook, 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Crook, 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-Crook,_88-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crook,_88_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crook,_88_207-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crook,_88_207-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crook,_88_207-3">d</a> Crook, 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Crook, 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Crook, 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey, vol. 1 (<a href="/wiki/Norman,_Oklahoma" title="Norman, Oklahoma">Norman, OK</a>: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), 507. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Fritz Schulz, History of Roman Legal Science (<a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1946), 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Schulz, 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Jones, 508–510. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Jones, 512–513. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones,_511-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones,_511_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones,_511_215-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones,_511_215-2">c</a> Jones, 511. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones,_515-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones,_515_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones,_515_216-1">b</a> Jones, 515. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> James A. Brundage, "The Rise of the Professional Jurist in the Thirteenth Century", 20 Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com. 185 (1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Brundage, 185–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Brundage, 186–187. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Brundage, 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Brundage, 188–189. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Brundage, 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brundage,_189-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brundage,_189_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brundage,_189_223-1">b</a> Brundage, 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1275" title="Statute of Westminster 1275">Statute of Westminster 1275</a>, ch. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> John Hamilton Baker, An Introduction to British Legal History, 3rd ed. (London: Butterworths, 1990), 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Lucien Karpik, French Lawyers: A Study in Collective Action, 1274 to 1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-rice-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rice_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rice_227-1">b</a> Carol Rice Andrews, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.smu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2120&context=smulr">Standards of Conduct for Lawyers: An 800-Year Evolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200709113600/https://scholar.smu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2120&context=smulr">Archived</a> 2020-07-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 57 SMU L. Rev. 1385 (2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-Boon_Page_215-228"><a href="#cite_ref-Boon_Page_215_228-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoon2022" class="citation book cs1">Boon, Andrew (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G0aGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA215">Lawyers and the Rule of Law</a>. London: Bloomsbury. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781509925230" title="Special:BookSources/9781509925230"><bdi>9781509925230</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lawyers+and+the+Rule+of+Law&rft.place=London&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781509925230&rft.aulast=Boon&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG0aGEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALawyer" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a 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title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40348#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40348#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40348#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/994346/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4048755-6">Germany</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4177191-6">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85075351">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11935725z">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11935725z">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560594">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118269&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&oldid=1259719901">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawyer&oldid=1259719901</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lawyers" title="Category:Lawyers">Lawyers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_ethics" title="Category:Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_professions" title="Category:Legal professions">Legal professions</a></li><li><a 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