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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions_of_Syrian_national_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions_of_Syrian_national_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Definitions of Syrian national literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions_of_Syrian_national_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-modern_literature_in_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-modern_literature_in_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Pre-modern literature in Syria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-modern_literature_in_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_literature_in_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_literature_in_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern literature in Syria</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_literature_in_Syria-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern literature in Syria subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_literature_in_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature_of_the_Arab_cultural_renaissance_(late_19th_and_early_20th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_of_the_Arab_cultural_renaissance_(late_19th_and_early_20th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Literature of the Arab cultural renaissance (late 19th and early 20th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_of_the_Arab_cultural_renaissance_(late_19th_and_early_20th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syrian_national_literature_since_the_mid-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syrian_national_literature_since_the_mid-20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Syrian national literature since the mid-20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syrian_national_literature_since_the_mid-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-20th-century_prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>20th-century prose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>20th-century poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century_theatre_and_screenplays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_theatre_and_screenplays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>20th-century theatre and screenplays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_theatre_and_screenplays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st-century_literature_in_the_context_of_imprisonment,_war_and_exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st-century_literature_in_the_context_of_imprisonment,_war_and_exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>21st-century literature in the context of imprisonment, war and exile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st-century_literature_in_the_context_of_imprisonment,_war_and_exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syrian_women_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syrian_women_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Syrian women writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syrian_women_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works_by_Syrian_writers_in_English_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works_by_Syrian_writers_in_English_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Selected works by Syrian writers in English translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works_by_Syrian_writers_in_English_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;">Syrian literature</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian Arabic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Literary genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_poets" title="Category:Syrian poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_novelists" title="Category:Syrian novelists">Novelists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_dramatists_and_playwrights" title="Category:Syrian dramatists and playwrights">Playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_children%27s_writers" title="Category:Syrian children's writers">Children's writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_non-fiction_writers" title="Category:Syrian non-fiction writers">Non-fiction writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_screenwriters" title="Category:Syrian screenwriters">Screenwriters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_translators" title="Category:Syrian translators">Translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_travel_writers" title="Category:Syrian travel writers">Travel writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_women_writers" title="Category:Syrian women writers">Women writers</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_novels" title="Category:Syrian novels">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_short_stories" title="Category:Syrian short stories">Short stories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_poets" title="Category:Syrian poets">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_dramatists_and_playwrights" title="Category:Syrian dramatists and playwrights">Plays</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Syrian writers</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_l-%CA%BFAl%C4%81%CA%BE_al-Ma%CA%BFarr%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī">al-Maʿarrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usama_ibn_Munqidh" title="Usama ibn Munqidh">ibn Munqidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanna_Diyab" title="Hanna Diyab">Diyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanna_Mina" title="Hanna Mina">Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakaria_Tamer" title="Zakaria Tamer">Tamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Barakat" title="Salim Barakat">Barakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Khalifa" title="Khaled Khalifa">Khalifa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haidar_Haidar" title="Haidar Haidar">Haidar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">al-Samman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Barakat" title="Salim Barakat">Barakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">al-Maghut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adonis_(poet)" title="Adonis (poet)">Adonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraj_Bayrakdar" title="Faraj Bayrakdar">Bayrakdar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Qabbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadallah_Wannous" title="Saadallah Wannous">Wannous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najat_Abdul_Samad" title="Najat Abdul Samad">Abdul Samad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rima_Bali" title="Rima Bali">Bali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dima_Wannous" title="Dima Wannous">Dima Wannous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samar_Yazbek" title="Samar Yazbek">Yazbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwaa_Yazji" title="Liwaa Yazji">Yazji</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline of Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Syrian_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:Syrian literature (page does not exist)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Syrian_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Syrian literature (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Syrian literature</b> is modern <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> written or orally performed in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> by writers from <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> since the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian Arab Republic</a> in 1946. It is part of the historically and geographically wider <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>. Literary works by Syrian authors in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria#Medieval_era" title="History of Syria">historical region of Syria</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad era</a> are considered general Arabic literature. In its historical development since the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Quran#Compilation_and_preservation" title="Quran">compilations of the Quran</a> in the 7th century and later written records, the Arabic language has been considered a geographically comprehensive, standardized written language due to the religious or literary works written in classical Arabic. This sometimes differs considerably from the individual regionally spoken variants, such as <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a> spoken forms of Arabic. </p><p>In Arabic, <i>bilad ash-sham</i> refers to the region of the eastern Mediterranean known in Europe as the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. The individual areas of this region have close historical, geographical and cultural similarities and during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> there were only administrative divisions. Especially between the larger cities such as <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, there has been active cultural exchange both in the past and present. </p><p>The modern states of Syria, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Autonomous_Areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian Autonomous Areas">Palestinian autonomous areas</a> only came into being in the mid-20th century. Therefore, Syrian literature has since been referred to by literary scholarship as the national literature of the Syrian Arab Republic, as well as the works created in Arabic by Syrian writers in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a>. This literature has been influenced by the country's political history, the literature of other Arabic-speaking countries and, especially in its early days, by <a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French literature</a>. </p><p>Thematically, modern Syrian literature has often been inspired by social and political conditions during the different stages of the country's recent history. Other prominent themes have been everyday life in major cities including Damascus and Aleppo, but also in villages and smaller towns, reflecting the writer's own experience. Especially for women writers, the gender-specific and often dire conditions of life for women have been a central theme. Apart from these specific social settings, general human experiences such as love, sexuality, isolation and <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a> themes have been expressed. </p><p>Apart from major literary <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genres</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">theatrical works</a>, contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses literature for <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">children</a> and <a href="/wiki/Young_adult_literature" title="Young adult literature">young readers</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral literature</a> and subgenres such as <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Utopian_and_dystopian_fiction" title="Utopian and dystopian fiction">utopian and dystopian fiction</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_of_Syrian_national_literature">Definitions of Syrian national literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions of Syrian national literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 2001 onwards, literary scholars have started to define a distinctly Syrian literature, referring to genres such as the Syrian novel, poetry or theatre, while other studies have also attempted to define a more general character of Syrian literature.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/The_Arabic_Encyclopedia" title="The Arabic Encyclopedia">Arabic Encyclopedia</a></i>, published after 1998 in Damascus, outlined both the history and modern era of literary writing in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both this Syrian encyclopedia as well as Western scholars have described the beginnings of a Syrian literature starting from the late 19th century, and as a concrete national literature since the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his essay "In Search of the Readers", Syrian literary scholar Abdo Abboud explained the different perspectives and justifications for the overarching literary category "Arabic literature" in contrast with national literatures in Arabic of individual countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese literature">Lebanese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_literature" title="Moroccan literature">Moroccan literature</a>. As a definition for these national literatures categories, he wrote: "Each of the 22 Arab states has its own literary world, and each of these literary worlds reflects the reality of the region on which it depends to a certain extent."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus Abboud posited that on the one hand, Syrian literature is marked by national references, but on the other hand, modern Syrian literature may also have a character independent of its place of origin, as in the works of Syrian writers <a href="/wiki/Haidar_Haidar" title="Haidar Haidar">Haidar Haidar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a> or <a href="/wiki/Adonis_(poet)" title="Adonis (poet)">Adonis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, until the founding of the modern state of Syria in 1946, the works of Syrian writers largely developed in similar cultural contexts as the literature in the geographic region of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. This is especially true for the works of the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Arab Renaissance</a> (<i>Nahda</i>), starting at the end of the 19th century. Syrian literature is therefore also part of a wider Arabic literature, due to the linguistic and cultural similarities of the literary works.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overarching dimension of Arabic literature can also be identified in the areas of publishing and readership. Many Syrian writers publish their works outside their home country, especially in Lebanon and Egypt, with publishers in <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Gulf countries</a> also gaining importance after 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, an important reason for the wider Arabic literature lies in the use of the Arabic written language:<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Despite regional dialects, Arabic in its standard version is a largely uniform language. This enables literature to reach its readers – at least in theory – in all Arab countries. The poet Nizar Qabbani once aptly said that he lived "in the same room" with 200 million Arabs. [...] Modern Arab literary creators find their audience, especially with their outstanding works, everywhere in the Arab world and by no means only in the respective region from which they themselves originate.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Abdo Abboud, Syrian literary scholar<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote><p> The American literary scholar of Syrian descent <a href="/wiki/Mohja_Kahf" title="Mohja Kahf">Mohja Kahf</a> began her 2001 essay "The Silences of Contemporary Syrian Literature" with the provocative thesis that there is no Syrian literature, which she blamed above all on the ambiguous definition of the country in geographical and historical terms.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, she described the works of numerous Syrian authors as Syrian literature, focusing on the conditions of writing under the dictatorship of the political regime. She especially emphasized the absence of certain political themes, due to the writers' dependence on the goodwill of the government, censorship and publication bans, such as the 1982 <a href="/wiki/1982_Hama_massacre" title="1982 Hama massacre">Hama massacre</a> and other forms of repression, which she saw absent in modern Syrian literature. Given the violations of human and political rights in the country, she emphasized the "silence" around these issues as an overarching feature:<sup id="cite_ref-:7_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Contemporary Syrian literature is created in the crucible of a tenacious authoritarianism. Manifold silence, evasion, indirect figurative speech, gaps and lacunae are striking features of Syrian writing, habits of thought and wary writerly techniques that have developed during an era dominated, [...], by authoritarian governments with heavy-handed censorship policies and stringent punitive measures.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Mohja Kahf, US-American literary scholar of Syrian descent</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Following the outbreak of the war in Syria in 2011, Kahf wrote that partially as a result of social media and the Internet, this silence had changed and "A new Syrian identity and literary tradition are being formed around the events of the last few years."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referring to works written under the influence of long-lasting government repression and the war since 2011, other scholars have discussed sub-genres such as Syrian prison literature and Syrian war literature.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2022, scholars of Arabic literature Daniel Behar and Alexa Firat stressed that the history of literature of Syria should not merely be categorized as reflections of political events, but rather as "a long literary past that feeds into literary production in the present." As Syrian literature is made up of "a rich tradition of styles, genres, tropes, and sensibilities", the authors posit "that Syrian literature should be examined with reference and regard to internal dynamics and autonomous modes of engagement with diverse literary and historical worlds rather than as determined by regime violence."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-modern_literature_in_Syria">Pre-modern literature in Syria</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-modern literature in Syria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg/220px-Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg/330px-Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg/440px-Al-Ma%CA%BFarri_Calligraphy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="90" data-file-height="75" /></a><figcaption>Arabic calligraphy of the name <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_l-%CA%BFAl%C4%81%CA%BE_al-Ma%CA%BFarr%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī">Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī</a>, a poet and philosopher in northern Syria (973–1057)</figcaption></figure> <p>Scholars have treated literature from the historical periods of Syria as part of the wider field of Arabic literature. Overviews on Arabic literature, such as the <i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature</i> only write of "Syrian" poetry, novels or drama from the modern period onwards and speak of Arabic literature "from Syria" in pre-modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 661</span> to 750 CE), with its seat of government in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">praise poems</a> about high-ranking personalities at court, written in the classical form of the <a href="/wiki/Qasida" title="Qasida">qasida</a>, and poems of ridicule against rivals played an important role. The poets <a href="/wiki/Al-Farazdaq" title="Al-Farazdaq">al-Farazdaq</a> (640–728),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Akhtal_al-Taghlibi" title="Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi">Al-Akhtal</a> (640–708),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Jarir_ibn_Atiyah" title="Jarir ibn Atiyah">Jarir ibn Atiyah</a> (c. 653 – c. 729),<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who had come to Damascus from various regions of the caliphate, were some of the important literary figures of this period. The four-volume <a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">anthology</a> <i>Yatīmat</i> by the Arab poet and medieval literary critic <a href="/wiki/Al-Tha%27alibi" title="Al-Tha'alibi">Al-Tha'alibi</a> (961–1038) and his subsequent anthology <i>Tatimmat</i> contain works by numerous poets in Syria at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These anthologies were followed by the historian <a href="/wiki/Imad_al-Din_al-Isfahani" title="Imad al-Din al-Isfahani">Imad al-Din al-Isfahani</a>'s (1125–1201) work <i>Kharidat al-qasr wa-jaridat al-'asr.</i> This anthology, written in the service of the Sultan of Syria <a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Zengi" title="Nur al-Din Zengi">Nur al-Din Zengi</a> and his successor <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, contains numerous mentions of Syrian poets and their verses.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The blind poet and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_l-%CA%BFAl%C4%81%CA%BE_al-Ma%CA%BFarr%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī">Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī</a> (973–1057) from <a href="/wiki/Maarat_an-Numan" class="mw-redirect" title="Maarat an-Numan">Maarat an-Numan</a> in northern Syria is considered as one of the greatest classical Arab poets. His <i><a href="/wiki/Risalat_al-Ghufran" title="Risalat al-Ghufran">risalat al-ghufran</a></i> has been compared with <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante's</a> <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Usama_ibn_Munqidh" title="Usama ibn Munqidh">Usama ibn Munqidh</a> (1095–1188), a Syrian writer and poet, <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">diplomat</a>, was one of the most important contemporary chroniclers of the <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">Crusades</a> from an Arab perspective. Due to his work as a diplomat, he knew important personalities personally, both on the Arab and Christian sides. His <a href="/wiki/Memoir" title="Memoir">memoir</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-I%27tibar" title="Kitab al-I'tibar">Kitab al-I'tibar</a></i> provides insight into the living conditions and the relationship between Christians and Muslims at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Ibn Abī Usaybiʿa</a> (c. 1194 – 1270), a Syrian physician, medical historian, and <a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">biographer</a>, wrote his <i>Literary History of Medicine</i>, which is primarily a collection of 380 biographies, mainly of Arabic-speaking physicians and scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg/220px-Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg/330px-Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg/440px-Poem_about_Baybars_page_1_from_Hakawati_book.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7008" data-file-height="4960" /></a><figcaption>Poem about <a href="/wiki/Baybars" title="Baybars">Sultan Baybars</a> from a Syrian hakawati book</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1709, the <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronite</a> storyteller <a href="/wiki/Hanna_Diyab" title="Hanna Diyab">Hanna Diyab</a> (1688 – c.1770) from <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> was involved in a work of <a href="/wiki/World_literature" title="World literature">world literature</a>, which has undergone numerous editions and translations since its first translation from Arabic into a European language. The French orientalist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Galland" title="Antoine Galland">Antoine Galland</a> published Diyab's stories <i><a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a></i> in his translation of <a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a>. Diyab had first told these and more than a dozen other stories to Galland, and Galland incorporated Diyab's tales as supposedly authentic parts of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two centuries later, Diyab's autobiographical <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">travelogue</a> was found in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Library" title="Vatican Library">Vatican Library</a>. After scholarly examination of this Arabic manuscript and confirmation of the author and his work, it was published in English in 2022 as <i>The Book of Travels</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the field of <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral literature</a> from Syria, folk tales, lyrics for songs, <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverbs</a> as well as improvised poems and <a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">storytelling</a> have been popular. In tea rooms and coffee houses, storytellers called <i>hakawati</i> entertained people with their tales, characterized by colloquial expressions, rhymes and exaggerations.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These stories may have originated from various traditional sources, such as <i>One Thousand and One Nights</i>, from epics by legendary Arab heroes such as <a href="/wiki/Antarah_ibn_Shaddad" title="Antarah ibn Shaddad">Antarah ibn Shaddad</a> and Sultan <a href="/wiki/Baybars" title="Baybars">Baybars</a> or from the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. By alternating between Standard Arabic and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">colloquial language</a>, the storyteller provided the different characters and situations with appropriate literary forms of expression.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to keep such stories alive in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">Syrian diaspora</a>, the bilingual anthology <i>Timeless Tales. Folktales told by Syrian Refugees,</i> published online in Arabic and English, presented traditional folk tales as told by <a href="/wiki/Syrian_refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian refugees">Syrian refugees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_literature_in_Syria">Modern literature in Syria</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern literature in Syria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern Syrian literature developed in the following periods:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>the emergence of modern literature in the Levant at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries</li> <li>the emergence of a national literature since the middle of the 20th century</li> <li>the literature in the context of war and imprisonment of the 21st century</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_of_the_Arab_cultural_renaissance_(late_19th_and_early_20th_century)"><span id="Literature_of_the_Arab_cultural_renaissance_.28late_19th_and_early_20th_century.29"></span>Literature of the Arab cultural renaissance (late 19th and early 20th century)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Literature of the Arab cultural renaissance (late 19th and early 20th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bint_fikr.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bint_fikr.PNG/195px-Bint_fikr.PNG" decoding="async" width="195" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bint_fikr.PNG/292px-Bint_fikr.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bint_fikr.PNG/390px-Bint_fikr.PNG 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption>Collection of poetry <i>Bint fikr</i> (<i>A Daughter of Thought</i>) by <a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a>, 1893</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, writers primarily from <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Lebanon and Syria created a reform-oriented cultural movement that became known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a></i> (Arab Renaissance) movement. Among other views, they argued that religion and scientific progress in their region are compatible. They viewed <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> as a viable basis for a modern Arab society, but at the same time called for a renewal of Islam in the spirit of the spirit of the age. In Syria, which was then still under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman rule</a>, intellectuals took part in the <i>Nahda</i> movement with their literary and programmatic works.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a> (1835–1874) was a Syrian <a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a> of the <i>Nahda,</i> who lived as a member of a cosmopolitan <a href="/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Melkite Greek Catholic Church">Melkite Greek Catholic</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>. Most of his works deal with science, history and religion, which he analyzed from a <a href="/wiki/Realism_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Realism (philosophy)">realist philosophical</a> view. His 1865 novel <i>Ghābat al-ḥaqq</i> <i>(Forest of Truth)</i> has been called one of the first novels in the Arabic language.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also influential in introducing <a href="/wiki/Romanticism#France" title="Romanticism">French romanticism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, especially through his use of poetic prose and <a href="/wiki/Prose_poetry" title="Prose poetry">prose poetry</a>, of which his writings were the first examples in modern <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>, according to literary scholar <a href="/wiki/Salma_Khadra_Jayyusi" title="Salma Khadra Jayyusi">Salma Khadra Jayyusi</a>. His modes of thinking and feeling, and ways of expressing them, have had a lasting influence on contemporary Arab thought and on the expatriate <a href="/wiki/Mahjar" title="Mahjar">Mahjari poets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marrash's brother <a href="/wiki/Abdallah_Marrash" title="Abdallah Marrash">Abdallah</a> (1839–1900) also achieved literary importance, while his sister <a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a> (1848–1919) was known as poet and for her <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">literary salon</a>. She was the first Syrian woman to publish a volume of poetry, and wrote literary articles in the Arabic press.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, Aleppo was an important intellectual center of the Ottoman Empire, where many intellectuals and writers were concerned with the future of Arab culture. The Marrash family had learned Arabic, French and other foreign languages, such as Italian and English in French mission schools.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Qustaki_al-Himsi" title="Qustaki al-Himsi">Qustaki al-Himsi</a> (1858–1941), a well-traveled and wealthy businessman from Aleppo, was another Syrian writer, translator from French and poet of the <i>Nahda</i> movement. As one of the first reformers of traditional <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>, he became a prominent figure in Arabic literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. Himsi is considered the founder of modern <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> among Arab intellectuals through his three-volume treatise <i>The Researcher's Source in the Science of Criticism</i> (1907 and 1935).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Syrian <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literary_critic" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary critic">literary critic</a> and founder of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Arabic_Language_in_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus">Academy of the Arabic Language in Damascus</a> in 1918, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Kurd_Ali" title="Muhammad Kurd Ali">Muhammad Kurd Ali</a> (1876–1953), is considered one of the great personalities of the Arab renaissance movement.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syrian_national_literature_since_the_mid-20th_century">Syrian national literature since the mid-20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Syrian national literature since the mid-20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the 1930s, a new generation of a modern literary movement emerged, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a> and <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> genres. These include the historical novels by Ma'ruf Ahmad al-Arna'ut (1892–1942) as well as <i>al-Naham</i> (1937, <i>Greed</i>) and <i>Qawz-quzah</i> (<i>Rainbow,</i> 1946) by Shakib al-Jabiri, which represent milestones in the development of modern fiction in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, the partition of neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> led to a new turning point in Syrian literature. <i>Adab al-Iltizam</i>, the "literature of political engagement" characterized by <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a>, largely replaced the romantic trend of the past decades. Prominent representatives belonged to the League of Arab Writers founded in Damascus in 1951 and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Writers_Union" title="Arab Writers Union">Arab Writers Union</a> that later emerged from it in 1969. The writers in this union shaped the literature of socialist oriented realism for the next twenty years. <a href="/wiki/Hanna_Mina" title="Hanna Mina">Hanna Mina</a> (1924–2018), who rejected <a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">art for art's sake</a> and dealt with the social and political problems of his time, was one of the foremost Syrian novelists of this movement. After the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> in 1967, <i>Adab al-Naksa</i>, the "literature of defeat", represented the next important genre in light of the Arab defeat.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria#Baath_Party_rule_under_Hafez_al-Assad.2C_1970.E2.80.932000" title="History of Syria">Baath Party rule</a> since the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 coup</a> brought about stifling censorship. As literary scholar Hanadi Al-Samman puts it, "In the face of threats of persecution or imprisonment, most of Syria's writers had to make a choice between living a life of artistic freedom in exile [...] or resorting to subversive modes of expression that seemingly comply with the demands of the authoritarian police state while undermining and questioning the legitimacy of its rule through subtle literary techniques and new genres".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Syrian literature in the late 20th and early 21st centuries displays characteristics of long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian rule</a>. The central theme in the Syrian novel of the 2000s is the constant threat of surveillance and oppression by the secret services (<i>mukhābarāt</i>) and other governmental organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1977, the Syrian writer and journalist <a href="/wiki/Zakaria_Tamer" title="Zakaria Tamer">Zakaria Tamer</a> (b. 1931) remarked: "The power of words is ridiculous in a country that is 70% illiterate."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the high number of publishers (379 publishers listed by the Ministry of Economic Affairs in 2004), the numbers of published literary works are relatively low. Among others, several major reasons have been named:<sup id="cite_ref-:5_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>watching television as a privileged leisure activity</li> <li>the low number of libraries and bookstores</li> <li>the price of the books</li> <li>the shortage of skilled staff in the book sector</li> <li>illegal reprints without regard to author's rights</li> <li>censorship with revisions taking several months</li> <li>as well as the banning of numerous works</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th-century_prose">20th-century prose</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 20th-century prose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1960, the year he published his first collection of short stories, <a href="/wiki/Zakaria_Tamer" title="Zakaria Tamer">Zakaria Tamer</a> has been one of the best-known prose authors among the Arab public. In his work, he places figures from the Arabic literary tradition in new contexts and thus alludes to the present of his readers. Apart from many short stories, Tamer also wrote books for children and as <a href="/wiki/Columnist" title="Columnist">columnist</a> for Arabic newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After working for many years as a public employee in the Syrian Ministry of Culture and at Syrian state television, he moved to London in 1981, where he also worked as a cultural journalist for Arabic newspapers and magazines.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Haidar_Haidar" title="Haidar Haidar">Haidar Haidar</a> (1936–2023), who came from a village on the Mediterranean coast north of <a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a> with a majority <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawite</a> population, was known for his critical attitude towards political and religious institutions and his controversial topics.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote seventeen works of novels, short stories, <a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">essays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">biographies</a>, including <i>Az-Zaman al-Muhish</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Desolate_Time" title="The Desolate Time">The Desolate Time</a></i>), which was listed as number 7 by the Arab Writers Union as one of the 100 best Arabic novels of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His novel <i>Walimah li A'ashab al-Bahr</i>, (<i><a href="/wiki/A_Feast_for_the_Seaweeds" title="A Feast for the Seaweeds">A Feast for the Seaweeds</a></i>), first published in Beirut in 1983, was banned in several Arab countries and led to an angry reaction from clerics at <i>Al-Azhar University</i> when the book was reprinted in Egypt in 2000. The clerics issued a <i>fatwa </i>, banning the novel and accused Haidar of heresy and insulting <i>Islam</i>. The plot focuses on two left-wing <a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqi</a> intellectuals who fled their country in the 1970s and who blame dictators and authoritarian politics for the oppression in the Arab world.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a> (* 1942) comes from a bourgeois Damascene family. Her father was for some time president of <a href="/wiki/Damascus_University" title="Damascus University">Damascus University</a>. After initially studying English literature, she went to Beirut to obtain a Master of Arts in Theatre Studies at the <a href="/wiki/American_University_of_Beirut" title="American University of Beirut">American University of Beirut</a>. Among other topics, her works deal with the Six-Day War and the problems of Lebanon before and during the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a>, which began in 1975 and only ended in 1990. She is also considered a <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> author due to her texts that deal with the social and psychological restrictions for women in the Arab world. Al-Samman initially worked as a journalist and published more than 40 novels, short stories, collections of poetry and <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiographical</a> works that have been translated into several languages. Her novels and short stories express strong <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> sentiment and criticize <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> by siding with the <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinians</a>. In some of her novels, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Beirut_75" title="Beirut 75">Beirut '75</a></i>, she exposes <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class differences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> conflicts and corruption in the Lebanese capital and indirectly predicted the civil war that would soon follow. Al-Samman never returned to Syria after her years in Beirut and has lived in Paris since the mid-1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salim_Barakat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Salim_Barakat.jpg/220px-Salim_Barakat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Salim_Barakat.jpg/330px-Salim_Barakat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Salim_Barakat.jpg/440px-Salim_Barakat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of Salim Barakat</figcaption></figure> <p>The early works of the <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria" title="Kurds in Syria">Syrian Kurdish</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Salim_Barakat" title="Salim Barakat">Salim Barakat</a> (* 1951), born in <a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a>, are characterized by his youthful experiences with the diverse cultural influences of the Arab, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria" title="Armenians in Syria">Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Syria" title="Circassians in Syria">Circassian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidi</a> ethnic groups in this region bordering <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. In 1970, Barakat traveled to Damascus to study Arabic literature, but after a year moved on to Beirut, where he lived until 1982. During his stay in Beirut, he published five volumes of poetry, a diary and two volumes of autobiographies. His volume of short stories from 1980, <i>The Iron Grasshopper</i> contains depictions of the life of the Kurdish population in his homeland. In 1982 he moved to <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and worked as editor-in-chief of the literary magazine <a href="/wiki/Al_Karmel" title="Al Karmel">Al Karmel</a>, whose editor was the Palestinian poet <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Darwish" title="Mahmoud Darwish">Mahmoud Darwish</a>. In 1999 Barakat emigrated to Sweden, where he has lived ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Khalifa" title="Khaled Khalifa">Khaled Khalifa</a> (1964–2023), born in a village near Aleppo and living in Damascus from the late 1990s until his death, was a Syrian novelist, screenwriter and poet who is also one of the well-known Arab authors. Khalifa studied law at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a>. He was co-founder and co-editor of the literary magazine <i>Alif</i>, a forum for experimental writing, and a member of the Literary Forum at the University of Aleppo. Khalifa wrote novels and screenplays for films and television series that were adapted into films by Syrian directors. In 2013 he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfouz_Medal_for_Literature" title="Naguib Mahfouz Medal for Literature">Naguib Mahfouz Medal for Literature</a> and was nominated three times for the <a href="/wiki/International_Prize_for_Arabic_Fiction" title="International Prize for Arabic Fiction">International Prize for Arabic Fiction</a>. His works were often critical of Syria's <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'athist</a> government and were banned in the country and edited by Lebanese publishers. His novels <i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Hatred" title="In Praise of Hatred">In Praise of Hatred</a>, <a href="/wiki/No_Knives_in_the_Kitchens_of_This_City" title="No Knives in the Kitchens of This City">No Knives in the Kitchens of This City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Death_Is_Hard_Work" title="Death Is Hard Work">Death is Hard Work</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>No One Prayed Over Their Graves</i> have been translated into several languages.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other notable <a href="/wiki/Category:Syrian_novelists" title="Category:Syrian novelists">Syrian prose writers</a> since the late 20th century include <a href="/wiki/Khairy_Alzahaby" title="Khairy Alzahaby">Khairy Alzahaby</a> (1946-2022) <a href="/wiki/Taissier_Khalaf" title="Taissier Khalaf">Taissier Khalaf</a>, a novelist and cultural historian born in 1967 in <a href="/wiki/Quneitra" title="Quneitra">Quneitra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fawwaz_Haddad" title="Fawwaz Haddad">Fawwaz Haddad</a> (b. 1947) and <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Khalifa" title="Mustafa Khalifa">Mustafa Khalifa</a> (b. 1948), two of the many writers who included <a href="#Literature_in_the_context_of_war_and_imprisonment">war and imprisonment</a> in their stories, <a href="/wiki/Yaa%27rab_al-Eissa" title="Yaa'rab al-Eissa">Ya'rab al-Eissa</a> (b. 1969), <a href="/wiki/Haitham_Hussein" title="Haitham Hussein">Haitham Hussein</a> (b. 1978), <a href="/wiki/Ghamar_Mahmoud" title="Ghamar Mahmoud">Ghamar Mahmoud</a> (b. 1980), as well as a growing number of women writers <a href="#Syrian_women_writers">mentioned below</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th-century_poetry">20th-century poetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 20th-century poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adonis-1084.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Adonis-1084.jpg/220px-Adonis-1084.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Adonis-1084.jpg/330px-Adonis-1084.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Adonis-1084.jpg/440px-Adonis-1084.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2865" data-file-height="2865" /></a><figcaption>Adonis in 2015</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Adunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adunis">Ali Ahmad Said</a> (* 1930), who publishes under his pen name Adonis, was born near <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> in northern Syria in 1930. After some years in Beirut, he has lived in Paris since 1985. Adonis is one of the best-known poets on the Arab and international literary scene. In 1957, together with his compatriot <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Khal" title="Yusuf al-Khal">Yusuf al-Khal</a> (1917–1987) and other renowned writers, he started the avant-garde literary magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Shi%27r" title="Shi'r">Shi'r</a></i> ("Poetry"), in which the authors opposed the formal <a href="/wiki/Rigour" title="Rigour">rigour</a> and traditional styles of classical <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>. By drawing on the content of historical Arabic poets, who knew no taboos and were, among other things, critical of religion, Adonis intended to revitalize this intellectual openness. In addition to his poems, Adonis repeatedly caused a stir in the Arab world with his critical essays.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yusuf al-Khal made a name for himself as a poet and <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theorist</a> as well as through his translations, primarily of English and American literature, into Arabic. As a <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Syrian Christian</a>, he also translated the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New</a> and part of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> into Arabic. In the last year of his life, he advocated the use of colloquial Arabic in literature and from then on consistently wrote in <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nizar_qabbani_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nizar_qabbani_01.jpg/220px-Nizar_qabbani_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Nizar_qabbani_01.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Nizar Qabbani</figcaption></figure> <p>The Damascus-born poet <a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Nizar Qabbani</a> (1923–1998) is one of Syria's best-known poets. As a young man, he studied law and later became ambassador of his country until 1966. In verses that were unusually modern for the conservative audience at the time, he not only treated conventional descriptions of love, but also <a href="/wiki/Exoticism" title="Exoticism">eroticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erotic_art" title="Erotic art">sexuality</a>. On this, he commented: "Love is a prisoner in the Arab world that I would like to free. I want to liberate the Arab soul, feeling and body with my poetry." Unlike classical Arabic poetry, Qabbani wrote his poems in familiar and sometimes straightforward language, which made his poetry accessible to a wide Arabic-reading public. He published more than 30 volumes of poetry as well as regular articles in the pan-Arab newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Hayat" title="Al-Hayat">al-Hayat</a></i>, published in London. Qabbani is also known for his verses about love that have been used by well-known Arab singers as lyrics for their songs.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The poet, <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a> and essayist <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">Muhammad al-Maghut</a> (1934–2006) is considered one of the first authors of Arabic <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a> by liberating his poems from the traditional forms and revolutionizing their structure. He wrote his first poems in prison on cigarette paper in the 1950s. Written as a personal <a href="/wiki/Memoir" title="Memoir">memoir</a> about the prison experience, this was later regarded as revolutionary poetry. Without any formal training, he used his vivid imagination, his innate command of words and his intuition. Further, he wrote for the theatre, television and cinema. Maghout's work combined <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a> with descriptions of social misery and the ethical decay among the region's rulers. His play for the theatre, <i>Al-ousfour al ahdab</i> (<i>The Hunchback Bird),</i> was originally a long poem written while hiding in a small, low-ceilinged room. This poem started as a dialogue that he later transformed into his first play. Al-Maghut also collaborated with Syrian actors <a href="/wiki/Duraid_Lahham" title="Duraid Lahham">Duraid Lahham</a> and Nihad Qal'i to produce some of the region's most popular plays, such as <i>Kasak ya Watan (<a href="/wiki/Cheers_to_You,_Nation" title="Cheers to You, Nation">Cheers to You, Nation</a>), Ghorbeh (Alienation)</i> and <i>Dayat Tishreen (October Village).</i><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th-century_theatre_and_screenplays">20th-century theatre and screenplays</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 20th-century theatre and screenplays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam,_V1,_Page_325.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam%2C_V1%2C_Page_325.jpg/220px-Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam%2C_V1%2C_Page_325.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam%2C_V1%2C_Page_325.jpg/330px-Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam%2C_V1%2C_Page_325.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam%2C_V1%2C_Page_325.jpg/440px-Abu_Khalil_Qabbani_-_Al-Alam%2C_V1%2C_Page_325.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>Historical photograph of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Khalil_Qabbani" title="Abu Khalil Qabbani">Abu Khalil Qabbani</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Theatre productions in European style presenting plays translated from French had already been performed in Damascus in the 1880s, when Salim and Hanna Anhouri opened a theatre hall in the Bab Touma district.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a> <a href="/wiki/Abu_Khalil_Qabbani" title="Abu Khalil Qabbani">Abu Khalil Qabbani</a> (1835–1902) is credited with fostering the development of theatre in Damascus in the nineteenth century. In addition to writing theatrical works, he formed theatre troupes and opened a theatre in Damascus.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadgrove_2010_loc=266-270_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadgrove_2010_loc=266-270-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern Syrian theatre became popular after 1959, when the National Theatre Company was created. This company performed both in the Al-Hamra Theatre with 500 seats and in a theatre half that size, built for this purpose and named after Qabbani.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His legacy is also reflected in the play <i>An Evening with Abu Khalil Qabbani</i>, by the Syrian playwright <a href="/wiki/Saadallah_Wannous" title="Saadallah Wannous">Saadallah Wannous</a> (1941–1999).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wannous has been considered as a major representative of Arab <a href="/wiki/Political_drama" title="Political drama">political drama</a> since the 1970s. With some of his plays influenced by German writer <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a>, Wannous reached audiences who did not usually read prose literature. He was also editor of the Arts and Culture section of the Syrian newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Baath" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Baath">Al-Baath</a></i> and the Lebanese daily <i><a href="/wiki/As-Safir" title="As-Safir">As-Safir</a></i>. Further, Wannous was a long-time director of the Syrian administration for music and theatre and editor of the theatre magazine <i>Hayat al-masrah (Theater Life</i>). He was also a founding member and lecturer of the <a href="/wiki/Higher_Institute_of_Dramatic_Arts_(Damascus)" title="Higher Institute of Dramatic Arts (Damascus)">Higher Institute of Dramatic Arts</a> in Damascus.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Walid_Ikhlasi" title="Walid Ikhlasi">Walid Ikhlasi</a> (1935–2022), besides being known as author of short stories and novels, was a lecturer for <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">dramatic arts</a> and an innovative playwright. His style is characterized by an experimental, <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">surrealistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Absurdist_fiction" title="Absurdist fiction">absurd</a> nature, often mixed with a realistic tone.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mamdouh_Adwan" title="Mamdouh Adwan">Mamdouh Adwan</a> (1941–2004) was a prolific writer, lecturer and author for the theatre and television series. In addition to numerous plays and <a href="/wiki/Screenplay" title="Screenplay">screenplays</a>, his works include poetry collections, novels, newspaper articles and literary translations from English into Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Al_Attar" title="Mohammad Al Attar">Mohammad Al Attar</a> (b. 1980) is a contemporary Syrian playwright and <a href="/wiki/Dramaturge" title="Dramaturge">dramaturg</a> who emigrated to Berlin after studying in Damascus. His plays, written in Arabic, have been performed in original and translated versions since the 2000s, including in theatres of the Middle East, the USA, Great Britain, France and Germany. Because his plays have dealt with the fate of refugees and the war in his country, he has been described as "an important chronicler of war-torn Syria."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar fates and experiences are present in <a href="/wiki/Liwaa_Yazji" title="Liwaa Yazji">Liwaa Yazji</a>'s plays <i>Goats</i> (2017) and <i>Q & Q</i> (2016), performed at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre" title="Royal Court Theatre">Royal Court Theatre</a>, London,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival_Fringe" title="Edinburgh Festival Fringe">Edinburgh Fringe Festival</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st-century_literature_in_the_context_of_imprisonment,_war_and_exile"><span id="21st-century_literature_in_the_context_of_imprisonment.2C_war_and_exile"></span>21st-century literature in the context of imprisonment, war and exile</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 21st-century literature in the context of imprisonment, war and exile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Especially since the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_revolution" title="Syrian revolution">Syrian revolution</a> and the ensuing Syrian civil war after 2011, a large number of novels, poems and corresponding non-fiction works inspired by <a href="/wiki/Prison_literature" title="Prison literature">imprisonment</a>, torture and <a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">war</a>, have been published.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mustafa Khalifa (b. 1948) wrote his 2008 autobiographical novel <i>The Shell</i> based on his experience of 13 years as a political prisoner.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooke175_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooke175-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fawwaz Haddad (b. 1947) described the beginnings of the regional conflicts in his 2010 novel <i>Soldiers of God,</i> including the atrocities of the clashes between <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a> fighters, U.S. soldiers and torture victims in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to literary critic Anne-Marie McManus, these "contemporary works of art can shed much-needed light on the political, social and psychological contours of an uprising."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to political repression and the ongoing war, many Syrian writers have fled abroad, creating works of Syrian <a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature#Arabic_exile_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">exile literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among many others, these include Salim Barakat and <a href="/wiki/Faraj_Bayrakdar" title="Faraj Bayrakdar">Faraj Bayrakdar</a> (b. 1951) in Sweden, <a href="/wiki/Jan_P%C3%AAt_Khorto" title="Jan Pêt Khorto">Jan Pêt Khorto</a> (b. 1986) in Denmark, <a href="/wiki/Rasha_Omran" title="Rasha Omran">Rasha Omran</a> (b. 1964) in Egypt, Ibrahim Samuel (b. 1951) and <a href="/wiki/Shahla_Ujayli" title="Shahla Ujayli">Shahla Ujayli</a> (b. 1976) in Jordan,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fadi_Azzam" title="Fadi Azzam">Fadi Azzam</a> (b. 1973), <a href="/wiki/Dima_Wannous" title="Dima Wannous">Dima Wannous</a> (b. 1982), <a href="/wiki/Ghalia_Qabbani" title="Ghalia Qabbani">Ghalia Qabbani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haitham_Hussein" title="Haitham Hussein">Haitham Hussein</a> (b. 1978) in the United Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Hala_Mohammad" title="Hala Mohammad">Hala Mohammad</a> (b. 1959), Mustafa Khalifa (b. 1948), <a href="/wiki/Samar_Yazbek" title="Samar Yazbek">Samar Yazbek</a> (b. 1970), <a href="/wiki/Golan_Haji" title="Golan Haji">Golan Haji</a> (b. 1971) and <a href="/wiki/Omar_Youssef_Souleimane" title="Omar Youssef Souleimane">Omar Youssef Souleimane</a> (b. 1987) in France, as well as <a href="/wiki/Nihad_Sirees" title="Nihad Sirees">Nihad Sirees</a> (b. 1950), Ali al-Kurdi (b. 1953), <a href="/wiki/Yassin_al-Haj_Saleh" title="Yassin al-Haj Saleh">Yassin al Haj-Saleh</a> (b. 1961), <a href="/wiki/Jan_Dost" title="Jan Dost">Jan Dost</a> (b. 1965), <a href="/wiki/Najat_Abdul_Samad" title="Najat Abdul Samad">Najat Abdul Samad</a> (b. 1967), Aref Hamza (b. 1974), Osama Esber (b. 1963), <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Yaseen_Hasan" title="Rosa Yaseen Hasan">Rosa Yassin Hassan</a> (b. 1974), Liwaa Yazji (b. 1977), Aboud Saeed (b. 1983), <a href="/wiki/Rasha_Abbas" title="Rasha Abbas">Rasha Abbas</a> (b. 1984) and <a href="/wiki/Widad_Nabi" title="Widad Nabi">Widad Nabi</a> (b. 1985) in Germany. As these authors continue to write and publish their works in Arabic, they are banned in Syria. With regard to the expectations of Western audiences, some Syrian authors have complained, however, that their works are often not met with an interest primarily for literary reasons. Rather, their works are expected to meet <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalist</a> clichés, for example regarding the dangers of the flight into exile or the <a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">trope</a> of the oppressed Arab woman.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exiled in London, the writer and activist Dima Wannous published ironic stories about people in her home country under the title <i>Dark Clouds over Damascus</i>. In addition to her novels, Samar Yazbek also published the non-fiction book <i>The Stolen Revolution. Travels to my devastated Syria.</i> Liwaa Yazji's work as a writer of plays and screenplays is similarly marked by her reflections on the cruelty of the war in Syria, her situation as a writer in exile with family members in Syria who take sides against this war.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2022 literary study investigated the loss of a place called <i>home</i> for Syrians. <a href="/wiki/Maha_Hassan" title="Maha Hassan">Maha Hassan</a>'s <i>Drums of Love </i>and Ghassan Jubbaʿi's <i>Qahwat Al-General </i>served as examples of contemporary Syrian literature following the Syrian revolution. The study posited "that in both works a real sense of home proves unattainable" and "that the unattainable sense of home depicted in the novels marks such texts as a part of the enduring legacy of the Syrian revolution and its causes."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syrian_women_writers">Syrian women writers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Syrian women writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg/220px-%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg/330px-%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg/440px-%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Liwaa Yazji in 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>Many women writers have contributed to the development of modern Syrian and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest works of modern literature and journalism by Syrian women writers since the late 19th century, for example by <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ajami" title="Mary Ajami">Mary Ajami</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_literary_salons_and_societies_in_the_Arab_world#The_Women's_Literary_Club_(Damascus)" title="Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world">Damascus Women's Literary Club</a>, or by Maryana Marrash (1848–1919), showed tendencies of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a>. Since the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_literature" title="Experimental literature">experimental novels</a> and contemporary themes, such as discrimination against women, have been published by <a href="/wiki/Ulfat_Idlibi" title="Ulfat Idlibi">Ulfat Idlibi</a> (1912–2007), <a href="/wiki/Widad_Sakakini" title="Widad Sakakini">Widad Sakakini</a> (1913–1991), <a href="/wiki/Salma_Kuzbari" title="Salma Kuzbari">Salma Kuzbari</a> (1923–2006), <a href="/wiki/Colette_Khoury" title="Colette Khoury">Colette Khoury</a> (b. 1931) and <a href="/wiki/Sania_Saleh" title="Sania Saleh">Sania Saleh</a> (1935–1985), among others. Women writers of the next generation include <a href="/wiki/Samar_al-%27A%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%AD%C4%81r" title="Samar al-'Aṭṭār">Samar al-'Aṭṭār</a> (b. 1945), Ghada al-Samman, <a href="/wiki/Hamida_Nana" title="Hamida Nana">Hamida Nana</a> (b. 1946), <a href="/wiki/Marie_Seurat" title="Marie Seurat">Marie Seurat</a> (b. Bachi, 1949), <a href="/wiki/Salwa_Al_Neimi" title="Salwa Al Neimi">Salwa Al Neimi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibtisam_Ibrahim_Teresa" title="Ibtisam Ibrahim Teresa">Ibtisam Ibrahim Teresa</a> (b. 1959), <a href="/wiki/Hayfa_Baytar" title="Hayfa Baytar">Hayfa Baytar</a> (b. 1960)<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Maram_al-Masri" title="Maram al-Masri">Maram al-Masri</a> (b. 1962).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were followed by <a href="/wiki/Lina_Hawyani_al-Hasan" title="Lina Hawyani al-Hasan">Lina Hawyani al-Hasan</a> (b. 1975), Maha Hassan, Rasha Abbas, <a href="/wiki/Rasha_Omran" title="Rasha Omran">Rasha Omran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghalia_Qabbani" title="Ghalia Qabbani">Ghalia Qabbani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Yaseen_Hasan" title="Rosa Yaseen Hasan">Rosa Yaseen Hassan</a>, Dima Wannous, Samar Yazbek and Liwaa Yazji.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, Najat Abdul Samad's work <i>La Ma' Yarweeha</i> won the <a href="/wiki/Katara_Prize_for_Arabic_Novel" title="Katara Prize for Arabic Novel">Katara Prize for Arabic Novels</a>, and fellow Syrian <a href="/wiki/Maria_Dadouch" title="Maria Dadouch">Maria Dadoush</a> was awarded the Katara Prize the same year for her unpublished <a href="/wiki/Young_adult_literature" title="Young adult literature">young adult novel</a> <i>The Planet of the Unbelievable</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 2024, the novel <i>Suleima's Ring</i> by Syrian <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré">emigré</a> in Spain <a href="/wiki/Rima_Bali" title="Rima Bali">Rima Bali</a> was shortlisted for the <a href="/wiki/International_Prize_for_Arabic_Fiction" title="International Prize for Arabic Fiction">International Prize for Arabic Fiction</a>, a renowned literary award in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works_by_Syrian_writers_in_English_translation">Selected works by Syrian writers in English translation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Selected works by Syrian writers in English translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adonis. <i>Adonis: Selected Poems</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Khaled_Mattawa" title="Khaled Mattawa">Khaled Mattawa</a>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010.</li> <li>Azrak, Michel G. (ed.). <i>Modern Syrian Short Stories</i>. (English and Arabic), Three Continents Press, 1988.</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBayrakdar2021" class="citation book cs1">Bayrakdar, Faraj (2021). Alcalay, Ammiel; Taleghani, Shareah (eds.). <i>A Dove in Free Flight</i>. Upset Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dove+in+Free+Flight&rft.pub=Upset+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Bayrakdar&rft.aufirst=Faraj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Barakat, Salim. <i>Come, Take a Gentle Stab: Selected Poems</i>, translated by Huda J. Fakhreddine and Jayson Iwen. The Arab List. London ; New York: Seagull Books, 2021.</li> <li>Diyab, Ḥanna, <i>The Book of Travels</i>, edited by Johannes Stephan, translated by Elias Muhanna, 2 vols. New York: New York University Press, 2021, ISBN 9781479810949</li> <li>Idilbi, Ulfat. <i>Grandfather's Tale</i>. Northampton, Mass.: Interlink Books, 1999.</li> <li>Ikhlaṣi, Walid. <i>Whatever Happened to Antara and Other Stories</i>, translated by Asmahan Sallah and Chris Ellery. Austin, TX: Center for Middle Eastern Studies at The University of Texas, 2004.</li> <li>Khalifah, Khalid. <i>Death Is Hard Work</i>, translated by Leri Price. London, U.K.: Faber & Faber, 2020.</li> <li>Khalifa, Moustafa. <i>The Shell.</i> Northampton, Mass.: Interlink Books, 2016.</li> <li>Maghuṭ, Muhammad, and <a href="/wiki/Salma_Khadra_Jayyusi" title="Salma Khadra Jayyusi">Salma Khadra Jayyusi</a>. <i>The Fan of Swords: Poems</i>, translated by May Jayyusi and Naomi Shihab Nye. Washington, D.C: Three Continents Press, 1991.</li> <li>Minah, Hanna. <i>Fragments of Memory: A Story of a Syrian Family</i>, translated by Olive E. Kenny and Lorne Kenny. Northampton, Mass.: Interlink Books, 2004.</li> <li>Qabbani, Nizar. <i>On Entering the Sea: The Erotic and Other Poetry of Nizar Qabbani</i>, translated by Lena Jayyusi and Sharif Elmusa. New York, NY: Interlink Books, 2013.</li> <li>Samman, Ghadah. <i>The Night of the First Billion</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Nancy_N._Roberts" title="Nancy N. Roberts">Nancy N. Roberts</a>. 1st ed. Middle East Literature in Translation. Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 2005.</li> <li>Seurat, Marie. <i>Birds of Ill Omen</i>. London: Quartet, 1990.</li> <li>Nihad Sirees. <i>The Silence and the Roar</i>. The Other Press, translated by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weiss_(scholar)" title="Max Weiss (scholar)">Max Weiss</a>, 2013.</li> <li>Tamer, Zakariya. <i>Sour Grapes</i>, translated by Alessandro Columbu and Mireia Costa Capallera. Middle East Literature in Translation. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2023.</li> <li>Wannous, Dimah. <i>The Frightened Ones</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Jaquette" title="Elisabeth Jaquette">Elisabeth Jaquette</a>. London: Harvel Secker, 2020.</li> <li>Yazbek, Samar. <i>Planet of Clay</i>, translated by Leri Price. New York: World Editions, 2021.</li> <li>Yazji, Liwaa. <i>Goats</i>, translated by Katharine Halls. London: Nick Hearne Books Limited, 2017.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture of Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History of Syria</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syria_Speaks:_Art_and_Culture_from_the_Frontline" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria Speaks: Art and Culture from the Frontline">Syria Speaks: Art and Culture from the Frontline</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, the studies by Mohja Kahf (2001), Alexa Firat (2010), Elisabeth Vauthier (2014), Anne-Marie McManus (2014 and 2018) cited in the section below for Literature.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Firat (2017) wrote: "This chapter examines the origins of the novel genre in Syria. Approximately eighteen novels by "Syrians" were published between 1865 and the 1930s, but only a limited number would have a significant influence in subsequent decades. In the 1930s, literary histories described an emerging "new generation" and the beginnings of a modern literary movement in the novel and the short story, and during the 1950s the practice of novel writing took on a truly meaningful proportion in Syria." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirat2017" class="citation web cs1">Firat, Alexa (10 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28101/chapter-abstract/212203643?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">"Syria"</a>. <i>academic.oup.com</i>. p. 439<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=academic.oup.com&rft.atitle=Syria&rft.pages=439&rft.date=2017-08-10&rft.aulast=Firat&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F28101%2Fchapter-abstract%2F212203643%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext%26login%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Anne-Marie McManus (2014), p. 323. "The marketing and reception of Syrian literature and cultural production in English since 2011 have upheld the premise that contemporary artworks can shed much-needed light on the political, social, and psychological contours of an uprising that continues to inspire and confound observers in Europe and the United States."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Zeid" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abu Zeid, Ali. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240427104839/https://arab-ency.com.sy/details/7823">"سورية (الأدب في-)"</a> [Literature in Syria] (in Arabic). The Arabic Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on April 27, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9+%28%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8+%D9%81%D9%8A-%29&rft.pub=The+Arabic+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Abu+Zeid&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farab-ency.com.sy%2Fdetails%2F7823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbboud2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abboud, Abdo (2013). "Auf der Suche nach den Lesern. Grundzüge und Probleme der modernen arabischen Literatur.". In Schneiders, T.G. (ed.). <i>Die Araber im 21. Jahrhundert</i> [<i>Looking for the readers. Basic traits and problems of modern Arabic literature.</i>] (in German). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. pp. 285–296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-531-19093-8_17">10.1007/978-3-531-19093-8_17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-531-18526-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-531-18526-2"><bdi>978-3-531-18526-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Auf+der+Suche+nach+den+Lesern.+Grundz%C3%BCge+und+Probleme+der+modernen+arabischen+Literatur.&rft.btitle=Die+Araber+im+21.+Jahrhundert.&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=285-296&rft.pub=Springer+Fachmedien+Wiesbaden&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-531-19093-8_17&rft.isbn=978-3-531-18526-2&rft.aulast=Abboud&rft.aufirst=Abdo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlessandro_Columbu2022" class="citation cs2">Alessandro Columbu (2022-12-29), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OuySEAAAQBAJ&dq=Arabic+and+Syrian+literature&pg=PA1"><i>Zakariyya Tamir and the Politics of the Syrian Short Story: Modernity, Authoritarianism and Gender</i></a>, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 1, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4412-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4412-4"><bdi>978-0-7556-4412-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-26</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zakariyya+Tamir+and+the+Politics+of+the+Syrian+Short+Story%3A+Modernity%2C+Authoritarianism+and+Gender&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2022-12-29&rft.isbn=978-0-7556-4412-4&rft.au=Alessandro+Columbu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuySEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DArabic%2Band%2BSyrian%2Bliterature%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang2021" class="citation cs2">Lang, Felix (2021), Ouaissa, Rachid; Pannewick, Friederike; Strohmaier, Alena (eds.), "Transformations of the "Syrian" Literary Field Since 2011", <i>Re-Configurations: Contextualising Transformation Processes and Lasting Crises in the Middle East and North Africa</i>, Politik und Gesellschaft des Nahen Ostens, Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, pp. 264–266, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-31160-5_17">10.1007/978-3-658-31160-5_17</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-31160-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-31160-5"><bdi>978-3-658-31160-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Re-Configurations%3A+Contextualising+Transformation+Processes+and+Lasting+Crises+in+the+Middle+East+and+North+Africa&rft.atitle=Transformations+of+the+%22Syrian%22+Literary+Field+Since+2011&rft.pages=264-266&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-31160-5_17&rft.isbn=978-3-658-31160-5&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Felix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirat2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Firat, Alexa (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/1eb4cac6af6a52da8683441b496f96b5/1"><i>Post-67 discourse and the Syrian novel: The construction of an autonomous literary field</i></a> (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/857237977">857237977</a>. <q>Language is one of the fundamental elements in the development of modern Arab nationalism and traces of its role can be found in the work of 19th-century intellectuals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Post-67+discourse+and+the+Syrian+novel%3A+The+construction+of+an+autonomous+literary+field&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F857237977&rft.aulast=Firat&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F1eb4cac6af6a52da8683441b496f96b5%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahf2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kahf, Mohja (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40156522">"The Silences of Contemporary Syrian Literature"</a>. <i>World Literature Today</i>. <b>75</b> (2): 224–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40156522">10.2307/40156522</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40156522">40156522</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Literature+Today&rft.atitle=The+Silences+of+Contemporary+Syrian+Literature&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=224-236&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40156522&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40156522%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kahf&rft.aufirst=Mohja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40156522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuen" class="citation web cs1">Cuen, Leigh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/9/8/a-new-poetry-emerges-from-syrias-civil-war">"A 'new poetry' emerges from Syria's civil war"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=A+%27new+poetry%27+emerges+from+Syria%27s+civil+war&rft.aulast=Cuen&rft.aufirst=Leigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Ffeatures%2F2013%2F9%2F8%2Fa-new-poetry-emerges-from-syrias-civil-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang2021" class="citation cs2">Lang, Felix (2021), Ouaissa, Rachid; Pannewick, Friederike; Strohmaier, Alena (eds.), "Transformations of the "Syrian" Literary Field Since 2011", <i>Re-Configurations: Contextualising Transformation Processes and Lasting Crises in the Middle East and North Africa</i>, Politik und Gesellschaft des Nahen Ostens, Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, pp. 262–263, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-31160-5_17">10.1007/978-3-658-31160-5_17</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-31160-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-31160-5"><bdi>978-3-658-31160-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Re-Configurations%3A+Contextualising+Transformation+Processes+and+Lasting+Crises+in+the+Middle+East+and+North+Africa&rft.atitle=Transformations+of+the+%22Syrian%22+Literary+Field+Since+2011&rft.pages=262-263&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-31160-5_17&rft.isbn=978-3-658-31160-5&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Felix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaleghani2021" class="citation book cs1">Taleghani, R. 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University of California, Berkeley. p. 356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Forms+in+Modern+Arabic+Poetry%2C+1900-1965&rft.pages=356&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Meisami&rft.aufirst=Julie+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvGBKAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DQustaki%2Bal-Himsi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rainer Hermann: <i>Kulturkrise und konservative Erneuerung : Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī (1876–1953) und das geistige Leben in Damaskus zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts</i>. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1990, (in German)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeisamiStarkey1998" class="citation book cs1">Meisami, Julie Scott; Starkey, Paul (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DbCFBX6b3eEC&q=Shakib+al-Jabiri"><i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 748. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18572-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18572-1"><bdi>978-0-415-18572-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.pages=748&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18572-1&rft.aulast=Meisami&rft.aufirst=Julie+Scott&rft.au=Starkey%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDbCFBX6b3eEC%26q%3DShakib%2Bal-Jabiri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirat2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Firat, Alexa (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/1eb4cac6af6a52da8683441b496f96b5/1"><i>Post-67 discourse and the Syrian novel: The construction of an autonomous literary field</i></a> (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/857237977">857237977</a>. <q>Literary histories date to after 1937 the beginnings of a modern literary movement in the novel and the short story.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Post-67+discourse+and+the+Syrian+novel%3A+The+construction+of+an+autonomous+literary+field&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F857237977&rft.aulast=Firat&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F1eb4cac6af6a52da8683441b496f96b5%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanadi_al-Samman2006" class="citation book cs1">Hanadi al-Samman (2006). "Syria". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wordswithoutborders.org/about/books/"><i>Literature from the "Axis of Evil". Writing from Iran, Iraq, North Korea, and Other Enemy Nations</i></a>. 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Editions L'Harmattan. pp. 187–188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-296-31114-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-296-31114-5"><bdi>978-2-296-31114-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Roman+Syrien+de+1967+a+nos+Jours%3A+Ecritures+de+renouveau&rft.pages=187-188&rft.pub=Editions+L%27Harmattan&rft.date=2003-02-01&rft.isbn=978-2-296-31114-5&rft.aulast=Vauthier&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Qe8GrTQGf8C%26q%3DVauthier%2BLe%2Broman%2Bsyrien%2Bde%2B1967%2B%25C3%25A0%2Bnos%2Bjours%253A%2B%25C3%25A9critures%2Bde%2Brenouveau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbas2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abbas, Hassan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-confluences-mediterranee-2003-1-page-39.htm">"Censure et information"</a>. <i>Confluences Méditerranée</i> (in French). <b>44</b> (1): 39–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fcome.044.0039">10.3917/come.044.0039</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1148-2664">1148-2664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Confluences+M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e&rft.atitle=Censure+et+information&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-46&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fcome.044.0039&rft.issn=1148-2664&rft.aulast=Abbas&rft.aufirst=Hassan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Frevue-confluences-mediterranee-2003-1-page-39.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://actualitte.com/article/30733/interviews/en-syrie-la-censure-de-l-edition-rend-notre-vie-miserable-samar-haddad">"En Syrie, la censure de l'édition "rend notre vie misérable" (Samar Haddad)"</a>. <i>ActuaLitté.com</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4412-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4412-4"><bdi>978-0-7556-4412-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zakariyya+Tamir+and+the+Politics+of+the+Syrian+Short+Story%3A+Modernity%2C+Authoritarianism+and+Gender&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2022-12-29&rft.isbn=978-0-7556-4412-4&rft.aulast=Columbu&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuySEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DArabic%2Band%2BSyrian%2Bliterature%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.banipal.co.uk/contributors/contributor.cfm?contributor_id=83">"Banipal (UK) Magazine of Modern Arab Literature - Contributors - Haidar Haidar"</a>. <i>www.banipal.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=qantara.de&rft.atitle=Book+review%3A+%22Details%22+by+Dima+Wannous%3A+Everyday+life+in+a+dictatorship+%7C+Qantara.de&rft.date=2015-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqantara.de%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fbook-review-details-dima-wannous-everyday-life-dictatorship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNatour2022" class="citation journal cs1">Natour, Manal Al (2 January 2022). "Home, identity, and place in Syrian literature: Maha Hassan's Drums of Love and Ghassan Jubbaʿi's Qahwat Al-General". <i>Contemporary Levant</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 66–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20581831.2022.2058717">10.1080/20581831.2022.2058717</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248042901">248042901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Levant&rft.atitle=Home%2C+identity%2C+and+place+in+Syrian+literature%3A+Maha+Hassan%27s+Drums+of+Love+and+Ghassan+Jubba%CA%BFi%27s+Qahwat+Al-General&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-80&rft.date=2022-01-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F20581831.2022.2058717&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248042901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Natour&rft.aufirst=Manal+Al&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexa Firat, <i>Syria</i>, In: Waïl S. Hassan (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Arab Novelistic Traditions</i>, 2017, pp. 441-443</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoubayed2006" class="citation book cs1">Moubayed, Sami M. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GF51Sml5WpcC&q=Mary+Ajamy&pg=PA401"><i>Steel & Silk: Men and Women who Shaped Syria 1900-2000</i></a>. Cune Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885942-41-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885942-41-8"><bdi>978-1-885942-41-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel+%26+Silk%3A+Men+and+Women+who+Shaped+Syria+1900-2000&rft.pub=Cune+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-885942-41-8&rft.aulast=Moubayed&rft.aufirst=Sami+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGF51Sml5WpcC%26q%3DMary%2BAjamy%26pg%3DPA401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.banipal.co.uk/contributors/contributor.cfm?contributor_id=230">"Banipal (UK) Magazine of Modern Arab Literature - Contributors - Haifa Bitar"</a>. <i>www.banipal.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.banipal.co.uk&rft.atitle=Banipal+%28UK%29+Magazine+of+Modern+Arab+Literature+-+Contributors+-+Haifa+Bitar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.banipal.co.uk%2Fcontributors%2Fcontributor.cfm%3Fcontributor_id%3D230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.banipal.co.uk/contributors/contributor.cfm?contributor_id=222">"Banipal (UK) Magazine of Modern Arab Literature - Contributors - Maram al-Massri (al-Masri)"</a>. <i>www.banipal.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.banipal.co.uk&rft.atitle=Banipal+%28UK%29+Magazine+of+Modern+Arab+Literature+-+Contributors+-+Maram+al-Massri+%28al-Masri%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.banipal.co.uk%2Fcontributors%2Fcontributor.cfm%3Fcontributor_id%3D222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaḍwá_ʻĀshūr,_Ferial_Jabouri_Ghazoul,_Hasna_Reda-Mekdashi,_Mandy_McClure2008" class="citation cs2">Raḍwá ʻĀshūr, Ferial Jabouri Ghazoul, Hasna Reda-Mekdashi, Mandy McClure (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MB6gphBXU0kC&dq=Arab+Women+Writers:+A+Critical+Reference+Guide,+1873-1999+Syria&pg=PA64"><i>Arab Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide, 1873-1999</i></a>, American Univ in Cairo Press, pp. 64–97, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-146-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-146-9"><bdi>978-977-416-146-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Women+Writers%3A+A+Critical+Reference+Guide%2C+1873-1999&rft.pages=64-97&rft.pub=American+Univ+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-977-416-146-9&rft.au=Ra%E1%B8%8Dw%C3%A1+%CA%BB%C4%80sh%C5%ABr%2C+Ferial+Jabouri+Ghazoul%2C+Hasna+Reda-Mekdashi%2C+Mandy+McClure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMB6gphBXU0kC%26dq%3DArab%2BWomen%2BWriters%3A%2BA%2BCritical%2BReference%2BGuide%2C%2B1873-1999%2BSyria%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span>. This chapter on Syrian women writers deals in detail with the development of literary history since the late 19th century, numerous individual women writers and their central themes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206071221/https://enjazaat.org/en/art-and-culture/1724">"Three Syrian novels win the "Katara" award for the Arabic novel - Enjazaat"</a>. 2021-02-06. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://enjazaat.org/en/art-and-culture/1724">the original</a> on 2021-02-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Three+Syrian+novels+win+the+%22Katara%22+award+for+the+Arabic+novel+-+Enjazaat&rft.date=2021-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenjazaat.org%2Fen%2Fart-and-culture%2F1724&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arabicfiction.org/en/node/2235">"Suleima's Ring | International Prize for Arabic Fiction"</a>. <i>www.arabicfiction.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.arabicfiction.org&rft.atitle=Suleima%27s+Ring+%7C+International+Prize+for+Arabic+Fiction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arabicfiction.org%2Fen%2Fnode%2F2235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayrakdar2021" class="citation book cs1">Bayrakdar, Faraj (2021-10-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vnnIzQEACAAJ"><i>A Dove in Free Flight</i></a>. Upset Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-937357-00-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-937357-00-9"><bdi>978-1-937357-00-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dove+in+Free+Flight&rft.pub=Upset+Press&rft.date=2021-10-22&rft.isbn=978-1-937357-00-9&rft.aulast=Bayrakdar&rft.aufirst=Faraj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvnnIzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Al Natour, Manal (2022). Home, identity, and place in Syrian literature: Maha Hassan's Drums of Love and Ghassan Jubbaʿi's Qahwat Al-General, Contemporary Levant, 7:1, 66-80, <a href="//doi.org/10.1080/2022.2058717" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1080/2022.2058717">doi:10.1080/2022.2058717</a></li> <li>Anis, Rida, Fozya Aldared, Bahriye Kemal & Agnes Woolley (2023). Diasporic Syrian women writers: stories of resilience and survival. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13530194.2022.2164481">10.1080/13530194.2022.2164481</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadwa_AshourFerial_J._GhazoulHasna_Reda-Mekdashi2008" class="citation book cs1">Radwa Ashour; Ferial J. Ghazoul; Hasna Reda-Mekdashi, eds. (2008-11-01). "Syria". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/cairo-scholarship-online/book/22735/chapter-abstract/183155146?redirectedFrom=fulltext"><i>Arab Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide, 1873-1999</i></a>. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 60–97<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria&rft.btitle=Arab+Women+Writers%3A+A+Critical+Reference+Guide%2C+1873-1999&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pages=60-97&rft.pub=American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2008-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fcairo-scholarship-online%2Fbook%2F22735%2Fchapter-abstract%2F183155146%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Behar, Daniel (2022). In the shadow-imagination: a brief literary history of Syrian poetry of witness. Contemporary Levant, 7:1, 22-38, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20581831.2022.2045768">10.1080/20581831.2022.2045768</a></li> <li>Behar, Daniel and Alexa Firat (2022). Syrian literary culture in retrospect, Contemporary Levant, 7:1,1-4, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20581831.2022.2045760">10.1080/20581831.2022.2045760</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirat2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Firat, Alexa (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/1eb4cac6af6a52da8683441b496f96b5/1"><i>Post-67 discourse and the Syrian novel: The construction of an autonomous literary field</i></a> (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/857237977">857237977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Post-67+discourse+and+the+Syrian+novel%3A+The+construction+of+an+autonomous+literary+field&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F857237977&rft.aulast=Firat&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F1eb4cac6af6a52da8683441b496f96b5%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Firat, Alexa (2017). Syria. In: Waïl S. Hassan (ed.): <i>The Oxford Handbook of Arab Novelistic Traditions</i> (online edition) Oxford Academic, Oxford, pp. 439–454, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199349791.013.29">https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199349791.013.29</a></li> <li>Hourani, Albert: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wto_ymT5vbQC&pg=PP1"><i>Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939.</i></a> Cambridge University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-521-27423-0.</li> <li>Istanbulli, Linda (2022). Mihyar's precarious journey: imagining the intellectual in modern Syrian literature, Contemporary Levant, 7:1, 5-21, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20581831.2022.2045758">10.1080/20581831.2022.2045758</a></li> <li>Kahf, Mohja (2001). The Silences of Contemporary Syrian Literature. <i>World Literature Today</i>. 75(2), pp. 224–236. <a href="//doi.org/10.2307/40156522" class="extiw" title="doi:10.2307/40156522">doi:10.2307/40156522</a></li> <li>Lang, Felix (2021). Transformations of the "Syrian" Literary Field Since 2011. Ouaissa, R., Pannewick, F., Strohmaier, A. (eds.) <i>Re-Configurations.</i> Politik und Gesellschaft des Nahen Ostens. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-31160-5_17">10.1007/978-3-658-31160-5_17</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcManus2018" class="citation cs2">McManus, Anne-Marie (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44499066">"Syrian Literature after 2000: Publics, Mobilities, Revolt"</a>, <i>Teaching Modern Arabic Literature in Translation.</i>: 200–219 – via academia.edu</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Teaching+Modern+Arabic+Literature+in+Translation.&rft.atitle=Syrian+Literature+after+2000%3A+Publics%2C+Mobilities%2C+Revolt&rft.pages=200-219&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=McManus&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F44499066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcManus2014" class="citation journal cs1">McManus, Anne-Marie (2014). "The Contemporary Syrian Novel in Translation". <i>The Arab Studies Journal</i>. <b>22</b> (1): 322–333. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24877920">24877920</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arab+Studies+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Contemporary+Syrian+Novel+in+Translation&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=322-333&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24877920%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McManus&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Julie Scott Meisami, Paul Starkey (eds.): <a href="//archive.org/details/encyclopedia-of-arabic-literature-1998/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:encyclopedia-of-arabic-literature-1998/mode/2up"><i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature.</i></a> Routledge, London 1998, pp. 746–748, ISBN 0-415-06808-8</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2001" class="citation cs2">Meyer, Stefan G. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1c0UkC82RbgC"><i>The Experimental Arabic Novel: Postcolonial Literary Modernism in the Levant</i></a>, SUNY Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-4734-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-4734-0"><bdi>0-7914-4734-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Experimental+Arabic+Novel%3A+Postcolonial+Literary+Modernism+in+the+Levant&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7914-4734-0&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Stefan+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1c0UkC82RbgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeekamp1991" class="citation cs2">Seekamp, Birgit (1991), "Bibliography of Syrian Novels (1970–1989)", <i>Journal of Arabic Literature</i>, <b>22</b> (2): 176–181, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006491X00179">10.1163/157006491X00179</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4183250">4183250</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.atitle=Bibliography+of+Syrian+Novels+%281970%E2%80%931989%29&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=176-181&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157006491X00179&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4183250%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Seekamp&rft.aufirst=Birgit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellman2022" class="citation book cs1">Sellman, Johanna (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/0c841cc3-db33-446c-add5-eb34d20fdc54/247"><i>Arabic Exile Literature in Europe. Forced Migration and Speculative Fiction</i></a>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781399500128" title="Special:BookSources/9781399500128"><bdi>9781399500128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+Exile+Literature+in+Europe.+Forced+Migration+and+Speculative+Fiction.&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781399500128&rft.aulast=Sellman&rft.aufirst=Johanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenresearchlibrary.org%2Fviewer%2F0c841cc3-db33-446c-add5-eb34d20fdc54%2F247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Starkey, Paul (2006). <i>Modern Arabic Literature.</i> Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp. 2–47, ISBN 0-7486-1290-4.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaleghani2021" class="citation cs2">Taleghani, R. Shareah (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebooks.com/en-es/book/210122854/readings-in-syrian-prison-literature/r-shareah-taleghani/"><i>Readings in Syrian Prison Literature. The Poetics of Human Rights</i></a>, Syracuse University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv16x2bm2">10.2307/j.ctv16x2bm2</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815655206" title="Special:BookSources/9780815655206"><bdi>9780815655206</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Syrian+Prison+Literature.+The+Poetics+of+Human+Rights&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv16x2bm2&rft.isbn=9780815655206&rft.aulast=Taleghani&rft.aufirst=R.+Shareah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebooks.com%2Fen-es%2Fbook%2F210122854%2Freadings-in-syrian-prison-literature%2Fr-shareah-taleghani%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVauthier2014" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vauthier, Elisabeth (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QMCwAAQBAJ&q=La+cr%C3%A9ation+romanesque+contemporaine+en+Syrie+de+1967+%C3%A0+nos+jours"><i>La création romanesque contemporaine en Syrie de 1967 à nos jours</i></a> (in French), Presses de l'Ifpo, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35159-425-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-35159-425-4"><bdi>978-2-35159-425-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+cr%C3%A9ation+romanesque+contemporaine+en+Syrie+de+1967+%C3%A0+nos+jours&rft.pub=Presses+de+l%27Ifpo&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-2-35159-425-4&rft.aulast=Vauthier&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH4QMCwAAQBAJ%26q%3DLa%2Bcr%25C3%25A9ation%2Bromanesque%2Bcontemporaine%2Ben%2BSyrie%2Bde%2B1967%2B%25C3%25A0%2Bnos%2Bjours&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss2017" class="citation journal cs1">Weiss, Max (2017). "Sight, Sound, and Surveillance in Baʿthist Syria: The Fiction of Politics in Rūzā Yāsīn Ḥasan's Rough Draft and Samar Yazbik's In Her Mirrors". <i>Journal of Arabic Literature</i>. <b>48</b> (3): 211–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1570064x-12341347">10.1163/1570064x-12341347</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26571505">26571505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Arabic+Literature&rft.atitle=Sight%2C+Sound%2C+and+Surveillance+in+Ba%CA%BFthist+Syria%3A+The+Fiction+of+Politics+in+R%C5%ABz%C4%81+Y%C4%81s%C4%ABn+%E1%B8%A4asan%27s+Rough+Draft+and+Samar+Yazbik%27s+In+Her+Mirrors&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=211-244&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1570064x-12341347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26571505%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyrian+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ziter, Edward (2015). <i>Political Performance in Syria: From the Six-Day War to the Syrian Uprising</i>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 9781137358974.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Writers_from_Syria" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Writers from Syria">Writers from Syria</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wordswithoutborders.org/read/article/2014-10/the-liberated-voice-three-writers-from-syria/">The Liberated Voice: Three Writers from Syria.</a> Article from <a href="/wiki/Words_Without_Borders" title="Words Without Borders">Words without Borders</a> magazine on 21-st century writers from Syria</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arablit.org/2020/09/30/on-the-boom-of-syrian-literature-in-berlin/">"On the 'Boom' of Syrian Literature in Berlin."</a> <i><a href="/wiki/ArabLit" title="ArabLit">ArabLit & ArabLit Quarterly</a></i>, 30 Sept. 2020</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://syriauntold.com/2021/06/28/syrian-theatrical-practices-beyond-national-borders/">Syrian theatrical practices beyond national borders</a></li> <li><a href="//archive.org/details/literaturefromax0000unse/page/174/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:literaturefromax0000unse/page/174/mode/2up">Translated excerpts of two stories by Hana Mina and Salim Barakat</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Literature_from_the_%22Axis_of_Evil%22" title="Literature from the "Axis of Evil"">Literature from the "Axis of Evil"</a>: writing from Iran, Iraq, North Korea and other enemy nations</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arablit.org/2021/08/25/9-short-stories-by-syrian-women-in-translation/">9 Short Stories by Syrian Women, in translation</a>, from <i>ArabLit</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Old" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namara_inscription" title="Namara inscription">Namara inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabic_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions">Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pre-Islamic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mu%27allaqat" title="Mu'allaqat">Pre-Islamic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Layla_al-Muhalhel" title="Abu Layla al-Muhalhel">Abu Layla al-Muhalhel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_ibn_Zayd" title="Adi ibn Zayd">Adi ibn Zayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afira_bint_%27Abbad" title="Afira bint 'Abbad">Afira bint 'Abbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-F%C4%81ri%CA%BFah_bint_Shadd%C4%81d" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Fāriʿah bint Shaddād">Al-Fāriʿah bint Shaddād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hujayjah" title="Al-Hujayjah">Al-Hujayjah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4urqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ḥurqah">Al-Ḥurqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khirniq_bint_Badr" title="Al-Khirniq bint Badr">Al-Khirniq bint Badr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shanfara" title="Al-Shanfara">Al-Shanfara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nu%27man_ibn_Humaydah" title="Al-Nu'man ibn Humaydah">Al-Nu'man ibn Humaydah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Alqama_ibn_%27Abada" class="mw-redirect" title="'Alqama ibn 'Abada">'Alqama ibn 'Abada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Amir_ibn_al-Tufayl" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amir ibn al-Tufayl">'Amir ibn al-Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Kulthum" title="Amr ibn Kulthum">Amr ibn Kulthum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarah_ibn_Shaddad" title="Antarah ibn Shaddad">Antarah ibn Shaddad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-A%27sha" title="Al-A'sha">Al-A'sha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harith_ibn_Hilliza_Al-Yashkuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Harith ibn Hilliza Al-Yashkuri">Harith ibn Hilliza Al-Yashkuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatim_al-Tai" title="Hatim al-Tai">Hatim al-Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lab%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Labīd">Labīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laila_bint_Lukaiz" title="Laila bint Lukaiz">Laila bint Lukaiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahd_al-Aadiyya" title="Mahd al-Aadiyya">Mahd al-Aadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27aqqir" title="Mu'aqqir">Mu'aqqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nabigha" title="Al-Nabigha">Al-Nabigha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imru%27_al-Qais" title="Imru' al-Qais">Imru' al-Qais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaw%27al_ibn_%27Adiya" title="Samaw'al ibn 'Adiya">Samaw'al ibn 'Adiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarafa" title="Tarafa">Tarafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_al-Huwayrith" title="Uthman ibn al-Huwayrith">Uthman ibn al-Huwayrith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_bin_Abi_Sulma" title="Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma">Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_ibn_Janab" title="Zuhayr ibn Janab">Zuhayr ibn Janab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktham_ibn_Saifi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aktham ibn Saifi">Aktham ibn Saifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Munakhal" title="Al-Munakhal">Al-Munakhal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Classical" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Akhtal_al-Taghlibi" title="Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi">Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farazdaq" title="Al-Farazdaq">Al-Farazdaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Hamid_al-Katib" title="Abd al-Hamid al-Katib">Abd al-Hamid al-Katib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadl_Ashsha%27ira" class="mw-redirect" title="Fadl Ashsha'ira">Fadl Ashsha'ira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_Thabit" title="Hassan ibn Thabit">Hassan ibn Thabit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Hasina" title="Ibn Abi Hasina">Ibn Abi Hasina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maysun_bint_Bahdal" title="Maysun bint Bahdal">Maysun bint Bahdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamil_ibn_Ma%27mar" title="Jamil ibn Ma'mar">Jamil ibn Ma'mar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suraqa_bin_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Suraqa bin Malik">Suraqa bin Malik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarir_ibn_Atiyah" title="Jarir ibn Atiyah">Jarir ibn Atiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27b_bin_Zuhayr" class="mw-redirect" title="Ka'b bin Zuhayr">Ka'b bin Zuhayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khansa" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khansa">Al-Khansa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuthayyir" title="Kuthayyir">Kuthayyir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layla_al-Akhyaliyya" title="Layla al-Akhyaliyya">Layla al-Akhyaliyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suraqah_al-Bariqi" title="Suraqah al-Bariqi">Suraqah al-Bariqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutayla_ukht_al-Nadr" title="Qutayla ukht al-Nadr">Qutayla ukht al-Nadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waddah_al-Yaman" title="Waddah al-Yaman">Waddah al-Yaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_al-Katib_al-Mughanni" title="Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni">Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zufar_ibn_al-Harith_al-Kilabi" title="Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi">Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_Jadan_al-Himyari" title="Dhu Jadan al-Himyari">Dhu Jadan al-Himyari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorayd_bin_Al_Soma" title="Dorayd bin Al Soma">Dorayd bin Al Soma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_ibn_al-Fuja%27a" title="Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a">Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mufaddal_al-Dabbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mufaddal al-Dabbi">al-Mufaddal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E2%80%98Ulayya_bint_al-Mahd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="‘Ulayya bint al-Mahdī">Bint al-Mahdī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbas_Ibn_al-Ahnaf" title="Abbas Ibn al-Ahnaf">Ibn al-Ahnaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_al-Mu%27tazz" title="Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Ibn al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Firas_al-Hamdani" title="Abu Firas al-Hamdani">Abu Firas al-Hamdani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Tammam" title="Abu Tammam">Abu Tammam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_Ahmad_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_Abdallah_ibn_al-Mudabbir" title="Abu'l-Hasan Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn al-Mudabbir">Al-Mudabbir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Qasim_al-Husayn_ibn_Ali_al-Maghribi" title="Abu'l-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Maghribi">Abu'l-Qasimbal-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib al-Ma'muniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Asma%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Asma'i">Al-Asma'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Tifashi" title="Ahmad al-Tifashi">Ahmad al-Tifashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Atahiya" title="Abu al-Atahiya">Abu al-Atahiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fadl_ibn_al-%27Amid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid">ibn al-'Amid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badi%27_al-Zaman_al-Hamadani" title="Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani">Al-Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-din_Zuhair" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-din Zuhair">Baha' al-din Zuhair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashshar_ibn_Burd" title="Bashshar ibn Burd">Bashshar ibn Burd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhturi" title="Buhturi">Buhturi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Busiri" title="Al-Busiri">Al-Busiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fath_ibn_Khaqan" title="Al-Fath ibn Khaqan">Al-Fath ibn Khaqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hariri_of_Basra" title="Al-Hariri of Basra">Al-Hariri of Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Farid" title="Ibn al-Farid">Ibn al-Farid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Rumi" title="Ibn al-Rumi">Ibn al-Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Duraid" title="Ibn Duraid">Ibn Duraid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Sari_al-Zajjaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Sari al-Zajjaj">al-Zajjaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Azhari" title="Abu Mansur al-Azhari">Abu Mansur al-Azhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">ibn al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mudabbir" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mudabbir">ibn al-Mudabbir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27arri" title="Al-Ma'arri">Al-Ma'arri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_ibn_Abi_Hafsa" title="Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa">Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutanabbi" title="Al-Mutanabbi">Al-Mutanabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nuwas" title="Abu Nuwas">Abu Nuwas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C4%81riyah" title="Shāriyah">Shāriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyya_Umm_Ali_bint_Ghaith_ibn_Ali_al-Armanazi" title="Taqiyya Umm Ali bint Ghaith ibn Ali al-Armanazi">Al-Armanazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aban_al-Lahiqi" title="Aban al-Lahiqi">Aban al-Lahiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_ad-Din_al-Isfahani" class="mw-redirect" title="Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani">Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabia_of_Basra" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabia of Basra">Rabia of Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_ibn_Habib" title="Yunus ibn Habib">Yunus ibn Habib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_al-Jawhari" title="Abu Nasr al-Jawhari">Abu Nasr al-Jawhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-Farahidi" title="Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi">Al-Farahidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">Al-Shafi'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Muqaffa%27" title="Ibn al-Muqaffa'">Ibn al-Muqaffa'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mubarrad" title="Al-Mubarrad">Al-Mubarrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Tahir_Tayfur" title="Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur">Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safiyya_al-Baghdadiyya" title="Safiyya al-Baghdadiyya">Safiyya al-Baghdadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Dawud_al-Zahiri" title="Muhammad bin Dawud al-Zahiri">Al-Zahiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_al-Anbari" title="Abu Muhammad al-Anbari">Abu Muhammad al-Anbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Anbari" title="Ibn al-Anbari">Ibn al-Anbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qasabani" title="Al-Qasabani">Al-Qasabani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qutaybah" title="Ibn Qutaybah">Ibn Qutaybah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dik_al-Jinn" title="Dik al-Jinn">Dik al-Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E2%80%98In%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="‘Inān">‘Inān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ahmad_Monajjem" title="Abu Ahmad Monajjem">Abu Ahmad Monajjem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zubayr_ibn_Bakkar" title="Al-Zubayr ibn Bakkar">Ibn Bakkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sar%C4%AB_al-Raff%C4%81%E2%80%99" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Sarī al-Raffā’">Al-Sarī al-Raffā’</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_bin_Yahya_al-Suli" title="Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli">Al-Suli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niftawayh" title="Niftawayh">Niftawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">Al-Tughrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layl%C4%81_bint_%E1%B9%ACar%C4%ABf" class="mw-redirect" title="Laylā bint Ṭarīf">Laylā bint Ṭarīf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tha%27alibi" title="Al-Tha'alibi">Al-Tha'alibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Hasan_Mihyar_al-Daylami" title="Abu'l-Hasan Mihyar al-Daylami">Al-Daylami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Hayy%C4%81n_al-Tawh%C4%ABd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī">al-Tawhīdī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sharif_al-Radi" title="Al-Sharif al-Radi">Al-Sharif al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hayyus" title="Ibn Hayyus">Ibn Hayyus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Raghib_al-Isfahani" title="Al-Raghib al-Isfahani">Al-Raghib al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharif_al-Murtaza" title="Sharif al-Murtaza">Sharif al-Murtaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_bin_al_Mugrab_Al_Uyuni" title="Ali bin al Mugrab Al Uyuni">Al Uyuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Al Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_Al-Hallaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur Al-Hallaj"> Al-Hallaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usama_ibn_Munqidh" title="Usama ibn Munqidh">Usama ibn Munqidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Qatta%27_al-Siqilli" title="Ibn al-Qatta' al-Siqilli">Ibn al-Qatta' al-Siqilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shajari" title="Ibn al-Shajari">Ibn al-Shajari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_%27Adlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn 'Adlan">Ibn 'Adlan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_Ahmad_ibn_Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Sa%27id" title="Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Sa'id">Abu Ja'far</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rumaikiyya" title="Al-Rumaikiyya">Al-Rumaikiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Alphaizuli" title="Maria Alphaizuli">Maria Alphaizuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ammar" title="Muhammad ibn Ammar">Ibn Ammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buthaina_bint_al-Mu%27tamid_ibn_Abbad" title="Buthaina bint al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad">Buthaina </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafsa_bint_al-Hajj_al-Rukuniyya" title="Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya">Al-Rukuniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamda_bint_Ziyad_al-Muaddib" title="Hamda bint Ziyad al-Muaddib">Hamda bint Ziyad al-Muaddib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hamdis" title="Ibn Hamdis">Ibn Hamdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_Rabbih" title="Ibn Abd Rabbih">Ibn Abd Rabbih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Abbar" title="Ibn al-Abbar">Ibn al-Abbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Zaqqaq" title="Ibn al-Zaqqaq">Ibn al-Zaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Amira" title="Ibn Amira">Ibn Amira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Baqi" title="Ibn Baqi">Ibn Baqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bassam" title="Ibn Bassam">Ibn Bassam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juzayy" title="Ibn Juzayy">Ibn Juzayy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khafaja" title="Ibn Khafaja">Ibn Khafaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Quzman" title="Ibn Quzman">Ibn Quzman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_of_Seville" title="Ibn Sahl of Seville">Ibn Sahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zamrak" title="Ibn Zamrak">Ibn Zamrak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zayd%C3%BAn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Zaydún">Ibn Zaydún</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubna_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Lubna of Córdoba">Lubna of Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid_ibn_Abbad" title="Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad">Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Hani_al-Andalusi_al-Azdi" title="Muhammad ibn Hani al-Andalusi al-Azdi">ibn Hani al-Azdi </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhya_bint_Al-Tayyani" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhya bint Al-Tayyani">Muhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazhun_al-Garnatiya_bint_al-Qulai%E2%80%99iya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazhun al-Garnatiya bint al-Qulai’iya">Nazhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasmuna" title="Qasmuna">Qasmuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tutili" title="Al-Tutili">Al-Tutili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Al-Kiram" title="Umm Al-Kiram">Umm Al-Kiram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallada_bint_al-Mustakfi" title="Wallada bint al-Mustakfi">Yusuf III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_III,_Sultan_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Yusuf III, Sultan of Granada">Yusuf III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Shushtari" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Shushtari">al-Shushtari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Madyan" title="Abu Madyan">Abu Madyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abbad_al-Rundi" title="Ibn Abbad al-Rundi">al-Rundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Arif" title="Ibn al-Arif">Ibn al-Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Jalil_ibn_Wahbun" title="Abd al-Jalil ibn Wahbun">Ibn Wahbun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Majid_ibn_Abdun" title="Abd al-Majid ibn Abdun">Ibn Abdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Walid_al-Baji" title="Abu al-Walid al-Baji">al-Baji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fazazi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Fazazi">al-Fazazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Yayyab" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Yayyab">Ibn al-Yayyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jubayr" title="Ibn Jubayr">Ibn Jubayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kattani" title="Ibn al-Kattani">Ibn al-Kattani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Khisal" title="Ibn Abi al-Khisal">Ibn Abi al-Khisal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Arabshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn Arabshah">Ahmad ibn Arabshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Busiri" title="Al-Busiri">Al-Busiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Manzur" title="Ibn Manzur">Ibn Manzur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27A%27isha_al-Ba%27uniyya" title="'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya">'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wardi" title="Ibn al-Wardi">Ibn al-Wardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdallah_Mustawfi" title="Hamdallah Mustawfi">Hamdallah Mustawfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Nubata" title="Ibn Nubata">Ibn Nubata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_al-Nafzawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Nafzawi">al-Nafzawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qalqashandi" title="Al-Qalqashandi">Al-Qalqashandi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Ghani_al-Nabulsi" title="Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi">Al-Nabulsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuz%C3%BBl%C3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuzûlî">Fuzûlî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_al-Baghdadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Qadir al-Baghdadi">Abdul Qadir al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanna_Diyab" title="Hanna Diyab">Hanna Diyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wannan" title="Ibn al-Wannan">Ibn al-Wannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Triki" title="Ahmed Ben Triki">Ahmed Ben Triki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modern" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Nahda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Samy_El_Baroudy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmoud Samy El Baroudy">El Baroudy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maruf_al_Rusafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maruf al Rusafi">Maruf al Rusafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasif_al-Yaziji" title="Nasif al-Yaziji">Nasif al-Yaziji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Yaziji" title="Ibrahim al-Yaziji">Ibrahim al-Yaziji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamil_Sidqi_al-Zahawi" title="Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi">Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Faris_Shidyaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Faris Shidyaq">Ahmad Faris Shidyaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naoum_Mokarzel" title="Naoum Mokarzel">Naoum Mokarzel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Rida" title="Ahmad Rida">Ahmad Rida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustaki_al-Himsi" title="Qustaki al-Himsi">Qustaki al-Himsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suleyman_al-Boustani" title="Suleyman al-Boustani">Suleyman al-Boustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Zaki_Pasha" title="Ahmad Zaki Pasha">Ahmad Zaki Pasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_Marrash" title="Abdallah Marrash">Abdallah Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryana_Marrash" title="Maryana Marrash">Maryana Marrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_Ibrahim" title="Hafez Ibrahim">Hafez Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Shawqi" title="Ahmed Shawqi">Ahmed Shawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farah_Antun" title="Farah Antun">Farah Antun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Ziadeh" title="May Ziadeh">May Ziadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Hakim" title="Tawfiq al-Hakim">Tawfiq al-Hakim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_literature" title="Modern Arabic literature">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">Nawal El Saadawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfouz" title="Naguib Mahfouz">Naguib Mahfouz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Idris" title="Yusuf Idris">Yusuf Idris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonallah_Ibrahim" title="Sonallah Ibrahim">Sonallah Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahlam_Mosteghanemi" title="Ahlam Mosteghanemi">Ahlam Mosteghanemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Darwish" title="Mahmoud Darwish">Mahmoud Darwish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adunis">Adunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Abd_al-Ghafur_Attar" title="Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar">Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdur_Rahman_Kashgari" title="Abdur Rahman Kashgari">Abdur Rahman Kashgari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">Muhammad al-Maghut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Nizar Qabbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abb%C4%81s_al-Aqq%C4%81d" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbās al-Aqqād">Abbās al-Aqqād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Wahbi_al-Tal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustafa Wahbi al-Tal">Mustafa Wahbi al-Tal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_Akl" title="Said Akl">Said Akl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayeq_Abdul-Jaleel" title="Fayeq Abdul-Jaleel">Fayeq Abdul-Jaleel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinan_Antoon" title="Sinan Antoon">Sinan Antoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Tuqan" title="Ibrahim Tuqan">Ibrahim Tuqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Habibi" title="Emile Habibi">Emile Habibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassan_Kanafani" title="Ghassan Kanafani">Ghassan Kanafani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Munif" title="Abdul Rahman Munif">Abdul Rahman Munif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Abdul_Rahman_Al_Gosaibi" title="Ghazi Abdul Rahman Al Gosaibi">Al Gosaibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboul-Qacem_Echebbi" title="Aboul-Qacem Echebbi">Echebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanna_Mina" title="Hanna Mina">Hanna Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colette_Khoury" title="Colette Khoury">Colette Khoury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadallah_Wannous" title="Saadallah Wannous">Saadallah Wannous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakaria_Tamer" title="Zakaria Tamer">Zakaria Tamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayeb_Salih" title="Tayeb Salih">Tayeb Salih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leila_Aboulela" title="Leila Aboulela">Leila Aboulela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ihsan_Abdel_Quddous" title="Ihsan Abdel Quddous">Ihsan Abdel Quddous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaa_Al_Aswany" title="Alaa Al Aswany">Alaa Al Aswany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Choukri" title="Mohamed Choukri">Mohamed Choukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leila_Abouzeid" title="Leila Abouzeid">Leila Abouzeid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Bennis" title="Mohammed Bennis">Mohammed Bennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdellatif_Laabi" title="Abdellatif Laabi">Abdellatif Laabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Said_Raihani" title="Mohamed Said Raihani">Mohamed Said Raihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waciny_Laredj" title="Waciny Laredj">Waciny Laredj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahar_Djaout" title="Tahar Djaout">Tahar Djaout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alifa_Rifaat" title="Alifa Rifaat">Alifa Rifaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Douagi" title="Ali Douagi">Ali Douagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youssef_Rzouga" title="Youssef Rzouga">Youssef Rzouga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jahin" title="Salah Jahin">Salah Jahin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amal_Abul-Qassem_Donqol" class="mw-redirect" title="Amal Abul-Qassem Donqol">Amal Donqol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zaki_Abu_Shadi" title="Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi">Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Tawfiq" title="Hasan Tawfiq">Hasan Tawfiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Mazini" title="Ibrahim al-Mazini">Ibrahim al-Mazini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mahdi_al-Jawahiri" title="Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri"> al-Jawahiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safa_Khulusi" title="Safa Khulusi">Safa Khulusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazik_Al-Malaika" title="Nazik Al-Malaika">Nazik Al-Malaika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Matar" title="Ahmed Matar">Ahmed Matar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Wahhab_Al-Bayati" title="Abd al-Wahhab Al-Bayati">Al-Bayati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badr_Shakir_al-Sayyab" title="Badr Shakir al-Sayyab">al-Sayyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Yousef" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi Yousef">Saadi Yousef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Nasrallah" title="Ibrahim Nasrallah">Ibrahim Nasrallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elia_Abu_Madi" title="Elia Abu Madi">Elia Abu Madi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Abu_Risha" title="Omar Abu Risha">Omar Abu Risha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Khal" title="Yusuf al-Khal">Yusuf al-Khal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourid_Barghouti" title="Mourid Barghouti">Mourid Barghouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabra_Ibrahim_Jabra" title="Jabra Ibrahim Jabra">Jabra Ibrahim Jabra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samih_al-Qasim" title="Samih al-Qasim">Samih al-Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadwa_Tuqan" title="Fadwa Tuqan">Fadwa Tuqan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="National_literatures_of_Arab_states" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">National literatures of Arab states</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_literature" title="Algerian literature">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Comoros&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Comoros (page does not exist)">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Djibouti" title="Literature of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copto-Arabic_literature" title="Copto-Arabic literature">Copto-Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_literature" title="Iraqi literature">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Jordan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Jordan (page does not exist)">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_literature" title="Kuwaiti literature">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_literature" title="Libyan literature">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Mauritania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Mauritania (page does not exist)">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_literature" title="Moroccan literature">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_literature" title="Palestinian literature">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_literature" title="Qatari literature">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Saudi_Arabian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Saudi Arabian (page does not exist)">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_literature" title="Somali literature">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_literature" title="Sudanese literature">Sudan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_literature" title="Tunisian literature">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">U.A.E.</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Yemen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Yemen (page does not exist)">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> 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