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<span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology_for_character_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology_for_character_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Terminology for character states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology_for_character_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology_for_taxa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology_for_taxa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Terminology for taxa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology_for_taxa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancestors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancestors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Ancestors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancestors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Extinction status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinction_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybridization,_interbreeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybridization,_interbreeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Hybridization, interbreeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybridization,_interbreeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horizontal_gene_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horizontal_gene_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Horizontal gene transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horizontal_gene_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naming_stability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naming_stability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Naming stability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naming_stability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_disciplines_other_than_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_disciplines_other_than_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In disciplines other than biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_disciplines_other_than_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cladistics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistiek" title="Kladistiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kladistiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik" title="Kladistik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kladistik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81_%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تصنيف تفرعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تصنيف تفرعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistica" title="Cladistica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cladistica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clad%C3%ADstica" title="Cladística – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cladística" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun-ki-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hun-ki-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hun-ki-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clad%C3%ADstica" title="Cladística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cladística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik" title="Kladistik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kladistik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik" title="Kladistik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kladistik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Κλαδιστική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κλαδιστική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clad%C3%ADstica" title="Cladística – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cladística" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistiko" title="Kladistiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kladistiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تبارشاخه‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تبارشاخه‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistique" title="Cladistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cladistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A1daist%C3%ADocht" title="Cládaistíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cládaistíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clad%C3%ADstica" title="Cladística – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cladística" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%A7%80%ED%95%99" title="분지학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분지학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Կլադիստիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կլադիստիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistica" title="Cladistica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cladistica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistica" title="Cladistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cladistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="קלדיסטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלדיסטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxinomia_cladistica" title="Taxinomia cladistica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Taxinomia cladistica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladizmas" title="Kladizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kladizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistiek" title="Kladistiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kladistiek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladisztika" title="Kladisztika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kladisztika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кладистика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кладистика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ജൈവശാഖാവർഗ്ഗീകരണവിജ്ഞാനീയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൈവശാഖാവർഗ്ഗീകരണവിജ്ഞാനീയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klados" title="Klados – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Klados" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistiek" title="Cladistiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cladistiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%B2%90%E5%AD%A6" title="分岐学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分岐学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistikk" title="Kladistikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kladistikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik" title="Kladistik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kladistik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladystyka" title="Kladystyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kladystyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clad%C3%ADstica" title="Cladística – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cladística" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistic%C4%83" title="Cladistică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cladistică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кладистика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кладистика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetiske_Systematik" title="Phylogenetiske Systematik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Phylogenetiske Systematik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cladistics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кладистика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кладистика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistika" title="Kladistika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kladistika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistiikka" title="Kladistiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kladistiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik" title="Kladistik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kladistik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கிளைப்பாட்டியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிளைப்பாட்டியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="แคลดิสติกส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แคลดิสติกส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladistik" title="Kladistik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kladistik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кладистика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кладистика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%AAu_t%E1%BA%A3_theo_nh%C3%A1nh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Miêu tả theo nhánh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Miêu tả theo nhánh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="支序分类学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="支序分类学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="支序分類學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="支序分類學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="支序分類學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cladistics.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Cladistics_(journal)" title="Cladistics (journal)">Cladistics (journal)</a>. For phylogenetic nomenclature, often called "cladistic nomenclature" or "cladistic terminology", see <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Cladistics</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">klə-<span style="font-size:90%">DIST</span>-iks</i></a>; from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:κλάδος">κλάδος</a></span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">kládos</i></span> 'branch')<sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an approach to <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">biological classification</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> are categorized in groups ("<a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>") based on hypotheses of most recent <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestry">common ancestry</a>. The evidence for hypothesized relationships is typically shared <a href="/wiki/Derived_(phylogenetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derived (phylogenetics)">derived</a> characteristics (<a href="/wiki/Synapomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphies">synapomorphies</a>) that are not present in more distant groups and ancestors. However, from an empirical perspective, common ancestors are inferences based on a cladistic hypothesis of relationships of taxa whose <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">character states</a> can be observed. Theoretically, a last common ancestor and all its descendants constitute a (minimal) clade. Importantly, all descendants stay in their overarching ancestral clade. For example, if the terms <i>worms</i> or <i>fishes</i> were used within a <i>strict</i> cladistic framework, these terms would include humans. Many of these terms are normally used <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletically</a>, outside of cladistics, e.g. as a '<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">grade</a>', which are fruitless to precisely delineate,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Why is it 'fruitless' to delineate, e.g., the prokaryotes, which have a clear definition? (April 2022)">why?</span></a></i>]</sup> especially when including extinct species. <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">Radiation</a> results in the generation of new subclades by bifurcation, but in practice sexual hybridization may blur very closely related groupings.<sup id="cite_ref-ce_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ce-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ucmp_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucmp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ode_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ode-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oed_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a hypothesis, a clade can be rejected only if some groupings were explicitly excluded. It may then be found that the excluded group did actually descend from the last common ancestor of the group, and thus emerged within the group. ("Evolved from" is misleading, because in cladistics all descendants stay in the ancestral group). To keep only valid clades, upon finding that the group is paraphyletic this way, either such excluded groups should be granted to the clade, or the group should be abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Branches down to the divergence to the next significant (e.g. extant) sister are considered stem-groupings of the clade, but in principle each level stands on its own, to be assigned a unique name. For a fully bifurcated tree, adding a group to a tree also adds an additional (named) clade, and a new level on that branch. Specifically, also extinct groups are always put on a side-branch, not distinguishing whether an actual ancestor of other groupings was found. </p><p>The techniques and nomenclature of cladistics have been applied to disciplines other than biology. (See <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic nomenclature</a>.) </p><p>Cladistics findings are posing a difficulty for <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>, where the rank and (genus-)naming of established groupings may turn out to be inconsistent. </p><p>Cladistics is now the most commonly used method to classify organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Willi_Hennig2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Willi_Hennig2.jpg/170px-Willi_Hennig2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Willi_Hennig2.jpg/255px-Willi_Hennig2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Willi_Hennig2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>Willi Hennig 1972</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell_1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell_1920.jpg/170px-Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell_1920.jpg/255px-Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell_1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>Peter Chalmers Mitchell in 1920</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg/170px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg/255px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg/340px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2955_Robert_J_Tillyard_18811937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1801" data-file-height="2486" /></a><figcaption>Robert John Tillyard</figcaption></figure> <p>The original methods used in cladistic analysis and the school of taxonomy derived from the work of the German <a href="/wiki/Entomologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Entomologist">entomologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Willi Hennig</a>, who referred to it as <b>phylogenetic systematics</b> (also the title of his 1966 book); but the terms "cladistics" and "clade" were popularized by other researchers. Cladistics in the original sense refers to a particular set of methods used in <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> analysis, although it is now sometimes used to refer to the whole field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrinkmanLeipe2001323_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrinkmanLeipe2001323-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What is now called the cladistic method appeared as early as 1901 with a work by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Chalmers_Mitchell" title="Peter Chalmers Mitchell">Peter Chalmers Mitchell</a> for birds<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FolinsbeeKaila_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FolinsbeeKaila-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subsequently by <a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Tillyard" title="Robert John Tillyard">Robert John Tillyard</a> (for insects) in 1921,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Max_Zimmerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Max Zimmerman">W. Zimmermann</a> (for plants) in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "<a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>" was introduced in 1958 by <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> after having been coined by <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Cu%C3%A9not" title="Lucien Cuénot">Lucien Cuénot</a> in 1940,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "cladogenesis" in 1958,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "cladistic" by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cain" title="Arthur Cain">Arthur Cain</a> and Harrison in 1960,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "cladist" (for an adherent of Hennig's school) by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> in 1965,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "cladistics" in 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hennig referred to his own approach as "phylogenetic systematics". From the time of his original formulation until the end of the 1970s, cladistics competed as an analytical and philosophical approach to systematics with <a href="/wiki/Phenetics" title="Phenetics">phenetics</a> and so-called <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">evolutionary taxonomy</a>. Phenetics was championed at this time by the <a href="/wiki/Numerical_taxonomy" title="Numerical taxonomy">numerical taxonomists</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Sneath" title="Peter Sneath">Peter Sneath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sokal" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Sokal">Robert Sokal</a>, and evolutionary taxonomy by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Laurin_2023_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally conceived, if only in essence, by Willi Hennig in a book published in 1950, cladistics did not flourish until its translation into English in 1966 (Lewin 1997). Today, cladistics is the most popular method for inferring phylogenetic trees from morphological data. </p><p>In the 1990s, the development of effective <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> techniques allowed the application of cladistic methods to <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetic</a> traits of organisms, vastly expanding the amount of data available for phylogenetics. At the same time, cladistics rapidly became popular in evolutionary biology, because <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladogram</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cladistics" title="Special:EditPage/Cladistics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The cladistic method interprets each shared character state transformation as a potential piece of evidence for grouping. <a href="/wiki/Synapomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphies">Synapomorphies</a> (shared, derived character states) are viewed as evidence of grouping, while <a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphies">symplesiomorphies</a> (shared ancestral character states) are not. The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Tree_(graph_theory)" title="Tree (graph theory)">tree</a>-shaped diagram (<a href="/wiki/Dendrogram" title="Dendrogram">dendrogram</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters and originally calculated by hand, <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">genetic sequencing</a> data and <a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics" title="Computational phylogenetics">computational phylogenetics</a> are now commonly used in phylogenetic analyses, and the <a href="/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics)" title="Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)">parsimony</a> criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" but less parsimonious evolutionary models of character state transformation. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified because there is no evidence that they recover more "true" or "correct" results from actual empirical data sets <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Every cladogram is based on a particular dataset analyzed with a particular method. Datasets are tables consisting of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular</a>, morphological, <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethological</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and/or other characters and a list of <a href="/wiki/Operational_taxonomic_unit" title="Operational taxonomic unit">operational taxonomic units</a> (OTUs), which may be genes, individuals, populations, species, or larger taxa that are presumed to be monophyletic and therefore to form, all together, one large clade; phylogenetic analysis infers the branching pattern within that clade. Different datasets and different methods, not to mention violations of the mentioned assumptions, often result in different cladograms. Only scientific investigation can show which is more likely to be correct. </p><p>Until recently, for example, cladograms like the following have generally been accepted as accurate representations of the ancestral relations among turtles, lizards, crocodilians, and birds:<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap">  <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:LimeGreen">▼</span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">Testudines</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diapsid" title="Diapsid">Diapsida</a>   <span style="font-size:150%;color:OrangeRed;">♦</span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Lepidosauria" title="Lepidosauria">Lepidosauria</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">Archosauria</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Crocodylomorpha" title="Crocodylomorpha">Crocodylomorpha</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">crocodilians</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosauria</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>If this phylogenetic hypothesis is correct, then the last common ancestor of turtles and birds, at the branch near the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:LimeGreen">▼</span> lived earlier than the last common ancestor of lizards and birds, near the <span style="font-size:150%;color:OrangeRed;">♦</span>. Most <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular evidence</a>, however, produces cladograms more like this:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade" style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diapsid" title="Diapsid">Diapsida</a>   <span style="font-size:150%;color:OrangeRed;">♦</span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Lepidosauria" title="Lepidosauria">Lepidosauria</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archosauromorpha" title="Archosauromorpha">Archosauromorpha</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:LimeGreen">▼</span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">Testudines</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">Archosauria</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Crocodylomorpha" title="Crocodylomorpha">Crocodylomorpha</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">crocodilians</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosauria</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>If this is accurate, then the last common ancestor of turtles and birds lived later than the last common ancestor of lizards and birds. Since the cladograms show two mutually exclusive hypotheses to describe the evolutionary history, at most one of them is correct. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monophyly,_paraphyly,_polyphyly.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/400px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/600px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/800px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Cladogram of the <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, showing a <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic</a> taxon (a <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>: the simians or Anthropoidea, in yellow), a <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletic</a> taxon (the prosimians, in blue, including the red patch), and a <a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyletic</a> taxon (the nocturnal primates – the <a href="/wiki/Loris" title="Loris">lorises</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">tarsiers</a> – in red)</figcaption></figure> <p>The cladogram to the right represents the current universally accepted hypothesis that all <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">strepsirrhines</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">lemurs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Loris" title="Loris">lorises</a>, had a common ancestor all of whose descendants are or were primates, and so form a clade; the name Primates is therefore recognized for this clade. Within the primates, all anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and humans) are hypothesized to have had a common ancestor all of whose descendants are or were anthropoids, so they form the clade called Anthropoidea. The "prosimians", on the other hand, form a paraphyletic taxon. The name Prosimii is not used in <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic nomenclature</a>, which names only clades; the "prosimians" are instead divided between the clades <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirhini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a>, where the latter contains Tarsiiformes and Anthropoidea. </p><p>Lemurs and tarsiers may have looked closely related to humans, in the sense of being close on the evolutionary tree to humans. However, from the perspective of a tarsier, humans and lemurs would have looked close, in the exact same sense. Cladistics forces a neutral perspective, treating all branches (extant or extinct) in the same manner. It also forces one to try to make statements, and honestly take into account findings, about the exact historic relationships between the groups. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_for_character_states">Terminology for character states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terminology for character states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cladistics" title="Special:EditPage/Cladistics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following terms, coined by Hennig, are used to identify shared or distinct character states among groups:<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_1982_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson_1982-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_1988_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson_1988-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-de_Pinna_1991_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Pinna_1991-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span class="anchor" id="plesiomorphy"></span> A <b><a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphy">plesiomorphy</a></b> ("close form") or <b>ancestral state</b> is a character state that a taxon has retained from its ancestors. When two or more taxa that are not nested within each other share a plesiomorphy, it is a <b>symplesiomorphy</b> (from <i>syn-</i>, "together"). Symplesiomorphies do not mean that the taxa that exhibit that character state are necessarily closely related. For example, Reptilia is traditionally characterized by (among other things) being <a href="/wiki/Poikilotherm" title="Poikilotherm">cold-blooded</a> (i.e., not maintaining a constant high body temperature), whereas birds are <a href="/wiki/Homeothermy" title="Homeothermy">warm-blooded</a>. Since cold-bloodedness is a plesiomorphy, inherited from the common ancestor of traditional reptiles and birds, and thus a symplesiomorphy of turtles, snakes and crocodiles (among others), it does not mean that turtles, snakes and crocodiles form a clade that excludes the birds.</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="apomorphy"></span><span class="anchor" id="synapomorphy"></span> An <b><a href="/wiki/Apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphy">apomorphy</a></b> ("separate form") or <b>derived state</b> is an innovation. It can thus be used to diagnose a clade – or even to help define a clade name in <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic nomenclature</a>. Features that are derived in individual taxa (a single species or a group that is represented by a single terminal in a given phylogenetic analysis) are called <b>autapomorphies</b> (from <i>auto-</i>, "self"). Autapomorphies express nothing about relationships among groups; clades are identified (or defined) by <b>synapomorphies</b> (from <i>syn-</i>, "together"). For example, the possession of <a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">digits</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> with those of <i>Homo sapiens</i> is a synapomorphy within the vertebrates. The <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> can be singled out as consisting of the first vertebrate with such digits homologous to those of <i>Homo sapiens</i> together with all descendants of this vertebrate (an apomorphy-based <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic definition</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-LaurinAnderson2004_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaurinAnderson2004-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Importantly, snakes and other tetrapods that do not have digits are nonetheless tetrapods: other characters, such as amniotic eggs and diapsid skulls, indicate that they descended from ancestors that possessed digits which are homologous with ours.</li> <li>A character state is <b>homoplastic</b> or "an instance of <b><a href="/wiki/Homoplasy" title="Homoplasy">homoplasy</a></b>" if it is shared by two or more organisms but is absent from their common ancestor or from a later ancestor in the lineage leading to one of the organisms. It is therefore inferred to have evolved by convergence or reversal. Both mammals and birds are able to maintain a high constant body temperature (i.e., they are warm-blooded). However, the accepted cladogram explaining their significant features indicates that their common ancestor is in a group lacking this character state, so the state must have evolved independently in the two clades. Warm-bloodedness is separately a synapomorphy of mammals (or a larger clade) and of birds (or a larger clade), but it is not a synapomorphy of any group including both these clades. Hennig's Auxiliary Principle<sup id="cite_ref-Hennig_1966_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hennig_1966-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that shared character states should be considered evidence of grouping unless they are contradicted by the weight of other evidence; thus, homoplasy of some feature among members of a group may only be inferred after a phylogenetic hypothesis for that group has been established.</li></ul> <p>The terms plesiomorphy and apomorphy are relative; their application depends on the position of a group within a tree. For example, when trying to decide whether the tetrapods form a clade, an important question is whether having four limbs is a synapomorphy of the earliest taxa to be included within Tetrapoda: did all the earliest members of the Tetrapoda inherit four limbs from a common ancestor, whereas all other vertebrates did not, or at least not homologously? By contrast, for a group within the tetrapods, such as birds, having four limbs is a plesiomorphy. Using these two terms allows a greater precision in the discussion of homology, in particular allowing clear expression of the hierarchical relationships among different homologous features. </p><p>It can be difficult to decide whether a character state is in fact the same and thus can be classified as a synapomorphy, which may identify a monophyletic group, or whether it only appears to be the same and is thus a homoplasy, which cannot identify such a group. There is a danger of circular reasoning: assumptions about the shape of a phylogenetic tree are used to justify decisions about character states, which are then used as evidence for the shape of the tree.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> uses various forms of <a href="/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics)" title="Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)">parsimony</a> to decide such questions; the conclusions reached often depend on the dataset and the methods. Such is the nature of empirical science, and for this reason, most cladists refer to their cladograms as hypotheses of relationship. Cladograms that are supported by a large number and variety of different kinds of characters are viewed as more robust than those based on more limited evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_for_taxa">Terminology for taxa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Terminology for taxa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mono-, para- and polyphyletic taxa can be understood based on the shape of the tree (as done above), as well as based on their character states.<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_1988_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson_1988-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-de_Pinna_1991_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Pinna_1991-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are compared in the table below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Term </th> <th>Node-based definition </th> <th>Character-based definition </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td>Holophyly, <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">Monophyly</a> </td> <td>A <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>, a monophyletic taxon, is a taxon that consists of the last common ancestor and all its descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>A clade is characterized by one or more <b>apomorphies</b>: derived character states present in the first member of the taxon, inherited by its descendants (unless secondarily lost), and not inherited by any other taxa. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">Paraphyly</a> </td> <td>A paraphyletic assemblage is one that is constructed by taking a clade and removing one or more smaller clades.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Removing one clade produces a singly paraphyletic assemblage, removing two produces a doubly paraphyletic assemblage, and so on.)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>A paraphyletic assemblage is characterized by one or more <b>plesiomorphies</b>: character states inherited from ancestors but not present in all of their descendants. As a consequence, a paraphyletic assemblage is truncated, in that it excludes one or more clades from an otherwise monophyletic taxon. An alternative name is <i><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">evolutionary grade</a></i>, referring to an ancestral character state within the group. While paraphyletic assemblages are popular among paleontologists and evolutionary taxonomists, cladists do not recognize paraphyletic assemblages as having any formal information content – they are merely parts of clades. </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">Polyphyly</a> </td> <td>A polyphyletic assemblage is one which is neither monophyletic nor paraphyletic. </td> <td>A polyphyletic assemblage is characterized by one or more <b><a href="/wiki/Homoplasy" title="Homoplasy">homoplasies</a></b>: character states which have converged or reverted so as to be the same but which have not been inherited from a common ancestor. No systematist recognizes polyphyletic assemblages as taxonomically meaningful entities, although ecologists sometimes consider them meaningful labels for functional participants in ecological communities (e. g., primary producers, detritivores, etc.). </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cladistics, either generally or in specific applications, has been criticized from its beginnings. Decisions as to whether particular character states are <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a>, a precondition of their being synapomorphies, have been challenged as involving <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a> and subjective judgements.<sup id="cite_ref-AdraEdgeLieb02_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AdraEdgeLieb02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of course, the potential unreliability of evidence is a problem for any systematic method, or for that matter, for any empirical scientific endeavor at all.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Transformed_cladistics" title="Transformed cladistics">Transformed cladistics</a> arose in the late 1970s <sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in an attempt to resolve some of these problems by removing a priori assumptions about phylogeny from cladistic analysis, but it has remained unpopular.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancestors">Ancestors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ancestors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cladistic method does not identify fossil species as actual ancestors of a clade.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, fossil taxa are identified as belonging to separate extinct branches. While a fossil species could be the actual ancestor of a clade, there is no way to know that. Therefore, a more conservative hypothesis is that the fossil taxon is related to other fossil and extant taxa, as implied by the pattern of shared apomorphic features.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinction_status">Extinction status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Extinction status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An otherwise extinct group with any extant descendants, is not considered (literally) extinct,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for instance does not have a date of extinction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybridization,_interbreeding"><span id="Hybridization.2C_interbreeding"></span>Hybridization, interbreeding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Hybridization, interbreeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anything having to do with biology and sex is complicated and messy, and cladistics is no exception.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many species reproduce sexually, and are capable of interbreeding for millions of years. Worse, during such a period, many branches may have radiated, and it may take hundreds of millions of years for them to have whittled down to just two.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only then one can theoretically assign proper last common ancestors of groupings which do not inadvertently include earlier branches.<sup id="cite_ref-Hörandl-2010_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hörandl-2010-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of true cladistic bifurcation can thus take a much more extended time than one is usually aware of.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, for recent radiations, cladistically guided findings only give a coarse impression of the complexity. A more detailed account will give details about fractions of introgressions between groupings, and even geographic variations thereof. This has been used as an argument for the use of paraphyletic groupings,<sup id="cite_ref-Hörandl-2010_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hörandl-2010-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but typically other reasons are quoted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horizontal_gene_transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Horizontal gene transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Horizontal gene transfer is the mobility of genetic info between different organisms that can have immediate or delayed effects for the reciprocal host.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are several processes in nature which can cause <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. This does typically not directly interfere with ancestry of the organism, but can complicate the determination of that ancestry. On another level, one can map the horizontal gene transfer processes, by determining the phylogeny of the individual genes using cladistics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naming_stability">Naming stability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Naming stability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If there is unclarity in mutual relationships, there are a lot of possible trees. Assigning names to each possible clade may not be prudent. Furthermore, established names are discarded in cladistics, or alternatively carry connotations which may no longer hold, such as when additional groups are found to have emerged in them.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naming changes are the direct result of changes in the recognition of mutual relationships, which often is still in flux, especially for extinct species. Hanging on to older naming and/or connotations is counter-productive, as they typically do not reflect actual mutual relationships precisely at all. E.g. Archaea, Asgard archaea, protists, slime molds, worms, invertebrata, fishes, reptilia, monkeys, <i>Ardipithecus</i>, <i>Australopithecus</i>, <i>Homo erectus</i> all contain <i>Homo sapiens</i> cladistically, in their <i>sensu lato</i> meaning. For originally extinct stem groups, <i><a href="/wiki/Sensu" title="Sensu">sensu lato</a></i> generally means generously keeping previously included groups, which then may come to include even living species. A pruned <i><a href="/wiki/Sensu" title="Sensu">sensu stricto</a></i> meaning is often adopted instead, but the group would need to be restricted to a single branch on the stem. Other branches then get their own name and level. This is commensurate to the fact that more senior stem branches are in fact closer related to the resulting group than the more basal stem branches; that those stem branches only may have lived for a short time does not affect that assessment in cladistics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_disciplines_other_than_biology">In disciplines other than biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In disciplines other than biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The comparisons used to acquire data on which <a href="/wiki/Cladograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladograms">cladograms</a> can be based are not limited to the field of biology.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any group of individuals or classes that are hypothesized to have a common ancestor, and to which a set of common characteristics may or may not apply, can be compared pairwise. Cladograms can be used to depict the hypothetical descent relationships within groups of items in many different academic realms. The only requirement is that the items have characteristics that can be identified and measured. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the development of cultures or artifacts using groups of cultural traits or artifact features. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">Comparative mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folktale</a> use cladistic methods to reconstruct the protoversion of many myths. Mythological phylogenies constructed with mythemes clearly support low horizontal transmissions (borrowings), historical (sometimes Palaeolithic) diffusions and punctuated evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also are a powerful way to test hypotheses about cross-cultural relationships among folktales.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a>: Cladistic methods have been used in the classification of the surviving manuscripts of the <i><a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the manuscripts of the Sanskrit <i><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maas_2010_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maas_2010-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of languages using linguistic features. This is similar to the traditional <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a> of historical linguistics, but is more explicit in its use of <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">parsimony</a> and allows much faster analysis of large datasets (<a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics" title="Computational phylogenetics">computational phylogenetics</a>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual criticism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stemmatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stemmatics">stemmatics</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Maas_2010_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maas_2010-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of manuscripts of the same work (and reconstruct the lost original) using distinctive copying errors as apomorphies. This differs from traditional historical-comparative linguistics in enabling the editor to evaluate and place in genetic relationship large groups of manuscripts with large numbers of variants that would be impossible to handle manually. It also enables <a href="/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics)" title="Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)">parsimony</a> analysis of contaminated traditions of transmission that would be impossible to evaluate manually in a reasonable period of time. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> infers the history of relationships between galaxies to create branching diagram hypotheses of galaxy diversification. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomathematics">Biomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalescent_theory" title="Coalescent theory">Coalescent theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Glossary of scientific naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrocladogram" title="Patrocladogram">Patrocladogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_network" title="Phylogenetic network">Phylogenetic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratocladistics" title="Stratocladistics">Stratocladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclade" title="Subclade">Subclade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-taxon_analysis" title="Three-taxon analysis">Three-taxon analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">Tree model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">Tree structure</a></li></ul> </div> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/48px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/64px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cladistics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtDict-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=clade">"clade"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=clade&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dclade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ce-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ce_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Columbia Encyclopedia<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (April 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ucmp-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ucmp_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad1.html">"Introduction to Cladistics"</a>. Ucmp.berkeley.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Cladistics&rft.pub=Ucmp.berkeley.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fclad%2Fclad1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ode-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ode_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford Dictionary of English<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (April 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oed-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oed_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford English Dictionary<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (April 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickman2014" class="citation book cs1">Hickman, Cleveland P. Jr. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/846846729"><i>Integrated principles of zoology</i></a> (Sixteenth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-352421-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-352421-4"><bdi>978-0-07-352421-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/846846729">846846729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Integrated+principles+of+zoology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Sixteenth&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F846846729&rft.isbn=978-0-07-352421-4&rft.aulast=Hickman&rft.aufirst=Cleveland+P.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F846846729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad5.html">"The Need for Cladistics"</a>. <i>www.ucmp.berkeley.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cornell University Press, Ithaca nY</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1982">Patterson 1982</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodani2010" class="citation journal cs1">Podani, János (1 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ftax.594002">"Monophyly and paraphyly: A discourse without end?"</a>. <i>Taxon</i>. <b>59</b> (4): 1011–1015. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ftax.594002">10.1002/tax.594002</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Monophyly+and+paraphyly%3A+A+discourse+without+end%3F&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1011-1015&rft.date=2010-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Ftax.594002&rft.aulast=Podani&rft.aufirst=J%C3%A1nos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Ftax.594002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Many sources give a verbal definition of 'paraphyletic' that does not require the missing groups to be monophyletic. 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Dwight Davis and Rainer Zangerl)</i>, Urbana, IL: Univ. of Illinois Press (reprinted 1979 and 1999), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0"><bdi>978-0-252-06814-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phylogenetic+systematics+%28tr.+D.+Dwight+Davis+and+Rainer+Zangerl%29&rft.place=Urbana%2C+IL&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Illinois+Press+%28reprinted+1979+and+1999%29&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06814-0&rft.aulast=Hennig&rft.aufirst=Willi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennig1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Hennig, Willi</a> (1975), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/systematics/Hennig%201974%20-%20Cladistic%20Analysis%20or%20Cladistic%20Classification.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification?': a reply to Ernst Mayr"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Systematic Zoology</i>, <b>24</b> (2): 244–256, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412765">10.2307/2412765</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412765">2412765</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/systematics/Hennig%201974%20-%20Cladistic%20Analysis%20or%20Cladistic%20Classification.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022,</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Zoology&rft.atitle=%27Cladistic+analysis+or+cladistic+classification%3F%27%3A+a+reply+to+Ernst+Mayr&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=244-256&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2412765&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2412765%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hennig&rft.aufirst=Willi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjoelvelasco.net%2Fteaching%2Fsystematics%2FHennig%25201974%2520-%2520Cladistic%2520Analysis%2520or%2520Cladistic%2520Classification.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span> responding to <a href="#CITEREFMayr1974">Mayr 1974</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennig1979" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Hennig, Willi</a> (1999), <i>Phylogenetic systematics (3rd edition of 1966 book)</i>, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06814-0"><bdi>978-0-252-06814-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phylogenetic+systematics+%283rd+edition+of+1966+book%29&rft.place=Urbana&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06814-0&rft.aulast=Hennig&rft.aufirst=Willi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span> Translated from manuscript in German eventually published in 1982 (Phylogenetische Systematik, Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHull1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">Hull, David</a> (1988), <i>Science as a Process</i>, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-36051-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-36051-5"><bdi>978-0-226-36051-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+as+a+Process&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-226-36051-5&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesPourtless_IV2009" class="citation cs2">James, Frances C. & Pourtless IV, John A. 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(2005), <i>The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: A Phylogenetic Approach</i>, Portland: Cavendish Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84472-099-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84472-099-6"><bdi>978-1-84472-099-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Cultural+Diversity%3A+A+Phylogenetic+Approach&rft.place=Portland&rft.pub=Cavendish+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84472-099-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1974" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1974), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/jdv55/teaching/systematics/mayr%2074%20-%20cladistic%20analysis%20or%20cladistic%20classification.pdf">"Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung</i>, <b>12</b>: 94–128, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1439-0469.1974.tb00160.x">10.1111/j.1439-0469.1974.tb00160.x</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/jdv55/teaching/systematics/mayr%2074%20-%20cladistic%20analysis%20or%20cladistic%20classification.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Zoologische+Systematik+und+Evolutionsforschung&rft.atitle=Cladistic+analysis+or+cladistic+classification%3F&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=94-128&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1439-0469.1974.tb00160.x&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.cit.cornell.edu%2Fjdv55%2Fteaching%2Fsystematics%2Fmayr%252074%2520-%2520cladistic%2520analysis%2520or%2520cladistic%2520classification.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1976), <i>Evolution and the diversity of life (Selected essays)</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-27105-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-27105-0"><bdi>978-0-674-27105-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+the+diversity+of+life+%28Selected+essays%29&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-27105-0&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span> Reissued 1997 in paperback. Includes a reprint of Mayr's 1974 anti-cladistics paper at pp. 433–476, "Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification." This is the paper to which <a href="#CITEREFHennig1975">Hennig 1975</a> is a response.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1978), "Origin and history of some terms in systematic and evolutionary biology", <i>Systematic Zoology</i>, <b>27</b> (1): 83–88, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412818">10.2307/2412818</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412818">2412818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Zoology&rft.atitle=Origin+and+history+of+some+terms+in+systematic+and+evolutionary+biology&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-88&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2412818&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2412818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1982), <i>The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution and inheritance</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36446-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36446-2"><bdi>978-0-674-36446-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+growth+of+biological+thought%3A+diversity%2C+evolution+and+inheritance&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36446-2&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppenheimer2006" class="citation cs2">Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780786718900"><i>The Origins of the British</i></a></span>, London: Robinson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1890-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1890-0"><bdi>978-0-7867-1890-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+British&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Robinson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-1890-0&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780786718900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1982" class="citation cs2">Patterson, Colin (1982), "Morphological characters and homology", in Joysey, Kenneth A; Friday, A. 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(1991), "Chapter 1 Introduction, terms and concepts", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101203030019/http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf"><i>The Compleat Cladist: A Primer of Phylogenetic Procedures</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89338-035-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89338-035-9"><bdi>978-0-89338-035-9</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1+Introduction%2C+terms+and+concepts&rft.btitle=The+Compleat+Cladist%3A+A+Primer+of+Phylogenetic+Procedures&rft.pub=The+University+of+Kansas+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-89338-035-9&rft.aulast=Wiley&rft.aufirst=E.O.&rft.au=Siegel-Causey%2C+D.&rft.au=Brooks%2C+D.R.&rft.au=Funk%2C+V.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnh.org%2Flearn%2Fpd%2Ffish_2%2Fpdf%2Fcompleat_cladist.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACladistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1992" class="citation cs2">Williams, P.A. 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rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/48px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/64px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenesis" title="Phylogenesis">Phylogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladogram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_network" title="Phylogenetic network">Phylogenetic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_branch_attraction" title="Long branch attraction">Long branch attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">Clade</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">Grade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">Lineage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_lineage" title="Ghost lineage">Ghost lineage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_population" title="Ghost population">Ghost population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inference methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics)" title="Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)">Maximum parsimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_reconciliation" title="Phylogenetic reconciliation">Phylogenetic reconciliation</a></li> <li>Probabilistic methods <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference_in_phylogeny" title="Bayesian inference in phylogeny">Bayesian inference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distance_matrices_in_phylogeny" title="Distance matrices in phylogeny">Distance-matrix methods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neighbor-joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighbor-joining">Neighbor-joining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPGMA" title="UPGMA">UPGMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_squares_inference_in_phylogeny" title="Least squares inference in phylogeny">Least squares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-taxon_analysis" title="Three-taxon analysis">Three-taxon analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_comparative_methods" title="Phylogenetic comparative methods">Phylogenetic comparative methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_niche_conservatism" title="Phylogenetic niche conservatism">Phylogenetic niche conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_signal" title="Phylogenetic signal">Phylogenetic signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_phylogenetics_software" title="List of phylogenetics software">Phylogenetics software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenomics" title="Phylogenomics">Phylogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">Phylogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group traits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">Primitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphy">Plesiomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">Symplesiomorphy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Derived <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy">Apomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy">Synapomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapomorphy" title="Autapomorphy">Autapomorphy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">Monophyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">Paraphyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">Polyphyly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nomenclature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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