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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-West_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 West Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Mesopotamia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iranian_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iranian_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Iranian peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iranian_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hittites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hittites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Hittites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hittites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Israel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phoenicia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phoenicia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.5 Phoenicia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phoenicia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.6 Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Afro-Asiatic_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afro-Asiatic_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Afro-Asiatic Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afro-Asiatic_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carthage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carthage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.1 Carthage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carthage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.2 Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nubia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nubia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.3 Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aksum_and_ancient_Ethiopia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aksum_and_ancient_Ethiopia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.4 Aksum and ancient Ethiopia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aksum_and_ancient_Ethiopia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niger-Congo_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niger-Congo_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Niger-Congo Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niger-Congo_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nok_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nok_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2.1 Nok culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nok_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sahel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sahel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Sahel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sahel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Djenné-Djenno" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Djenné-Djenno"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3.1 Djenné-Djenno </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Djenné-Djenno-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dhar_Tichitt_and_Oualata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dhar_Tichitt_and_Oualata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3.2 Dhar Tichitt and Oualata </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dhar_Tichitt_and_Oualata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bantu_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bantu_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3.3 Bantu expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bantu_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 South Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia_and_Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia_and_Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Southeast Asia and Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia_and_Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mainland_Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Mainland Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austronesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austronesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Austronesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austronesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 East Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neighbours_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neighbours_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Neighbours of China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neighbours_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Andean_civilisations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andean_civilisations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Andean civilisations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andean_civilisations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 Mesoamerica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 Northern America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.2 Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.3 Late antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nomads_and_Iron_Age_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomads_and_Iron_Age_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.4 Nomads and Iron Age peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomads_and_Iron_Age_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Developments </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Developments subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion_and_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Religion and philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Science and technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Websites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Websites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Websites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Websites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Directories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Directories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Directories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Directories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ancient history</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" > 116 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altertum" title="Altertum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altertum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="التاريخ القديم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ القديم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Antiga" title="Edat Antiga – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Edat Antiga" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Antigua" title="Edá Antigua – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Edá Antigua" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ra_Ymaguare" title="Ára Ymaguare – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ára Ymaguare" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_D%C3%BCnya" title="Qədim Dünya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Dünya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="قدیم تاریخ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم تاریخ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="প্রাচীনকালের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীনকালের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_le%CC%8Dk-s%C3%BA" title="Kó͘-tāi le̍k-sú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-tāi le̍k-sú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Старажытны свет – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытны свет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="प्राचीन इतिहास – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्राचीन इतिहास" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Древност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oitadum" title="Oitadum – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Oitadum" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_vijek" title="Stari vijek – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Stari vijek" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henamzer" title="Henamzer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Henamzer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_antiga" title="Edat antiga – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edat antiga" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D1%82%C4%95%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Авалхи тĕнче – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи тĕнче" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaang_kasaysayan" title="Karaang kasaysayan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karaang kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk" title="Starověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Henfyd" title="Yr Henfyd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Henfyd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altertum" title="Altertum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altertum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaaeg" title="Vanaaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vanaaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία Ιστορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Ιστορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Antigua" title="Edad Antigua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edad Antigua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikva_epoko" title="Antikva epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antikva epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinaroa" title="Antzinaroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinaroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquit%C3%A9" title="Antiquité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Antiquité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldheid" title="Aldheid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aldheid" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie_antighe" title="Storie antighe – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Storie antighe" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Chianaois" title="An Chianaois – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Chianaois" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Antiga" title="Idade Antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Idade Antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80%EC%82%AC" title="고대사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0" title="Հին աշխարհ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին աշխարհ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="प्राचीन इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राचीन इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_vijek" title="Stari vijek – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stari vijek" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqueso" title="Antiqueso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Antiqueso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_kuno" title="Sejarah kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquitate" title="Antiquitate – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Antiquitate" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquit%C3%A1" title="Antiquitá – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Antiquitá" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forn%C3%B6ld" title="Fornöld – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornöld" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_antica" title="Età antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Età antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="העת העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העת העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caana%CA%8A_(Antiquit%C3%A9)" title="Caanaʊ (Antiquité) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Caanaʊ (Antiquité)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D" title="ძველი მსოფლიო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი მსოფლიო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Ежелгі дүние – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі дүние" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen-Istori" title="Hen-Istori – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hen-Istori" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantikite" title="Lantikite – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lantikite" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikit%C3%A9" title="Antikité – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Antikité" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdema_kevnare" title="Serdema kevnare – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serdema kevnare" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BD%D3%A9" title="Байыркы дүйнө – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Байыркы дүйнө" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_antica" title="Storia antica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Storia antica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%AE%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ປະຫວັດສາດບູຮານ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປະຫວັດສາດບູຮານ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquitas" title="Antiquitas – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Antiquitas" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senie_laiki" title="Senie laiki – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senie laiki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquit%C3%A9it" title="Antiquitéit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Antiquitéit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senieji_laikai" title="Senieji laikai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senieji laikai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticia" title="Anticia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Anticia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_Ant%C3%ACca" title="Età Antìca – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Età Antìca" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kor" title="Ókor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Стар век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стар век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andro_Taloha" title="Andro Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Andro Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="പ്രാചീന ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രാചീന ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ჯვეში მოსოფელი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში მოსოფელი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_purba" title="Sejarah purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84_%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4" title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯄꯨꯋꯥꯂꯤ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯄꯨꯋꯥꯂꯤ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Кунардонь масторлангась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Кунардонь масторлангась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudheid" title="Oudheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oudheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="प्राचीन इतिहास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राचीन इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3" title="古代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_antica" title="Età antica – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Età antica" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%AC%DF%9E%DF%98%DF%90%DF%9E%DF%98%DF%90" title="ߞߊ߬ߞߘߐߞߘߐ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߞߊ߬ߞߘߐߞߘߐ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtiden" title="Oldtiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oldtiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtid" title="Oldtid – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Oldtid" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquitate" title="Antiquitate – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Antiquitate" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquitat" title="Antiquitat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Antiquitat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_dunyo_tarixi" title="Qadimgi dunyo tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi dunyo tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_antiguo" title="Edat antiguo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Edat antiguo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="لرغونی تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitchit%C3%A8" title="Antitchitè – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Antitchitè" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytno%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Starożytność – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytność" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8C%CE%BD_%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Παλαιόν Ιστορίαν – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Παλαιόν Ιστορίαν" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Antiga" title="Idade Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Idade Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichitatea" title="Antichitatea – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Antichitatea" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antica" title="Antica – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Antica" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Старовік – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Старовік" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Древний мир – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древний мир" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edade_antiga" title="Edade antiga – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Edade antiga" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auncient_history" title="Auncient history – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Auncient history" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_lasht%C3%AB" title="Historia e lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="පුරාණ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාණ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient history" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek" title="Starovek – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Starovek" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_vek" title="Stari vek – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stari vek" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8E%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="مێژووی دێرین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی دێرین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Стари век – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стари век" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_vijek" title="Stari vijek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stari vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_kasaysayan" title="Sinaunang kasaysayan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="பண்டைய வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taglest" title="Taglest – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Taglest" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D3%A9%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%8F" title="Борынгы дөнья – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы дөнья" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="สมัยโบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยโบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_%C3%87a%C4%9F" title="Antik Çağ – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Çağ" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82" title="Стародавній світ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавній світ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="قدیم تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%9Di_k%E1%BB%B3_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Thời kỳ cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thời kỳ cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaaig" title="Vanaaig – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vanaaig" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikit%C3%A9" title="Antikité – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Antikité" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_kadaan" title="Kaagi han kadaan – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi han kadaan" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="古代史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古代史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%A2_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אוראלטע היסטאריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אוראלטע היסטאריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="古代史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古代史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarixo_Antik" title="Tarixo Antik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tarixo Antik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senuob%C4%97s_istuor%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Senuobės istuorėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Senuobės istuorėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="古代史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古代史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu_perkolotan" title="Èlmu perkolotan – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Èlmu perkolotan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q41493#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period between prehistory and the medieval era</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about history from the beginning of writing. For earlier periods, see <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ancient history (disambiguation)">Ancient history (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ancient" and "Ancient World" redirect here. For the TV series, see <a href="/wiki/The_Ancient_World_(TV_series)" title="The Ancient World (TV series)">The Ancient World (TV series)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ancient (disambiguation)">Ancient (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:176px;max-width:176px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum,_London_(8747049029)_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/174px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/261px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/348px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:107px;max-width:107px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/105px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/158px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/210px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/101px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg" decoding="async" width="101" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/152px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/202px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="754" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:82px;max-width:82px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg/80px-Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg/120px-Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg/160px-Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3088" data-file-height="5808" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg/200px-Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg/300px-Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg/400px-Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses_from_Villa_Giulia_in_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2700" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:150px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg/100px-Statue-Augustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg/150px-Statue-Augustus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg/200px-Statue-Augustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2250" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:126px;max-width:126px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:179px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:POL_3596-Editar_(15708757686).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/POL_3596-Editar_%2815708757686%29.jpg/124px-POL_3596-Editar_%2815708757686%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/POL_3596-Editar_%2815708757686%29.jpg/186px-POL_3596-Editar_%2815708757686%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/POL_3596-Editar_%2815708757686%29.jpg/248px-POL_3596-Editar_%2815708757686%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1527" data-file-height="2200" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:179px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg/122px-Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg/183px-Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg/244px-Haniwa_-_Warrior_in_Keiko_Armor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1449" data-file-height="2130" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:179px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg/134px-Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg/201px-Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg/268px-Cabeza_Colosal_n%C2%BA1_del_Museo_Xalapa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="1198" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Well-known ancient artworks, each representing a certain civilisation. From left to right: the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Mask_of_Tutankhamun" title="Mask of Tutankhamun">Mask of Tutankhamun</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Priest-King_(sculpture)" title="Priest-King (sculpture)">Priest-King</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Venus_de_Milo" title="Venus de Milo">Venus de Milo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses" title="Sarcophagus of the Spouses">Sarcophagus of the Spouses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan civilisation">Etruscan</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a>), a soldier from the <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Chinese</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Haniwa" title="Haniwa">Haniwa</a> warrior in Keiko Armor (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Japan">Japanese</a>) and a <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">colossal head</a> (<a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmec</a>)</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#f8eaba;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:1px solid #ccc;background:#efefef;font-weight:normal;"> Preceded by <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magan_(civilization)" title="Magan (civilization)">Magan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyarite_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite kingdom">Himyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">The Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#Ancient_Europe" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Aegean Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argaric_culture" title="Argaric culture">Argaric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torrean_civilization" title="Torrean civilization">Torrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talaiotic_culture" title="Talaiotic culture">Talaiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessos" title="Tartessos">Tartessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches" title="Guanches">Guanches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caucasus" title="History of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma kingdom">Kerma kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Simien" title="Kingdom of Simien">Kingdom of Simien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harla_kingdom" title="Harla kingdom">Harla kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbaria_(region)" title="Barbaria (region)">Barbaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosylon" title="Mosylon">Mosylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heis_(town)" title="Heis (town)">Mundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toniki" title="Toniki">Toniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromata" title="Aromata">Aromata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikon_(Somalia)" title="Nikon (Somalia)">Nicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rauso" title="Rauso">Rauso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">North Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasamones" title="Nasamones">Nasamones chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battiadae" title="Battiadae">Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massylii" title="Massylii">Massylii Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ouarsenis" title="Kingdom of Ouarsenis">Kingdom of Ouarsenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandal kingdom">Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Capsus" title="Kingdom of Capsus">Kingdom of Capsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Kingdom of Masuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Kingdom of Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodna" title="Hodna">Kingdom of Hodna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemencha" title="Nemencha">Nemencha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laguatan" title="Laguatan">Laguatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe#History" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scytho-Siberian_world" title="Scytho-Siberian world">Scythia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_peoples" title="Tungusic peoples">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohe_people" title="Mohe people">Mohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Hunas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xionites" title="Xionites">Xionites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Huns" title="Iranian Huns">Iranian Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongols" title="Proto-Mongols">Proto-Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumo_Xi" title="Kumo Xi">Kumo Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiwei_people" title="Shiwei people">Shiwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Pannonian Avars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_(people)" title="Hu (people)">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">Siberia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Yavana kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fergana_Valley#History" title="Fergana Valley">Fergana Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin#History" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan#Prehistoric_and_ancient_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korea#Prehistoric_and_Antiquity_period" title="History of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia#Ancient_period" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern America</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Puebloans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinagua" title="Sinagua">Sinagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Dorset" title="Pre-Dorset">Pre-Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns culture</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerica</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacha" title="Capacha">Capacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_culture" title="Mixtec culture">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Cocl%C3%A9" title="Gran Coclé">Gran Coclé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicuilco" title="Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chup%C3%ADcuaro" title="Chupícuaro">Chupícuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Mexico_shaft_tomb_tradition" title="Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition">Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuchitl%C3%A1n_culture" title="Teuchitlán culture">Teuchitlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veraguas_culture" title="Veraguas culture">Veraguas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquis" title="Diquis">Diquis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nicoya" title="Kingdom of Nicoya">Nicoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac_culture" title="Totonac culture">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andean_South_America" title="History of Andean South America">Andes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caral%E2%80%93Supe_civilization" title="Caral–Supe civilization">Caral–Supe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casma%E2%80%93Sechin_culture" title="Casma–Sechin culture">Casma–Sechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_culture" title="Lima culture">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ortoiroid_people" title="Ortoiroid people">Ortoiroid people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanahatabey" title="Guanahatabey">Guanahatabey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Kalinago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Kalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafaring_in_the_Pre-Columbian_Caribbean" title="Seafaring in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean">Seafaring</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kintampo_Complex" title="Kintampo Complex">Kintampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt" title="Dhar Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sao_civilisation" title="Sao civilisation">Sao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekoi_people" title="Ekoi people">Ekoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_prehistory" title="Serer prehistory">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambian_stone_circles" title="Senegambian stone circles">Senegambia megaliths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-imperial_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-imperial Mali">Pre-imperial Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno" title="Djenné-Djenno">Djenné-Djenno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bura_culture" title="Bura culture">Bura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahelian_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takrur" title="Takrur">Takrur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Pygmies" title="African Pygmies">Pygmies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesia#History" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesia#History" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesia#History" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93ng_B%C3%A0ng_dynasty" title="Hồng Bàng dynasty">Hồng Bàng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suvarnabhumi" title="Suvarnabhumi">Suvarnabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhanavati" title="Singhanavati">Singhanavati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sungai_Batu" title="Sungai Batu">Sungai Batu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon_kingdoms" title="Mon kingdoms">Mon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_city-states" title="Pyu city-states">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaton_kingdom" title="Thaton kingdom">Thaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82u_L%E1%BA%A1c" title="Âu Lạc">Âu Lạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chi_Tu" title="Chi Tu">Chi Tu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tun_Sun" title="Tun Sun">Tun Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funan" title="Funan">Funan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambralinga" title="Tambralinga">Tambralinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagaung_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagaung kingdom">Tagaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Ksetra_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Ksetra kingdom">Sri Ksetra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A2m_%E1%BA%A4p" title="Lâm Ấp">Lâm Ấp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quduqian" title="Quduqian">Quduqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pan_(kingdom)" title="Pan Pan (kingdom)">Pan Pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rakhine" title="History of Rakhine">Arakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xitu" title="Xitu">Xitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantoli" title="Kantoli">Kantoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_kingdom" title="Old Pahang kingdom">Mueang Pahang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavo_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavo kingdom">Lavo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melayu_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Melayu kingdom">Melayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaravati" title="Dvaravati">Dvaravati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chenla" title="Chenla">Chenla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shailendra_dynasty" title="Shailendra dynasty">Shailendra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Cambodia" title="Early history of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial_states_of_Thailand" title="Initial states of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-colonial_Timor" title="Pre-colonial Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Philippines" title="Prehistory of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Singapore" title="Early history of Singapore">Singapore</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">Ancient maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border:1px solid #ccc;background:#efefef;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;border-spacing:0;padding:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> ↑ <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>)   (<a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene epoch</a>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines</a> <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a> (<a href="/wiki/10,000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 BCE">10,000 BCE</a> – <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Present</a>)</li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity" title="Discovery of human antiquity">Age of the human race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>)</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">Earliest records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> ↓ <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a>   </td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ancient history is a <a href="/wiki/Time_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Time period">time period</a> from the <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">beginning of writing</a> and recorded <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a> through <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>. The span of <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a> is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> script. Ancient history covers all continents inhabited by humans in the period 3000 BC – AD 500, ending with the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">expansion of</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in late antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-weller-stearns-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">three-age system</a> periodizes ancient history into the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, with recorded history generally considered to begin with the Bronze Age. The start and end of the three ages vary between world regions. In many regions the Bronze Age is generally considered to begin a few centuries prior to 3000 BC, while the end of the Iron Age varies from the early first millennium BC in some regions to the late first millennium AD in others. During the time period of ancient history, the <a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">world population</a> was already <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponentially increasing</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>, which was in full progress. While in 10,000 BC, the world population stood at 2 million, it rose to 45 million by 3000 BC. By the Iron Age in 1000 BC, the population had risen to 72 million. By the end of the ancient period in AD 500, the world population is thought to have stood at 209 million. In 10,500 years, the world population increased by 100 times.<a href="#cite_note-mnp.nl-2">[2]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> is the period before written history. Most of our knowledge of that period comes from the work of archaeologists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201716-3">[3]</a> Prehistory is often known as the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>, and is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> (earliest), <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad201322–31-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Early human migration">early human migrations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a> saw <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> spread across <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> 1.8 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201218-5">[5]</a> Evidence for the use of fire has been dated as early as 1.8 million years ago, a date which is contested,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201217-6">[6]</a> with generally accepted evidence for the controlled use of fire dating to 780,000 years ago. Actual use of hearths first appears 400,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201519-7">[7]</a> Dates for the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a> (modern humans) range from 250,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201526-8">[8]</a> to 160,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201219-9">[9]</a> with the varying dates being based on <a href="/wiki/DNA_study" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA study">DNA studies</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201526-8">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201219-9">[9]</a> Some 50,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. They reached <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> about 45,000 years ago, southwestern <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> about the same time, southeastern Europe and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> around 40,000 years ago, and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> about 30,000 years ago. Humans <a href="/wiki/Migration_to_the_New_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration to the New World">migrated to the Americas</a> about 15,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201736–37-10">[10]</a> Evidence for <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> emerges in about 9000 BC in what is now eastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and spread through the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201545–46-11">[11]</a> Settlement at <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe" title="Göbekli Tepe">Göbekli Tepe</a> began around 9500 BC and may have the world's oldest temple.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201744-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nile_River_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River Valley">Nile River Valley</a> has evidence of <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a> cultivation starting around 8000 BC and agricultural use of <a href="/wiki/Yam_(vegetable)" title="Yam (vegetable)">yams</a> in Western Africa perhaps dates to the same time period. Cultivation of millet, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a> began around 7000 BC in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">Taro</a> cultivation in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> dates to about 7000 BC also with <a href="/wiki/Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">squash</a> cultivation in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> perhaps sharing that date.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201545–46-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal_domestication" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal domestication">Animal domestication</a> began with the <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_dogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestication of dogs">domestication of dogs</a>, which dates to at least 15,000 years ago, and perhaps even earlier. <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_domestic_sheep" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the domestic sheep">Sheep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_domestic_goats" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of domestic goats">goats</a> were domesticated around 9000 BC in the Fertile Crescent, alongside the first evidence for agriculture. Other animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Pigs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigs">pigs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">poultry</a>, were later domesticated and used as food sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201548–49-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_buffalo" title="Water buffalo">water buffalo</a> were domesticated around 7000 BC and <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">horses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkeys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a> were domesticated by about 4000 BC. All of these animals were used not only for food, but to carry and pull people and loads, greatly increasing human ability to do work. The invention of the simple <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a> by 6000 BC further increased agricultural efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201554-14">[14]</a> Metal use in the form of hammered <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> items predates the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> of <a href="/wiki/Copper_ore" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper ore">copper ores</a>, which happened around 6000 BC in western Asia and independently in eastern Asia before 2000 BC. <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> use dates to between 6000 and 5000 BC. <a href="/wiki/Metal_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal alloy">Alloy</a> metallurgy began with <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> in about 3500 BC in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and was developed independently in China by 2000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201745-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> developed independently throughout the world,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201555–56-16">[16]</a> with fired pots appearing first among the <a href="/wiki/Jomon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jomon">Jomon</a> of Japan and in West Africa at <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201238-17">[17]</a> Sometime between 5000 and 4000 BC the <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a> was invented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201555–56-16">[16]</a> By 3000 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad201359–60-18">[18]</a> the pottery wheel was adapted into <a href="/wiki/Wheeled_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheeled vehicle">wheeled vehicles</a> which could be used to carry loads further and easier than with human or animal power alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201555–56-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a> developed separately in five different locations in human history: Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, and Mesoamerica.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201760–61-19">[19]</a> By 3400 BC, "proto-literate" <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> spread in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiamond1999218-20">[20]</a> Egypt developed its own system of <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyphs</a> by about 3200 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201760–61-19">[19]</a> By 2800 BC the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> had developed its <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a>, which remains undeciphered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201258-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese Characters</a> were independently developed in China during the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle Bone Script</a> dating to the period 1600 to 1100 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201260–61-22">[22]</a> Writing in Mesoamerica dates to 600 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201263-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_by_region">History by region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History by region">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia">West Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: West Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a></div> The ancient Near East is considered the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradle of civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201254–55-24">[24]</a> It was the first to practice intensive year-round agriculture;[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] created one of the first <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">coherent writing systems</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201760–61-19">[19]</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a> and then the vehicular <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201555–56-16">[16]</a> created the first <a href="/wiki/Centralized_government" title="Centralized government">centralized governments</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201754–55-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Law_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Law code">law codes</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201574-26">[26]</a> and empires,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201755–56-27">[27]</a> as well as displaying <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201254–55-24">[24]</a> slavery,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201574-26">[26]</a> and organized warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201573-28">[28]</a> It began the study of the stars and the sciences of astronomy and mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad201365-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History of Iraq</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png/290px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png/435px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png/580px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption>The core territory of 15th century BC <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, with its two major cities <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, was upstream of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> and downstream of the states of <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hatti</a>.</figcaption></figure> Mesopotamia is the site of some of the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilisations</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201754-30">[30]</a> Agricultural communities emerged in the area with the <a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a> around 8000 BC and continued to expand through the <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a> around 6000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201254-31">[31]</a> Cities began in the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4000–3100 BC) and expanded during the <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a> (3100–2900 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a> (2900–2350 BC) periods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2015256–257-32">[32]</a> The surplus of storable foodstuffs created by this economy allowed the population to settle in one place instead of migrating after crops and herds. It also allowed for a much greater population density, and in turn required an extensive labour force and division of labour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201238-17">[17]</a> This organization led to the necessity of record keeping and the development of writing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesner-Hanks201579-80-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad201363-34">[34]</a> with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged when <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> created an empire out of the territories of the former kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad201363-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a>, was Babylonia from the 7th and 6th centuries BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200638-35">[35]</a> Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, it conquered <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. This empire also created the <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a> and the still-surviving <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a> as architectural embellishments of its capital at Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013110-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a> was a city and its surrounding region near Babylon. Akkad also became the capital of the Akkadian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200636-37">[37]</a> Despite an extensive search, the precise site has never been found. Akkad reached the height of its power between about 2330 and 2150 BC, following the conquests of King <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200636-37">[37]</a> Through the spread of Sargon's empire, the language of Akkad, known as <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> from the city, spread and replaced the Sumerian language in Mesopotamia and eventually by 1450 BC was the main language of diplomacy in the Near East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertram2003143-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> was originally a region on the Upper <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, where a small state was created in the 19th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200638-35">[35]</a> The capital was at <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>, which gave the state its name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertram200310-39">[39]</a> Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt and much of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the term "Assyria proper" referred to roughly the northern half of Mesopotamia (the southern half being Babylonia), with <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> as its capital. The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old (20th to 18th centuries BC), Middle (14th to 11th centuries BC), and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a> (9th to 7th centuries BC) kingdoms, or periods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201280-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> was a Hurrian empire in northern Mesopotamia founded around 1500 BC. The Mitanians conquered and controlled Assyria until the 14th century BC while contending with Egypt for control of parts of modern Syria. Its capital was <a href="/wiki/Washukanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Washukanni">Washukanni</a>, whose precise location has not been determined by archaeologists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201278-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iranian_peoples">Iranian peoples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Iranian peoples">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Iranic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranic peoples">Iranic peoples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of Iran</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> were peoples who had appeared in the Iranian plateau around 1500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200655-42">[42]</a> Both peoples spoke <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> and were mostly pastoralists with a tradition of horse archery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006160–161-43">[43]</a> The Medes established their own <a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> by the 6th century BC, having defeated the Neo-Assyrian Empire with the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a> in 614 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013110-36">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/495px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/660px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>The Persian <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> at its greatest extent, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, who first became king of the Persians, then conquered the Medes, <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, and Babylon by 539 BC. The empire built on earlier Mesopotamian systems of government to govern their large empire. By building roads, they improved both the ability to send governmental instructions throughout their lands as well as improving the ability of their military forces to be deployed rapidly. Increased trade and upgraded farming techniques increased wealth, but also exacerbated inequalities between social classes. The empire's location at the centre of trading networks spread its intellectual and philosophical ideas throughout a wide area, and its religion, while not itself spreading far, had an impact on later religions such as <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006160–161-43">[43]</a> Cyrus' son <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a> conquered Egypt, while a later emperor, <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>, expanded the empire to the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>, creating the largest empire in the world to that date.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006162-44">[44]</a> But Darius and his son <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> failed to expand into <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, with expeditions in 490 and 480 BC eventually failing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006165-45">[45]</a> The Achaemenid dynasty and empire fell to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> by 330 BC, and after Alexander's death, much of the area previously ruled by the Cyrus and his successors was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006166-46">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_(Shaded_Relief_BG).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/220px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/330px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/440px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> was an Iranian civilisation situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran. Their power was based on a combination of military power based on heavy cavalry with a decentralised governing structure based on a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federated system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006167-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> was led by the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid dynasty">Arsacid dynasty</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] which by around 155 BC under <a href="/wiki/Mithradates_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithradates I">Mithradates I</a> had mostly conquered the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>. Parthia had many wars with the Romans, but it was rebellions within the empire that ended it in the 3rd century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006167-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> began when the Parthian Empire ended in AD 224. Their rulers claimed the Achaemenids as ancestors and set up their capital at <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> in Mesopotamia. Their period of greatest military expansion occurred under <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>, who by the time of his death in AD 272 had defeated Roman imperial armies and set up buffer states between the Sasanians and Roman Empires. After Shapur, the Sasanians were under more pressure from the Kushans to their east as well as the Roman then Byzantine Empire to its west. However, the Sasanians rebuilt and founded numerous cities and their merchants traveled widely and introduced crops such as sugar, rice, and cotton into the Iranian plateau. But in AD 651, the last Sassanid emperor was killed by the expanding Islamic Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006168-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hittites">Hittites</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hittites">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_(English).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg/220px-Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg/330px-Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg/440px-Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Largest expansion of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> first came to Anatolia about 1900 BC and during the period 1600-1500 they expanded into Mesopotamia where they adopted the cuneiform script to their Indo-European language. By 1200 their empire stretched to <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. They improved two earlier technologies from Mesopotamia and spread these new techniques widely – improved iron working and light <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> with <a href="/wiki/Spoked_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoked wheel">spoked wheels</a> in warfare. The Hittites introduced the casting of iron with molds and then hammering it which enabled weapons and tools to be made stronger and also cheaper. Although chariots had been used previously, the use of spoked wheels allowed the chariots to be much lighter and more maneuverable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200653–54-49">[49]</a> In 1274 BC the Hittites clashed with the Egyptians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a>, where both sides claimed victory. In 1207 the Hittite capital of <a href="/wiki/Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a> was sacked, ending the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201757-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Israel">Israel</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Israel">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ancient_Israel_and_Judah" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ancient Israel and Judah">History of Ancient Israel and Judah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/200px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/300px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/400px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="859" /></a><figcaption>The Iron Age Kingdom of Israel (blue) and Kingdom of Judah (yellow)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a> were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant and had existed during the Iron Ages and the Neo-Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic periods. The name Israel first appears in the <a href="/wiki/Merneptah_stele" class="mw-redirect" title="Merneptah stele">stele</a> of the Egyptian pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> around 1209 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStager199891-51">[51]</a> This "Israel" was a cultural and probably political entity of the central highlands, well enough established to be perceived by the Egyptians as a possible challenge to their <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>, but an ethnic group rather than an organised state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever2003206-52">[52]</a> Israel had emerged by the middle of the 9th century BC, when the Assyrian King <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> named "<a href="/wiki/Ahab" title="Ahab">Ahab</a> the Israelite" among his enemies at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qarqar" title="Battle of Qarqar">battle of Qarqar</a> (853). Judah emerged somewhat later than Israel, probably during the 9th century BC, but the subject is one of considerable controversy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe2008225–226-53">[53]</a> Israel came into conflict with the Assyrians, who conquered Israel in 722 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> did the same to Judah in 586. After both conquests, the conquering forces deported many of the inhabitants to other regions of their respective empires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200647-54">[54]</a> Following the fall of Babylon to the Persian Empire, Cyrus the Great allowed the rebuilding of the temple at <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013156-55">[55]</a> and some of the exiles from Judah <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">returned to Judea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200648-56">[56]</a> where they remained under Persian rule until the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Maccabean revolt">Maccabean revolt</a> led to independence during Hellenistic period until <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman conquest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013248–249-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phoenicia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> was an ancient civilisation centered in the north of ancient <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, Syria and Israel. Phoenician civilisation was an enterprising <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">maritime trading culture</a> that spread across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> between the period of 1550 to 300 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200648–49-58">[58]</a> One Phoenician colony, <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, ruled an empire in the Western Mediterranean until being defeated by Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201758-59">[59]</a> The Phoenicians invented the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>, the forerunner of the modern <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> still in use today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201749–51-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arabia">Arabia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Arabia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Yemen" title="Ancient history of Yemen">Ancient history of Yemen</a></div> The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before the rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the AD 630s is not known in great detail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013338-61">[61]</a> Archaeological exploration in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral traditions</a> later recorded by Islamic scholars.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A number of small kingdoms existed in Arabia from around AD 100 to perhaps about AD 400.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013338-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Afro-Asiatic_Africa">Afro-Asiatic Africa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Afro-Asiatic Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Carthage">Carthage</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Carthage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></div> Carthage was founded around 814 BC by <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> settlers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201758-59">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a> was a city-state that ruled an empire through alliances and trade influence that stretched throughout North Africa and modern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013212–213-62">[62]</a> At the height of the city's influence, its empire included most of the western Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201758-59">[59]</a> The empire was in a constant state of struggle with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, which led to a series of conflicts known as the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>. After the third and <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">final Punic War</a>, Carthage was destroyed and then occupied by Roman forces. Nearly all of the territory held by Carthage fell into Roman hands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006264-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Egypt">Egypt</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg/250px-Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg/375px-Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg/500px-Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Khafre%27s_Pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Khafre's Pyramid">Khafre's Pyramid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth dynasty of Egypt">4th dynasty</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Great Sphinx of Giza</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 BC or perhaps earlier)</figcaption></figure> Ancient Egypt was a long-lived civilisation geographically located in north-eastern Africa. It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201762–63-64">[64]</a> reaching its greatest extent during the 2nd millennium BC, which is referred to as the New Kingdom period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201768–69-65">[65]</a> It reached broadly from the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> in the north, as far south as <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Cataract">Fourth Cataract</a> of the Nile. Extensions to the geographical range of ancient Egyptian civilisation included, at different times, areas of the southern <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea coastline, the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201264-66">[66]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Western Desert</a> (focused on the several <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oases</a>). Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half <a href="/wiki/Millennia" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennia">millennia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201762–63-64">[64]</a> It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around 3100 BC, traditionally under <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200663-67">[67]</a> The civilisation of ancient Egypt was characterised primarily by intensive agricultural use of the fertile Nile Valley;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200662-68">[68]</a> the use of the Nile itself for transportation;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200673-69">[69]</a> the development of writing systems – first <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> and then later <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> and other derived scripts – and <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200675-70">[70]</a> the organisation of collective projects such as the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201272–73-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> with surrounding regions;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200673–74-72">[72]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a> religious tradition that included elaborate funeral customs including <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mummy" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian mummy">mummification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200677–78-73">[73]</a> Overseeing these activities were a socio-political and economic <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200670–71-74">[74]</a> under the figure of a (semi)-divine ruler from a succession of ruling <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201256–57-75">[75]</a> Ancient Egyptian history is divided across various periods, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a>, which saw pyramid building on a large scale. After 2100 BC, the Old Kingdom dissolved into smaller states during the <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate Period">First Intermediate Period</a>, which lasted about 100 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201762-76">[76]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> began around 2000 BC with the reunification of Egypt under pharoes ruling from <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>. The Middle Kingdom ended with the conquest of northern Egypt by the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> around 1650 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201766-77">[77]</a> The Hyksos were expelled from Egypt and the land was reunited in the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> around 1550 BC. This period lasted until about 1000 BC, and saw Egypt expand its borders into Palestine and Syria. The <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Intermediate Period">Third Intermediate Period</a> was marked by the rule of priests as well as the conquest of Egypt by <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> kings and then later Assyria, Persia, and Macedonians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201768–69-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Nubia">Nubia</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rulers_of_Kush,_Kerma_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/220px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/330px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/440px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4295" data-file-height="3506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> of Nubia</figcaption></figure> The Ta-Seti kingdom in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> to the south of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> was conquered by Egyptian rulers around 3100 BC, but by 2500 BC the Nubians had created a new kingdom further south, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>, centred on the upper Nile with a capital at <a href="/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200664–66-78">[78]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">Egyptian New Kingdom</a> period, Kush once more was conquered by Egypt. However, by 1100 BC a new kingdom of Kush had formed, with a capital at <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a>. Nubian rulers conquered Egypt around 760 BC and retained control for about a century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200667–69-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Aksum_and_ancient_Ethiopia">Aksum and ancient Ethiopia</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Aksum and ancient Ethiopia">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Ezana_Stone_(2840202630).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/The_Ezana_Stone_%282840202630%29.jpg/150px-The_Ezana_Stone_%282840202630%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/The_Ezana_Stone_%282840202630%29.jpg/225px-The_Ezana_Stone_%282840202630%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/The_Ezana_Stone_%282840202630%29.jpg/300px-The_Ezana_Stone_%282840202630%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1998" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ezana_Stone" title="Ezana Stone">Ezana Stone</a> records negus Ezana's conversion to Christianity and conquests of his neighbors.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa centered in present-day <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, it existed from approximately AD 100 to 940, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillipson201248-80">[80]</a> The Kingdom of Aksum at its height by the early 6th-century AD extended through much of modern Ethiopia and across the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> to Arabia. The capital city of the empire was <a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Aksum</a>, now in northern Ethiopia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunro-Hay199157-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Niger-Congo_Africa">Niger-Congo Africa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Niger-Congo Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Nok_culture">Nok culture</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nok culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg/170px-Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg/255px-Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg/340px-Nok_sculpture_of_a_sitted_person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Nok sculpture of a seated person</figcaption></figure> The Nok culture appeared in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> around 1000 BC and mysteriously vanished around AD 200. The civilisation's <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social system</a> is thought to have been highly advanced. The Nok civilisation was considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized Terracotta which have been discovered by archaeologists. The Nok also used <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">iron smelting</a> that may have been independently developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw1978-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sahel">Sahel</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sahel">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Djenné-Djenno">Djenné-Djenno</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Djenné-Djenno">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno" title="Djenné-Djenno">Djenné-Djenno</a></div> The civilisation of Djenné-Djenno was located in the Niger River Valley in the country of <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centers and the best-known archaeology site in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>. This archaeological site is located about 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) away from the modern town and is believed to have been involved in <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">long-distance trade</a> and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres); however, this is yet to be confirmed with extensive survey work. With the help of archaeological excavations mainly by <a href="/wiki/Susan_McIntosh" title="Susan McIntosh">Susan and Roderick McIntosh</a>, the site is known to have been occupied from 250 BC to AD 900. The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved where the current city is located due to the spread of Islam and the building of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9" title="Great Mosque of Djenné">Great Mosque of Djenné</a>. Previously, it was assumed that advanced trade networks and complex <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a> did not exist in the region until the arrival of traders from <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">Southwest Asia</a>. However, sites such as Djenné-Djenno disprove this, as these traditions in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> flourished long before. Towns similar to that at Djenne-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia, also in Mali along the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a>, from around 900 BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Dhar_Tichitt_and_Oualata">Dhar Tichitt and Oualata</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Dhar Tichitt and Oualata">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt" title="Dhar Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a></div> Dhar Tichitt and Oualata were prominent among the early urban centres, dated to 2000 BC, in present-day Mauritania. About 500 stone settlements littered the region in the former savannah of the Sahara. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. It has been found that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples were responsible for constructing such settlements. Around 300 BC, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. From the type of architecture and pottery, it is believed that Tichit was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire. Old Jenne (Djenne) began to be settled around 300 BC, producing iron and with sizeable population, evidenced in crowded cemeteries. The inhabitants and creators of these settlements during these periods are thought to have been ancestors of the Soninke people. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bantu_expansion">Bantu expansion</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bantu expansion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></div> Peoples speaking precursors to the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> began to spread throughout southern Africa, and by 2000 BC they were expanding past the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> and into the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> area. By AD 1000 these groups had spread throughout all of southern Africa south of the equator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200681-83">[83]</a> Iron metallurgy and agriculture spread along with these peoples, with the cultivation of millet, oil palms, sorghum, and yams as well as the use of domesticated cattle, pigs, and sheep. These technologies helped increase population, and settled communities became common in sub-Saharan Africa except in deserts or heavy forests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200682–83-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: South Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Asia">History of South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Ancient India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TNMStandingBuddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/TNMStandingBuddha.jpg/220px-TNMStandingBuddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/TNMStandingBuddha.jpg/330px-TNMStandingBuddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/TNMStandingBuddha.jpg/440px-TNMStandingBuddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="885" data-file-height="1466" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Standing_Buddha_from_Gandhara_(Tokyo)" title="Standing Buddha from Gandhara (Tokyo)">Standing Buddha from Gandhara</a>, 1st century AD.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg/330px-Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg/495px-Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Maurya_empire_in_265_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption>A political map of the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan Empire">Mauryan Empire</a>, including notable cities, such as the capital <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a>, and site of the Buddha's enlightenment.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic tools</a> have been discovered in India dating to 200,000 years ago, and Neolithic sites are known from near the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a> dating to around 8000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200687-85">[85]</a> Agriculture began in the Indus Valley around 7000 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200687-85">[85]</a> and reached the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges Valley">Ganges Valley</a> by 3000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201743-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">Barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, and wheat were grown and the population had domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200687-85">[85]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> developed around 3000 BC in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra</a> river valleys of eastern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, Pakistan, and western India. Another name for this civilisation is Harappan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201258-21">[21]</a> after the first of its cities to be excavated, <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a> in the Pakistani province of <a href="/wiki/Punjab_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab (Pakistan)">Punjab</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Harappan civilization grew out of the earlier agricultural communities as they evolved into cities. These communities created and traded jewelry, figurines, and seals that appear widely scattered throughout Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201774-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">Chickens</a> were domesticated in addition to the earlier crops and animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200689-88">[88]</a> They developed their own writing system, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley script">Indus Valley script</a>, which is still mostly undeciphered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201258-21">[21]</a> The exact structure of society and the way the cities were governed is not known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200689-88">[88]</a> By about 1600 BC, the Indus Valley culture had abandoned many of their cities, including <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-Daro" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohenjo-Daro">Mohenjo-Daro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201775-89">[89]</a> The exact reason for this decline is not known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200692-90">[90]</a> Indo-European speaking peoples began to spread into India about 1500 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, dates to this period and begins a period often known as the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200694-91">[91]</a> Between 1500 and 500 BC these peoples spread throughout most of India and had begun to found small cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200695-92">[92]</a> Vedic society was characterized by the <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a> system which divided society into four broad castes, which were later elaborated. By the end of the Vedic period, this way of organizing society had become central to Indian society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler200696–97-93">[93]</a> Religion in the late Vedic period was evolving into <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, which spread throughout Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017122-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a>, born around 560 BC in northern India, went on to found a new religion based on his ascetic life – <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. This faith also spread throughout Eastern and Southeastern Asia after his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017123-95">[95]</a> This period also saw the composition of the epics <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017122-94">[94]</a> The kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. During the reign of Ashoka, the four dynasties of <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandya</a> were ruling in the South, while <a href="/wiki/Devanampiya_Tissa" title="Devanampiya Tissa">Devanampiya Tissa</a> (250–210 BC) controlled <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura" title="Anuradhapura">Anuradhapura</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>). These kingdoms, while not part of Ashoka's empire, were in friendly terms with the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>. An alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa and Ashoka of India,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendis199911-96">[96]</a> who sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWijesooriya200634-97">[97]</a> Most of <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> was reunited under the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> beginning under <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_I" title="Chandragupta I">Chandragupta I</a> around AD 320. Under his successors the empire spread to include much of India except for the Deccan Plateau and the very south of the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006212-98">[98]</a> This was a period of relative peace, and the Gupta rulers generally left administration in local rulers. The Gupta Empire was weakened and ultimately ruined by the raids of <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Hunas</a> (a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalites</a> emanating from Central Asia), and the empire broke up into smaller regional kingdoms by the end of the fifth century AD. India would remain fragmented into smaller states until the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> in the 1500s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006213-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia_and_Oceania">Southeast Asia and Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia and Oceania">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Peopling of Southeast Asia">Peopling of Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Southeast Asia">History of Southeast Asia</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> was characterized by several migrations into <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Southeast Asia">Island Southeast Asia</a> from southern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> by <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai">Kra-Dai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hmong-Mien" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong-Mien">Hmong-Mien</a>-speakers.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterized as "agrarian kingdoms",<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> developed an economy by around 500 BCE based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "<a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">thalassian</a>" zone<a href="#cite_note-socev-102">[102]</a> shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the <a href="/wiki/Pyu_city-states" title="Pyu city-states">Pyu city-states</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a> valley, the <a href="/wiki/Van_Lang" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Lang">Văn Lang kingdom</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">Red River Delta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Funan_(Southeast_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Funan (Southeast Asia)">Funan</a> around the lower <a href="/wiki/Mekong" title="Mekong">Mekong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-funan-103">[103]</a> Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE, endured until 258 BCE under the <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93ng_B%C3%A0ng_dynasty" title="Hồng Bàng dynasty">Hồng Bàng dynasty</a>, as part of the <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%C3%B4ng_S%C6%A1n_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Đông Sơn culture">Đông Sơn culture</a> that sustained a dense and organised population that produced an elaborate <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> industry.<a href="#cite_note-angk-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">Intensive wet-rice cultivation</a> in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.<a href="#cite_note-angk-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-socev-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mainland_Southeast_Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mainland Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg/220px-Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg/330px-Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg/440px-Trong_dong_Dong_Son.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dong_Son_drum" title="Dong Son drum">Đông Sơn drum</a></figcaption></figure> The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chiang" title="Ban Chiang">Ban Chiang</a> in north-east Thailand and among the <a href="/wiki/Phung_Nguyen_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Phung Nguyen culture">Phùng Nguyên culture</a> of northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dong_Son_culture" title="Dong Son culture">Đông Sơn</a> culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of evermore refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrows and spearheads and small ornamented items.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> By about 500 BCE, large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, weighing more than 70 kg (150 lb), were produced in the laborious <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax casting</a> process. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing was developed independent of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of organized, centralized and hierarchical communities and a large population.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Between 1000 BCE and 100 CE, the <a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh culture</a> flourished along the south-central coast of <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Ceramic jar burial sites that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled terracotta jars, ornamented and colorized cooking pots, glass items, <a href="/wiki/Nephrite" title="Nephrite">jade</a> earrings and metal objects were deposited near the rivers and along the coast.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austronesia">Austronesia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Austronesia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg/390px-Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg/585px-Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg/780px-Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1053" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the migration of the Austronesians from Taiwan</figcaption></figure> Around 3000 to 1500 BCE, a large-scale migration of <a href="/wiki/Austronesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesians">Austronesians</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian expansion">Austronesian expansion</a> began from <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a> primarily fueled this migration. These first settlers settled in northern <a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a>, in the archipelago of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, intermingling with the earlier <a href="/wiki/Australo-Melanesian" title="Australo-Melanesian">Australo-Melanesian</a> population who had inhabited the islands since about 23,000 years earlier. Over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the <a href="/wiki/Celebes_Sea" title="Celebes Sea">Celebes Sea</a> and Borneo.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-et-al2009-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pawley2002-112">[112]</a> From southwestern Borneo, Austronesians spread further west in a single migration event to both <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and the coastal regions of southern Vietnam, becoming the ancestors of the speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chamic_languages" title="Chamic languages">Chamic</a> branches of the Austronesian language family.<a href="#cite_note-Blust2019-113">[113]</a> Soon after reaching the Philippines, Austronesians colonized the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a> by 1500 BCE or even earlier, becoming the first humans to reach <a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote Oceania</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chamorro_people" title="Chamorro people">Chamorro</a> migration was also unique in that it was the only Austronesian migration to the Pacific Islands to successfully retain rice cultivation. <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yap" title="Yap">Yap</a> were settled by separate voyages by 1000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Blust2019-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gray-et-al2009-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pawley2002-112">[112]</a> Another important migration branch was by the <a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita culture</a>, which rapidly spread into the islands off the coast of northern <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and into the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> and other parts of coastal New Guinea and <a href="/wiki/Island_Melanesia" title="Island Melanesia">Island Melanesia</a> by 1200 BCE. They reached the islands of <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> by around 900 to 800 BCE. This remained the furthest extent of the Austronesian expansion into Polynesia until around 700 CE, when there was another surge of island colonization. It reached the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Marquesas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquesas">Marquesas</a> by 700 CE; <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> by 900 CE; <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapa Nui">Rapa Nui</a> by 1000 CE; and New Zealand by 1200 CE.<a href="#cite_note-Bellwood_1991-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibbons-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-116">[116]</a> For a few centuries, the Polynesian islands were connected by bidirectional long-distance sailing, with the exception of Rapa Nui, which had limited further contact due to its isolated geographical location.<a href="#cite_note-Blust2019-113">[113]</a> Island groups like the <a href="/wiki/Pitcairns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitcairns">Pitcairns</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Norfolk Islands">Norfolk Islands</a> were also formerly settled by Austronesians but later abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-Freeman-116">[116]</a> There is also putative evidence, based in the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potato</a>, that Austronesians may have reached South America from Polynesia, where they might have traded with the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Tilburg_1994-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png/220px-Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png/330px-Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png/440px-Austronesian_maritime_trade_network_in_the_Indian_Ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="2895" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian</a> <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">proto-historic</a> and historic (Maritime Silk Road) maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<a href="#cite_note-Manguin2016-119">[119]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Srivijaya_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Srivijaya_Empire.svg/220px-Srivijaya_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Srivijaya_Empire.svg/330px-Srivijaya_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Srivijaya_Empire.svg/440px-Srivijaya_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Thalassocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalassocratic">thalassocratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> empire at its maximum extent in the 8th to 11th centuries, showing their control of the straits of <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Malacca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunda_Strait" title="Sunda Strait">Sunda</a></figcaption></figure> Austronesians established prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_maritime_trade_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian maritime trade network">maritime trade networks</a> in Island Southeast Asia, including the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Jade_Road" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime Jade Road">Maritime Jade Road</a>, a jade trade network, in Southeast Asia which existed in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. The trade was established by links between the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and the Philippines, and later included parts of Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other areas in Southeast Asia (known as the <a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huynh</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kalanay_Cave" title="Kalanay Cave">Kalanay</a> Interaction Sphere). <a href="/wiki/Lingling-o" title="Lingling-o">Lingling-o</a> artifacts are one of the notable archeological finds originating from the Maritime Jade Road.<a href="#cite_note-Tsang2000-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turton2021-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Everington_2017a-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-BellwoodHung2011-123">[123]</a> During the operation of the Maritime Jade Road, the Austronesian <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> networks were also established by <a href="/wiki/Islander_Southeast_Asians" class="mw-redirect" title="Islander Southeast Asians">Islander Southeast Asians</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">Southern India</a> by around 1000 to 600 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Bellina2014-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mahdi1999-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Herrera-126">[126]</a> They also established early long-distance contacts with Africa, possibly as early as before 500 BCE, based on archaeological evidence like banana <a href="/wiki/Phytolith" title="Phytolith">phytoliths</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> and remains of Neolithic chicken bones in <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tofanelli-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adelaar-128">[128]</a> An Austronesian group, originally from the <a href="/wiki/Makassar_Strait" title="Makassar Strait">Makassar Strait</a> region around <a href="/wiki/Kalimantan" title="Kalimantan">Kalimantan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pierron-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heiske-130">[130]</a> eventually <a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar#A_common_Austronesian_origin:_The_Vahoaka_Ntaolo" title="History of Madagascar">settled</a> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, either directly from Southeast Asia or from preexisting mixed Austronesian-<a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> populations from <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>. Estimates for when this occurred vary from the 1st century CE,<a href="#cite_note-Herrera-126">[126]</a> to as late as the 6th to 7th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-Tofanelli-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adelaar-128">[128]</a> It is likely that the Austronesians that settled Madagascar followed a coastal route through South Asia and East Africa, rather than directly across the Indian Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Blust2019-113">[113]</a> Genetic evidence suggests that some individuals of Austronesian descent reached Africa and the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> By around the 2nd century BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia connected with the maritime trade routes of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, becoming what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a>. Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive <a href="/wiki/Lashed_lug_boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Lashed lug boat">lashed-lug</a> ships, although <a href="/wiki/Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil people">Tamil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.<a href="#cite_note-Guan-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Billé-133">[133]</a> It allowed the exchange of goods from <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and eastern Africa on the other.<a href="#cite_note-Billé-133">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a>, an Austronesian polity founded at <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a> in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits of <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Malacca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunda_Strait" title="Sunda Strait">Sunda</a> and the South China Sea <a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">emporium</a> by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.<a href="#cite_note-Guan-132">[132]</a>: 12  It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included <a href="/wiki/Melayu_Kingdom" title="Melayu Kingdom">Melayu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Mataram Kingdom">Mataram</a>, among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Maluku islands">Spice Islands</a>, as well as maritime trade-routes between <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sulistiyono-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: East Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">History of East Asia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/170px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/255px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg/340px-Shang_dynasty_inscribed_scapula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="2669" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> The Chinese civilisation that emerged within the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley is one of earliest civilisations in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201752-135">[135]</a> Prior to the formation of civilisation, neolithic cultures such as the <a href="/wiki/Longshan_culture" title="Longshan culture">Longshan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yangshao_culture" title="Yangshao culture">Yangshao</a> dating to 5000 BC produced sophisticated pottery, cultivated millet, and likely produced clothes woven from <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201776-136">[136]</a> Rice was also farmed and pigs and <a href="/wiki/Water_buffalo" title="Water buffalo">water buffalo</a> were kept for food. Longshan potters may have used the pottery wheel to produce their wares.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201260-137">[137]</a> Ancient Chinese traditions described three <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">ancient dynasties</a> that predated the unification under the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> dynasties. These were the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Zhou</a>. It was not until the later 20th century that many historians considered the Shang or Xia to be anything other than legendary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006111-138">[138]</a> Little is yet known about the Xia, which appears to have begun around 2200 BC, and may have controlled parts of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006112-139">[139]</a> The Shang dynasty traditionally is dated to 1766 to 1122 BC. Bronze was central to Shang culture and technology, with chariots and bronze weapons helping to expand Shang control over northern China. The cities at Ao and <a href="/wiki/Yinxu" title="Yinxu">Yinxu</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a>, have been excavated and city walls, royal palaces, and archives as well as tombs and workshops were found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006113–114-140">[140]</a> A system of writing developed, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>, of which over 100,000 are still extant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006121–125-141">[141]</a> Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Shang were overrun by the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Wei_River" title="Wei River">Wei River</a> valley to the west. The Zhou rulers at this time invoked the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> to legitimize their rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially established their capital in the west near modern <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. Zhou administration was decentralised, with local elites responsible for collecting tribute and providing military support to the Zhou rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006115–116-142">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg/220px-01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg/330px-01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg/440px-01_terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Warriors" class="mw-redirect" title="Terracotta Warriors">Terracotta Warriors</a> from the time of <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a></figcaption></figure> In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013132–133-143">[143]</a> named after the influential <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet199653-144">[144]</a> In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013132–133-143">[143]</a> The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006128-145">[145]</a> forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006118-146">[146]</a> In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> were founded, partly in response to the changing political world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013133–135-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006182–189-148">[148]</a> After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of the 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the Warring States period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet199662–63-149">[149]</a> Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006119-150">[150]</a> As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a>, were annexed by the growing power of the rulers of <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006190-151">[151]</a> they were governed under the new local administrative system of <a href="/wiki/Commandery_(China)" title="Commandery (China)">commandery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1996106-152">[152]</a> The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng, the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations to the south and southeast by 213 BC enabled him to proclaim himself the <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">First Emperor</a> (Qin Shi Huangdi).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsWestad2013313--153">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Han Dynasty Map. 1 AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg/290px-Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg/435px-Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg/580px-Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="965" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>The Chinese <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> dominated the East Asia region at the beginning of the first millennium AD </figcaption></figure> Qin Shi Huangdi ruled the unified China directly with absolute power. In contrast to the decentralized and feudal rule of earlier dynasties the Qin ruled directly. Nationwide the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">legalism</a> was enforced and publications promoting rival ideas such as Confucianism were prohibited. In his reign unified China created the first continuous <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a> with the use of forced labour. <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_campaign_against_the_Yue_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes">Invasions</a> were launched southward to annex Vietnam. The Qin period also saw the standardization of the Chinese writing system and the government unified the legal systems as well as setting standardized units of measurement throughout the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006190–192-154">[154]</a> After the emperor's death rebellions began and the Han dynasty took power and ruled China for over four centuries with a brief interruption from AD 9 to 23.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006193–194-155">[155]</a> The Han dynasty promoted the spread of iron agricultural tools, which helped create a food surplus that led to a large growth of population during the Han period. Silk production also increased and the manufacture of paper was invented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006197–198-156">[156]</a> Though the Han enjoyed great military and economic success, it was strained by the rise of aristocrats who disobeyed the central government. Public frustration provoked the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a>; though a failure it nonetheless accelerated the empire's downfall. After AD 208, the Han dynasty broke up into <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kingdoms period">rival kingdoms</a>. China would remain divided for almost the next 400 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006200–203-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neighbours_of_China">Neighbours of China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Neighbours of China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_monster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gold_monster.jpg/220px-Gold_monster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gold_monster.jpg/330px-Gold_monster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gold_monster.jpg/440px-Gold_monster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2127" /></a><figcaption>Gold stag with eagle's head, and ten more heads in the antlers. Inspired by Siberian Altai mountain art, possibly <a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk</a>, unearthed at Nalinggaotu, <a href="/wiki/Shenmu_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenmu County">Shenmu County</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. Possibly from Huns of the Northern Chinese prairie. 4th to 3rd centuries BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson1999-158">[158]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> period. <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi_History_Museum" title="Shaanxi History Museum">Shaanxi History Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SHM-159">[159]</a></figcaption></figure> The East Asian nations adjacent to China were all profoundly influenced by their interactions with <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">Chinese civilisation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> were brought under Han rule by <a href="/wiki/Han_Wudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Wudi">Han Wudi</a> in the second century BC, and this rule led to cultural influences on both areas for many centuries to come.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006195–196-160">[160]</a> Wudi also faced a threat from the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, a nomadic people from the Central Asian steppes. Wudi's invasions ended the Xiongnu state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006196–197-161">[161]</a> In 108 BC, the Han dynasty of China conquered much of Korea but when Han China began its decline, <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">three kingdoms in Korea</a> – those of <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a> – emerged and expelled the Chinese. Goguryeo and Baekje were eventually destroyed by a <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> and Silla alliance. Silla then drove out the Tang dynasty in 676 to control most of the Korean peninsula undisputed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017150-162">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jomon_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Jomon culture">Jomon culture</a> formed in Japan before 500 BC and under Chinese influence became the <a href="/wiki/Yayoi_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yayoi culture">Yayoi culture</a> which built large tombs by AD 200. In the 300s, a kingdom formed in the Yamato plain, perhaps influenced by Korean refugees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017144-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">History of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a></div> In pre-Columbian times, several large, centralized ancient civilisations developed in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>, both in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> and western <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201778-164">[164]</a> Beyond these areas, the use of agriculture expanded East of the Andes Mountains in South America particularly with the <a href="/wiki/Marajoara_culture" title="Marajoara culture">Marajoara culture</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and in the continental United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006548-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Andean_civilisations">Andean civilisations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Andean civilisations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Norte_Chico_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Norte Chico civilization">Norte Chico civilization</a></div> Ancient Andean civilisation began with the rise of organized fishing communities from 3500 BC onwards. Along with a sophisticated maritime society came the construction of large monuments, which likely existed as community centers.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The peoples of this area grew beans, cotton, <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet potatoes">sweet potatoes</a>, fished in the ocean, and by about 2000 BC had added the <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> to their crops. The <a href="/wiki/Chavin_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Chavin culture">Chavin culture</a>, based around the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chavin_cult&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chavin cult (page does not exist)">Chavin cult</a>, emerged around 1000 BC and led to large temples and artworks as well as sophisticated textiles. Gold, silver, and copper were worked for jewelry and occasionally for small copper tools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006146–147-167">[167]</a> After the decline of Chavin culture, a number of cities formed after about 200 BC. The cities at <a href="/wiki/Huari_(archaeological_site)" title="Huari (archaeological site)">Huari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pucara" class="mw-redirect" title="Pucara">Pucara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tiahuanaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiahuanaco">Tiahuanaco</a> were all likely over 10,000 residents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006146–147-167">[167]</a> From about AD 300, the <a href="/wiki/Mochica_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mochica culture">Mochica culture</a> arose along the <a href="/wiki/Moche_River" title="Moche River">Moche River</a>. These people left painted pottery depicting their society and culture with a wide range of varied subjects. Besides the Mochica, there were a number of other large states in the Andes after about AD 100.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006147–148-168">[168]</a> Included amongst these are the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca culture</a>, who were mainly village-dwelling but left behind a large ceremonial centre at <a href="/wiki/Cahuachi" title="Cahuachi">Cahuachi</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_lines" title="Nazca lines">Nazca lines</a>, a large number of huge designs set into the desert floor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017131-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_(4566574277).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/220px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/330px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/440px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The ruins of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerican</a> city <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></figcaption></figure> Agricultural cultivation began around 8000 BC in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocados</a>, beans, <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili peppers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourds</a>, and squashes were grown from about 7000 BC. Around 4000 BC <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> began to be grown, and soon after this <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>. Settlements appeared around 3000 BC and by 2000 BC most of Mesoamerica was practicing agriculture. Although some animals were domesticated — notably <a href="/wiki/Turkey_(bird)" title="Turkey (bird)">turkeys</a> and dogs — the lack of suitable large animals precluded the development of animals used for transportation or labour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006135-170">[170]</a> Around 1200 BC the first <a href="/wiki/Olmec_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec culture">Olmec</a> center of <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo</a> was founded, which remained the centre of Olmec civilisation until around 800 BC when <a href="/wiki/La_Venta" title="La Venta">La Venta</a> took over before losing primacy to <a href="/wiki/Tres_Zapotes" title="Tres Zapotes">Tres Zapotes</a> around 400 BC. These and other Olmec centres were groups of tombs, temples, and other ceremonial sites built of stone. Their construction testifies to the complexity of Olmec society, although the exact nature of how they were governed is not known. They also erected large stone sculptures of human heads and other subjects. <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">Jade</a> jewelry and other Olmec objects are found throughout Mesoamerica, likely having travelled via trade networks. The <a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec writing system</a> was mainly used for recording their <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican calendar">calendar</a>, both of which influenced later Mesoamerican cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006136–138-171">[171]</a> After the decline of the Olmecs, other civilisations in Mesoamerica either arose or emerged from the Olmec shadow - the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayans</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotecs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017128–129-172">[172]</a> The Zapotecs began around 500 BC in the <a href="/wiki/Oaxaca_Valley" title="Oaxaca Valley">Oaxaca Valley</a> at the site of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Alban" class="mw-redirect" title="Monte Alban">Monte Alban</a>. Monte Alban grew to around 25,000 residents in the period around AD 200, with the city having large stone temples and an expansive stone plaza. Like the Olmecs, they had a writing system and calendar. But by AD 900 Monte Alban was deserted for unknown reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017129-173">[173]</a> Teotihuacan developed around AD 200 and centred on the city of Teotihuacan, which grew to perhaps as many as 200,000 inhabitants at its height. Teotihuacan lasted until around AD 700, when it was burned and vandalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017128-174">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya culture</a> began to emerge around AD 300 in the <a href="/wiki/Yucatan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Yucatan Peninsula">Yucatan Peninsula</a> and modern-day Guatemala. During the 600 years of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization#Classic_period_(c._250–900_AD)" title="Maya civilization">Classical Maya</a> period,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017130-175">[175]</a> more than 80 Mayan sites were built, with temples, pyramids, and palaces the focal point of each centre. The most influential was <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a>, but Mayan civilisation was based on city-states which often were at war with each other. This seems not to have restricted trade, which went on between the cities. A priestly elite kept astronomical and calendrical knowledge, recording it with a <a href="/wiki/Mayan_glyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan glyphs">writing system</a> based on the Olmec system of glyphs. History, poetry, and other records were recorded in books, most of which did not survive the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica</a>. Mathematics was also studied, and they used the concept of zero in their calculations. The Mayan civilisation began to decline about AD 800, and most of its cities were deserted soon afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006137–141-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_America">Northern America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Northern America">edit</a>]</div> Organized societies, in the ancient United States or Canada, were often mound builder civilisations. One of the most significant of these was the <a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point culture</a> that existed in the U.S. state of Louisiana, and was responsible for the creation of over 100 mound sites. The Mississippi River was a core area in the development of long-distance trade and culture. Following Poverty Point, successive complex cultures such as the Hopewell emerged in the Southeastern United States in the <a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Early Woodland period</a>. Before AD 500 many mound builder societies retained a hunter gatherer form of subsistence. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece">Greece</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Greece">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture of ancient Rome</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parthenon_(30276156187).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg/220px-Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg/330px-Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg/440px-Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8256" data-file-height="5504" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, a temple dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, located on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a></figcaption></figure> Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Cycladic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycladic civilization">Cycladic civilization</a> on the islands of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> around 3200 BC,<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a> in Crete (2700–1500 BC).<a href="#cite_note-Frucht2004-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-World_and_Its_Peoples-179">[179]</a> The Minoans built large palaces decorated with frescoes and wrote in the <a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered script</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a> civilization, the first distinctively Greek civilization later emerged on the mainland (1600–1100 BC), consisting of a network of palace-centered states and writing the earliest <a href="/wiki/Attested_language" title="Attested language">attested</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a> script.<a href="#cite_note-World_and_Its_Peoples-179">[179]</a> The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, along with several other civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean, during the regional event known as the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> This ushered in a period known as the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a>, from which written records are absent. The <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Period</a> in Greece is generally considered to have lasted from around the 8th century BC to the invasion by Xerxes in 480 BC. This period saw the expansion of the Greek world around the Mediterranean, with the founding of Greek city-states as far afield as Sicily in the west and the Black Sea in the east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardmanHammond1970xiii-181">[181]</a> Politically, the Archaic period in Greece saw the collapse of the power of the old aristocracies, with democratic reforms in Athens and the development of <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Sparta's unique constitution</a>. The end of the Archaic period also saw the rise of Athens, which would come to be a dominant power in the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Period</a>, after the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a> and the tyranny of <a href="/wiki/Pisistratus" title="Pisistratus">Pisistratus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardmanHammond1970xv-182">[182]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/260px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/390px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/520px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="951" /></a><figcaption>Map of Alexander's short-lived empire (334–323 BC). After his death the lands were divided between the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Classical Greek world was dominated throughout the 5th century BC by the major powers of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>. Through the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>, Athens was able to convert pan-hellenist sentiment and fear of the Persian threat into a powerful empire, and this, along with the conflict between Sparta and Athens culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, was the major <a href="/wiki/Political" class="mw-redirect" title="Political">political</a> development of the first part of the Classical period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisBoardmanDaviesOstwald1992xiii–xiv-183">[183]</a> The period in Greek history from the death of Alexander the Great until the rise of the Roman empire and its conquest of Egypt in 30 BC is known as the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201299-184">[184]</a> After Alexander's death, a series of wars between his successors eventually led to three large states being formed from parts of Alexander's conquests, each ruled by a dynasty founded by one of the successors. These were the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonid">Antigonids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Selucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Selucid">Selucids</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemies">Ptolemies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker201798-185">[185]</a> These three kingdoms, along with smaller kingdoms, spread Greek culture and lifestyles into Asia and Egypt. These varying states eventually were conquered by Rome or the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201298–99-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rome">Rome</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Rome">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg/240px-RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg/360px-RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg/480px-RomanEmpire_117_recoloured_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2180" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Roman Empire AD 117. The Senatorial provinces were acquired first under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and were under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>'s control; the Imperial provinces were controlled directly by the Roman emperor.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> was a civilisation that grew out of the city-state of Rome, originating as a small agricultural community founded on the Italian peninsula in the 8th century BC, with influences from Greece and other Italian civilisations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a>. Traditionally Rome was founded as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman monarchy">monarchy</a> that then became a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012106–107-187">[187]</a> Rome expanded through the Italian peninsula through a series of wars in the fifth through the third centuries BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017101-188">[188]</a> This expansion brought the Roman republic into conflict with <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, leading to a series of <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>, that ended with the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017102–103-189">[189]</a> Rome then expanded into Greece and the eastern Mediterranean,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012110–111-190">[190]</a> while a series of internal conflicts led to the republic becoming an empire ruled by an <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> by the first century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017104–105-191">[191]</a> Throughout the first and second centuries AD, the Empire grew slightly while spreading Roman culture throughout its boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012110–113-192">[192]</a> A number of factors led to the eventual <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>. The western half of the empire, including <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms in the 5th century AD;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017113-193">[193]</a> the Eastern Roman Empire, governed from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> after AD 476,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012198–199-194">[194]</a> the traditional date for the "fall of Rome" and subsequent onset of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012150–151-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_antiquity">Late antiquity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Late antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/310px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/465px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/620px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Age of Migrations</a> in Europe was deeply detrimental to the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational change starting with reign of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, who began the custom of splitting the empire into eastern and <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">western</a> halves ruled by multiple emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017110–111-196">[196]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> began the process of <a href="/wiki/Christianizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianizing">Christianizing</a> the empire and established a new capital at <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017112-197">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migrations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards, culminating in the eventual <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">collapse of the empire in the West</a> in 476, replaced by the so-called <a href="/wiki/Germanic_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic monarchy">barbarian kingdoms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012150–151-195">[195]</a> The resultant cultural fusion of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a>, Germanic and Christian traditions formed the cultural foundations of Europe. There has been attempt by scholars to connect European late antiquity to other areas in Eurasia.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nomads_and_Iron_Age_peoples">Nomads and Iron Age peoples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Nomads and Iron Age peoples">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></div> The Celts were a diverse group of <a href="/wiki/Tribal_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal societies">tribal societies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a> culture formed in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Iron Age">Early Iron Age</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a> period, named for the site in present-day Austria). By the later Iron Age (<a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> period), Celts had expanded over wide range of lands: as far west as <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, as far east as <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> (central <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>), and as far north as <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] By the early centuries AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture had become restricted to the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017114-199">[199]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> were a nomadic people who formed a large state in Eastern Europe by about AD 400, and under their leader <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>, they fought against both sections of the Roman Empire. However, after Attila's death, the state fell apart and the Huns' influence in history disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017111-200">[200]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hun-Xiongnu</a> connection is controversial at best and is often disputed but is also not completely discredited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright201160-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Vaissière2015188-202">[202]</a> Migration of Germanic peoples to Britain from what is now northern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> is attested from the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017163-203">[203]</a> Groups of <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> migrated into western Europe, with the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a> eventually settling in Italy before being conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017162-204">[204]</a> A related people, the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>, settled in Spain, founding a kingdom that lasted until it was conquered by Islamic rulers in the AD 700s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017163-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developments">Developments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Developments">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_philosophy">Religion and philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Religion and philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Religions of the ancient Near East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Ancient Greek religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Roman imperial cult</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Greco-Roman_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism">Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Jupiter Ammon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG/220px-Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG/330px-Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG/440px-Museo_Barracco_-_Giove_Ammone_1010637.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Roman cast <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> of ram-horned Jupiter Ammon, a form of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>, 1st century AD. Gods were sometimes borrowed between civilisations and adapted to local conditions.</figcaption></figure> The rise of civilisation corresponded with the institutional sponsorship of belief in gods, supernatural forces and the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201240–41-205">[205]</a> During the Bronze Age, many civilisations adopted their own form of polytheism. Usually, polytheistic Gods manifested human personalities, strengths and failings. Early religion was often based on location, with cities or entire countries selecting a deity, that would grant them preferences and advantages over their competitors. Worship involved the construction of representation of deities, and the granting of sacrifices. Sacrifices could be material goods, food, or in extreme cases human sacrifice to please a deity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012142–143-206">[206]</a> New philosophies and religions arose in both east and west, particularly about the 6th century BC. Over time, a great variety of religions developed around the world, with some of the earliest major ones being Hinduism (around 2000 BC), <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (5th century BC), and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> (6th century BC) in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a> trace their origin to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, around 1700 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012144–147-207">[207]</a> In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These were <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. The Confucian tradition, which would attain dominance, looked for political <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006182–189-148">[148]</a> Confucianism would later spread into the <a href="/wiki/Korean_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean peninsula">Korean peninsula</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006396-208">[208]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006397-209">[209]</a> In the west, the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, was diffused throughout Europe and the Middle East in the 4th century BC by the conquests of Alexander the Great.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012130–131-210">[210]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_and_Iron_Age_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze and Iron Age religion">Bronze and Iron Age religions</a> formed, Christianity spread through the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012144–147-207">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Science and technology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient technology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_early_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in early cultures">History of science in early cultures</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">History of mathematics</a></div> <table class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width:246px; text-align:left; clear:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient technology</a></dt></dl> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egyptian technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in ancient India">Indian technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Greek technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Roman technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">Iranian technology</a></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table> Ancient technological progress began before the recording of history, with tools, use of fire,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201224–29-211">[211]</a> domestication of animals, and agriculture all predating recorded history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201236–37-212">[212]</a> The use of metals and the ability to make metal alloys was foundational for later technologies to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201242–43-213">[213]</a> Medical knowledge, including the use of herbs to treat illnesses and wounds as well as some surgical techniques, advanced during antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201252–53-214">[214]</a> An early very important development that allowed for further advancement was writing, which allowed humans to record information for later use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201262–63-215">[215]</a> The characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">ancient Egyptian technology</a> are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology, including ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2012117–119-216">[216]</a> The Babylonians and Egyptians were early astronomers who recorded their observations of the night sky.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012104-217">[217]</a> Water managing <a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">Qanats</a> which likely emerged on the <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> plateau and possibly also in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> sometime in the early 1st millennium BC spread from there slowly west- and eastward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2008292–293-218">[218]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numeral system</a> with the concept of zero was developed in India,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006225-219">[219]</a> while modern forms of paper were invented in China in the first century AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012129-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_history" title="Outline of ancient history">Outline of ancient history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-weller-stearns-1"><a href="#cite_ref-weller-stearns_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px 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Wiley. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444358773" title="Special:BookSources/9781444358773"><bdi>9781444358773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+civilization&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781444358773&rft.aulast=Sansone&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYJONdN0dNYQC%26q%3Dcycladic%2520civilization%26pg%3DPT27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frucht2004-178"><a href="#cite_ref-Frucht2004_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrucht2004" class="citation book cs1">Frucht, Richard C (31 December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA847">Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture</a>. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2017114_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParker2017">Parker 2017</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017111-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2017111_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParker2017">Parker 2017</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright201160-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright201160_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2011">Wright 2011</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Vaissière2015188-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_la_Vaissière2015188_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_la_Vaissière2015">de la Vaissière 2015</a>, p. 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017163-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2017163_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2017163_203-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFParker2017">Parker 2017</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2017162-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker2017162_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParker2017">Parker 2017</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201240–41-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201240–41_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012142–143-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012142–143_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 142–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012144–147-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012144–147_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012144–147_207-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 144–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006396-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006396_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBentleyZiegler2006">Bentley & Ziegler 2006</a>, p. 396. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006397-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBentleyZiegler2006397_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBentleyZiegler2006">Bentley & Ziegler 2006</a>, p. 397. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012130–131-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis2012130–131_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 130–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201224–29-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201224–29_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 24–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201236–37-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201236–37_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201242–43-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201242–43_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201252–53-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201252–53_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart-Davis2012">Hart-Davis 2012</a>, pp. 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart-Davis201262–63-215"><a 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p. 129. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentleyZiegler2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_H._Bentley" title="Jerry H. Bentley">Bentley, Jerry H.</a>; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/traditionsencoun0000bent_q6a8">Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past Volume I: From the Beginning to 1500</a> (3rd ed.). Boston: <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw Hill">McGraw Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-299827-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-299827-6"><bdi>978-0-07-299827-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditions+%26+Encounters%3A+A+Global+Perspective+on+the+Past+Volume+I%3A+From+the+Beginning+to+1500&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-07-299827-6&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=Jerry+H.&rft.au=Ziegler%2C+Herbert+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftraditionsencoun0000bent_q6a8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertram2003" class="citation book cs1">Bertram, Stephen (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC">Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518364-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518364-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518364-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518364-1&rft.aulast=Bertram&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1C4NKp4zgIQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoardmanHammond1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Boardman, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, N. G. L.</a>, eds. (1970). "Preface". The Cambridge Ancient History Volume III, Part 3: The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23447-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23447-4"><bdi>978-0-521-23447-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History+Volume+III%2C+Part+3%3A+The+Expansion+of+the+Greek+World%2C+Eighth+to+Sixth+Centuries+B.C.&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-521-23447-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_la_Vaissière2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_la_Vaissi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne de la Vaissière">de la Vaissière, Étienne</a> (2015). "The Steppe World and the Rise of the Huns". In Maas, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 175–192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-63388-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-63388-9"><bdi>978-1-107-63388-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Steppe+World+and+the+Rise+of+the+Huns&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Age+of+Attila&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=175-192&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-63388-9&rft.aulast=de+la+Vaissi%C3%A8re&rft.aufirst=%C3%89tienne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. 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Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0975-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0975-9"><bdi>978-0-8028-0975-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Were+the+Early+Israelites+and+Where+Did+They+Come+From%3F&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0975-9&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhowereearlyisra0000deve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteel00diam">Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+Germs%2C+and+Steel%3A+The+Fates+of+Human+Societies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgunsgermssteel00diam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2015). "Mesopotamian cities and urban process, 3500–1600 BCE". In Yoffee, Norman (ed.). The Cambridge World History: Volume III: Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE. 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Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.). <a href="/wiki/T%26T_Clark" title="T&T Clark">T&T Clark</a> International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02726-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02726-9"><bdi>978-0-567-02726-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+in+Transition%3A+From+Late+Bronze+II+to+Iron+IIa+%28c.+1250%E2%80%93850+B.C.E.%29&rft.pub=T%26T+Clark+International&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-567-02726-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart-Davis2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Hart-Davis" title="Adam Hart-Davis">Hart-Davis, Adam</a>, ed. (2012). History: The Definitive Visual Guide. New York: <a href="/wiki/DK_(publisher)" title="DK (publisher)">DK</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-7609-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-7609-4"><bdi>978-0-7566-7609-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History%3A+The+Definitive+Visual+Guide&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=DK&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7566-7609-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisBoardmanDaviesOstwald1992" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John; Davies, J.K.; et al., eds. (1992). "Preface". 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Kotte: Lakshmi Mendis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-96704-0-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-96704-0-7"><bdi>978-955-96704-0-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Anuradhapura&rft.place=Kotte&rft.pub=Lakshmi+Mendis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-955-96704-0-7&rft.aulast=Mendis&rft.aufirst=Ranjan+Chinthaka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro-Hay1991" class="citation book cs1">Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity. 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Retrieved 11 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aksum&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Archaeology&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973921-9&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199735785.001.0001%2Facref-9780199735785-e-0008%3Frskey%3DwT2nm3%26result%3D12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1999" class="citation journal cs1">Rawson, Jessica (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201018213315/https://www.zacke.at/sites/default/files/styles/artobject_huge/public/artobjects/b.1e_jessica_rawson_design_systems_in_early_chinese_art_orientations_nov._1999_p._52.jpg">"Design Systems in Early Chinese Art"</a>. Orientations: 52. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zacke.at/sites/default/files/styles/artobject_huge/public/artobjects/b.1e_jessica_rawson_design_systems_in_early_chinese_art_orientations_nov._1999_p._52.jpg">the original</a> on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientations&rft.atitle=Design+Systems+in+Early+Chinese+Art&rft.pages=52&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zacke.at%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fstyles%2Fartobject_huge%2Fpublic%2Fartobjects%2Fb.1e_jessica_rawson_design_systems_in_early_chinese_art_orientations_nov._1999_p._52.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsWestad2013" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, J. 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In <a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">Oleson, John Peter</a> (ed.). Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 285–318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973485-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973485-6"><bdi>978-0-19-973485-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hydraulic+Engineering+and+Water+Supply&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Engineering+and+Technology+in+the+Classical+World&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=285-318&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973485-6&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2011" class="citation book cs1">Wright, David Curtis (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jTD6V3bKixwC">The History of China</a> (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37748-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37748-8"><bdi>978-0-313-37748-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+China&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-37748-8&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=David+Curtis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjTD6V3bKixwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Ancient history <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+history&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+history">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+history&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodgesNewcomer1992" class="citation book cs1">Hodges, Henry; Newcomer, Judith (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/technologyinanci0000hodg_r7j2">Technology in the Ancient World</a>. Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-893-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-893-3"><bdi>978-0-88029-893-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-88029-893-3&rft.aulast=Hodges&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Newcomer%2C+Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftechnologyinanci0000hodg_r7j2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzl1998" class="citation book cs1">Kinzl, Konrad H. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100215024206/http://people.trentu.ca/kkinzl/aahdir.html">Directory of Ancient Historians in the USA, 2nd ed</a>. Claremont, Calif.: Regina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941690-87-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941690-87-4"><bdi>978-0-941690-87-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.trentu.ca/kkinzl/aahdir.html">the original</a> on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Directory+of+Ancient+Historians+in+the+USA%2C+2nd+ed.&rft.place=Claremont%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=Regina+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-941690-87-4&rft.aulast=Kinzl&rft.aufirst=Konrad+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.trentu.ca%2Fkkinzl%2Faahdir.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"> Web edition is constantly updated.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasD._P._Wick1994" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Carol G.; D. P. Wick (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/decodingancienth0000thom">Decoding Ancient History: A Toolkit for the Historian as Detective</a>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-200205-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-200205-9"><bdi>978-0-13-200205-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decoding+Ancient+History%3A+A+Toolkit+for+the+Historian+as+Detective&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-13-200205-9&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Carol+G.&rft.au=D.+P.+Wick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdecodingancienth0000thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToffteen1907" class="citation book cs1">Toffteen, Olaf Alfred (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientchronolo01toffgoog">Ancient Chronology</a>. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Chronology&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Toffteen&rft.aufirst=Olaf+Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientchronolo01toffgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Websites">Websites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Websites">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org">World History Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientcivilizations.co.uk/home_set.html">Ancient Civilizations</a> – <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>'s website on various topics of ancient civilisation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/ancient/asbook.html">Ancient history sourcebook</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/">The Perseus digital library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/depts/cl_atlas/">Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman world</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Directories">Directories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Directories">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academicinfo.net/histanc.html">Ancient History</a> – Academic Info: directory of online resources for the study of ancient history.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080915211608/http://www.historesearch.com/ancient.html">Ancient History Resources</a> : Ancient history research links for high school and college students.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/History_by_period" class="mw-redirect" title="History by period">History by period</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Ancient history at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_history" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Ancient history">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Antiquity" class="extiw" title="q:Antiquity">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_History" class="extiw" title="b:Ancient History">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41493" class="extiw" title="d:Q41493">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41493#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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