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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phylogenetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phylogenetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phylogenetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phylogenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_cladistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_cladistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>In cladistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_cladistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paraphyly_in_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paraphyly_in_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Paraphyly in species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paraphyly_in_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses_for_paraphyletic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses_for_paraphyletic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Uses for paraphyletic groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses_for_paraphyletic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independently_evolved_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independently_evolved_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Independently evolved traits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independently_evolved_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Not_paraphyly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Not_paraphyly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Not paraphyly</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Not_paraphyly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-exhaustive_list_of_paraphyletic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-exhaustive_list_of_paraphyletic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Non-exhaustive list of paraphyletic groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-exhaustive_list_of_paraphyletic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraphyly</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileties" title="Parafileties – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Parafileties" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%82" title="شبه عرق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شبه عرق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafilia_(filochenetica)" title="Parafilia (filochenetica) – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Parafilia (filochenetica)" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9ticu" title="Parafiléticu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Parafiléticu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF" title="প্যারাফাইলি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্যারাফাইলি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileti%C4%8Dnost" title="Parafiletičnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Parafiletičnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletisme" title="Parafiletisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Parafiletisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletismus" title="Parafyletismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Parafyletismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisk_gruppe" title="Parafyletisk gruppe – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Parafyletisk gruppe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraf%C3%BCleetiline_r%C3%BChm" title="Parafüleetiline rühm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Parafüleetiline rühm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9tico" title="Parafilético – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Parafilético" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletika" title="Parafiletika – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Parafiletika" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletiko" title="Parafiletiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Parafiletiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="پیراتبار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیراتبار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylie" title="Paraphylie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paraphylie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyly" title="Parafyly – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Parafyly" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraif%C3%ADl%C3%A9iteach" title="Paraifíléiteach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Paraifíléiteach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9tico" title="Parafilético – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Parafilético" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B8%A1%EA%B3%84%ED%86%B5%EA%B5%B0" title="측계통군 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="측계통군" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80" title="पारवर्गी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पारवर्गी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafili" title="Parafili – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Parafili" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylia" title="Paraphylia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Paraphylia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafilia_(filogenesi)" title="Parafilia (filogenesi) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Parafilia (filogenesi)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="פרפילטיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרפילטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletik" title="Parafiletik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Parafiletik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisch_taxon" title="Parafyletisch taxon – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Parafyletisch taxon" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafiletikus_csoport" title="Parafiletikus csoport – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Parafiletikus csoport" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafili" title="Parafili – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Parafili" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletische_groep" title="Parafyletische groep – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Parafyletische groep" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%81%B4%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E7%BE%A4" title="側系統群 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="側系統群" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisk_gruppe" title="Parafyletisk gruppe – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Parafyletisk gruppe" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletisk_gruppe" title="Parafyletisk gruppe – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Parafyletisk gruppe" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takson_parafiletyczny" title="Takson parafiletyczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Takson parafiletyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafil%C3%A9tico" title="Parafilético – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Parafilético" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grup_parafiletic" title="Grup parafiletic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Grup parafiletic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Парафилия (таксономия) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Парафилия (таксономия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphylie" title="Paraphylie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Paraphylie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Paraphyly" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyletizmus" title="Parafyletizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Parafyletizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafilija" title="Parafilija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Parafilija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileti%C4%8Dnost" title="Parafiletičnost – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Parafiletičnost" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafileti%C4%8Dnost" title="Parafiletičnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Parafiletičnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyleettinen_ryhm%C3%A4" title="Parafyleettinen ryhmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Parafyleettinen ryhmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafyli" title="Parafyli – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Parafyli" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parafili_(filogenetik)" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Type of taxonomic group</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clade-grade_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clade-grade_II.svg/300px-Clade-grade_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clade-grade_II.svg/450px-Clade-grade_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Clade-grade_II.svg/600px-Clade-grade_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>In this <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic tree</a>, the green group is <i>paraphyletic</i>; it is composed of a common ancestor (the lowest green vertical stem) and some of its descendants, but it excludes the blue group (a monophyletic group) which <a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">diverged</a> from the green group.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Paraphyly</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomic</a> term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">last common ancestor</a> and some but not all of its descendant lineages. The grouping is said to be paraphyletic <i>with respect to</i> the excluded subgroups. In contrast, a <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic</a> grouping (a <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>) includes a common ancestor and <i>all</i> of its descendants. </p><p>The terms are commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a> (a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>) and in the <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>. Paraphyletic groups are identified by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy_and_apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy and apomorphy">synapomorphies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">symplesiomorphies</a>. If many subgroups are missing from the named group, it is said to be polyparaphyletic. </p><p>The term received currency during the debates of the 1960s and 1970s accompanying the rise of <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a>, having been coined by zoologist <a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Willi Hennig</a> to apply to well-known taxa like Reptilia (<a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>), which is paraphyletic with respect to <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>. Reptilia contains the last common ancestor of reptiles and all descendants of that ancestor except for birds. Other commonly recognized paraphyletic groups include <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Romer_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>paraphyly</i>, or <i>paraphyletic</i>, derives from the two <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AC#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:παρά">παρά</a></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>pará</i></span>), meaning "beside, near", and <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%E1%BF%A6%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:φῦλον">φῦλον</a></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>phûlon</i></span>), meaning "genus, species",<sup id="cite_ref-Bailly1981_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailly1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tabularium_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tabularium-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and refers to the situation in which one or several monophyletic subgroups of organisms (e.g., genera, species) are <i>left apart</i> from all other descendants of a unique common ancestor. </p><p>Conversely, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a></i>, or <i>monophyletic</i>, builds on the Ancient Greek prefix <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:μόνος">μόνος</a></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>mónos</i></span>), meaning "alone, only, unique",<sup id="cite_ref-Bailly1981_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailly1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tabularium_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tabularium-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and refers to the fact that a monophyletic group includes organisms consisting of <i>all</i> the descendants of a <i>unique</i> common ancestor. </p><p>By comparison, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyly</a></i>, or <i>polyphyletic</i>, uses the Ancient Greek prefix <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%8D%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:πολύς">πολύς</a></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>polús</i></span>), meaning "many, a lot of",<sup id="cite_ref-Bailly1981_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailly1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tabularium_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tabularium-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and refers to the fact that a polyphyletic group includes organisms arising from <i>multiple</i> ancestral sources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phylogenetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monophyly,_paraphyly,_polyphyly.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/400px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/600px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg/800px-Monophyly%2C_paraphyly%2C_polyphyly.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladogram</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, showing a <b><a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a></b> (the simians, in yellow), a <b>paraphyly</b> (the prosimians, in blue, including the red patch), and a <b><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyly</a></b> (the night-active primates, the <a href="/wiki/Loris" title="Loris">lorises</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">tarsiers</a>, in red).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_cladistics">In cladistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In cladistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></div> <p>Groups that include all the descendants of a common ancestor are said to be <i><a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a></i>. A paraphyletic group is a monophyletic group from which one or more subsidiary <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> (monophyletic groups) are excluded to form a separate group. Philosopher of science Marc Ereshefsky has argued that paraphyletic taxa are the result of <a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">anagenesis</a> in the excluded group or groups.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cladistic approach normally does not grant paraphyletic assemblages the status of "groups", nor does it reify them with explanations, as in cladistics they are not seen as the actual products of evolutionary events.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A group whose identifying features evolved <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergently</a> in two or more lineages is <i><a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a></i> (Greek πολύς [<i>polys</i>], "many"). More broadly, any taxon that is not paraphyletic or monophyletic can be called polyphyletic. Empirically, the distinction between polyphyletic groups and paraphyletic groups is rather arbitrary, since the character states of common ancestors are inferences, not observations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>These terms were developed during the debates of the 1960s and 1970s accompanying the rise of <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a>. </p><p>Paraphyletic groupings are considered problematic by many taxonomists, as it is not possible to talk precisely about their phylogenetic relationships, their characteristic traits and literal extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Villmoare-2018_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Villmoare-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Related terms are <a href="/wiki/Crown_group#stem_group" title="Crown group">stem group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">chronospecies</a>, budding cladogenesis, anagenesis, or <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">'grade'</a> groupings. Paraphyletic groups are often relics from outdated hypotheses of phylogenic relationships from before the rise of cladistics.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg/400px-Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg/600px-Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg/800px-Wasps_are_Paraphyletic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="783" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">Wasps</a> are paraphyletic, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> <a href="/wiki/Apocrita" title="Apocrita">Apocrita</a> without <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, which are not usually considered to be wasps; the <a href="/wiki/Sawflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawflies">sawflies</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Symphyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Symphyta">Symphyta</a>") too are paraphyletic, as the Apocrita are nested inside the Symphytan clades.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a> (single-celled life forms without cell nuclei) are a paraphyletic grouping, because they exclude the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a>, a descendant group. <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> are prokaryotes, but archaea and eukaryotes share a common ancestor that is not ancestral to the bacteria. The prokaryote/eukaryote distinction was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Edouard_Chatton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edouard Chatton">Edouard Chatton</a> in 1937<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was generally accepted after being adopted by Roger Stanier and C.B. van Niel in 1962. The botanical code (the ICBN, now the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">ICN</a>) abandoned consideration of bacterial nomenclature in 1975; currently, prokaryotic nomenclature is regulated under the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_of_Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria">ICNB</a> with a starting date of 1 January 1980 (in contrast to a 1753 start date under the ICBN/ICN).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among plants, <a href="/wiki/Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicotyledons</a> (in the traditional sense) are paraphyletic because the group excludes <a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">monocotyledons</a>. "Dicotyledon" has not been used as a botanic classification for decades, but is allowed as a synonym of Magnoliopsida.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the <a href="/wiki/Monocot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocot">monocots</a> are a development from a <a href="/wiki/Dicot" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicot">dicot</a> ancestor. Excluding monocots from the dicots makes the latter a paraphyletic group.<sup id="cite_ref-Simpson_2006_139–140_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpson_2006_139–140-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among animals, several familiar groups are not, in fact, clades. The order <a href="/wiki/Artiodactyla" class="mw-redirect" title="Artiodactyla">Artiodactyla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">even-toed ungulates</a>) as traditionally defined is paraphyletic because it excludes <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">Cetaceans</a> (whales, dolphins, etc.). Under the ranks of the <a href="/wiki/ICZN_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="ICZN Code">ICZN Code</a>, the two taxa are separate orders. Molecular studies, however, have shown that the Cetacea descend from artiodactyl ancestors, although the precise phylogeny within the order remains uncertain. Without the Cetaceans the Artiodactyls are paraphyletic.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Leary,_2001_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Leary,_2001-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The class <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptilia</a> is paraphyletic because it excludes birds (class <a href="/wiki/Aves" class="mw-redirect" title="Aves">Aves</a>). Under a traditional classification, these two taxa are separate classes. However birds are sister taxon to a group of dinosaurs (part of <a href="/wiki/Diapsida" class="mw-redirect" title="Diapsida">Diapsida</a>), both of which are "reptiles".<sup id="cite_ref-Romer_&_Parson_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer_&_Parson-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Osteichthyes</a>, bony fish, are paraphyletic when circumscribed to include only <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Actinopterygii</a> (ray-finned fish) and <a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygii</a> (lungfish, etc.), and to exclude <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>; more recently, Osteichthyes is treated as a clade, including the tetrapods.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharkey_2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharkey_2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Betancur_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Betancur-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasps</a>" are paraphyletic, consisting of the narrow-waisted <a href="/wiki/Apocrita" title="Apocrita">Apocrita</a> without the <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_et_al,_2013_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_et_al,_2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sawflies (<a href="/wiki/Symphyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Symphyta">Symphyta</a>) are similarly paraphyletic, forming all of the <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a> except for the Apocrita, a clade deep within the sawfly tree.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharkey_2007_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharkey_2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a> are not a clade because the <a href="/wiki/Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a> (insects) are excluded. The modern clade that spans all of them is the <a href="/wiki/Tetraconata" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraconata">Tetraconata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrew2011_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrew2011-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bjoern2012_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bjoern2012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the goals of modern taxonomy over the past fifty years has been to eliminate paraphyletic "groups", such as the examples given here, from formal classifications.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paraphyly_in_species">Paraphyly in species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Paraphyly in species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paraspecies" title="Paraspecies">Paraspecies</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a> have a special status in systematics as being an observable feature of nature itself and as the basic unit of classification.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some articulations of the <a href="/wiki/Species#Phylogenetic_or_cladistic_species" title="Species">phylogenetic species concept</a> require species to be monophyletic, but paraphyletic species are common in nature, to the extent that they do not have a single common ancestor. Indeed, for sexually reproducing taxa, no species has a "single common ancestor" organism. Paraphyly is common in <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, whereby a mother species (a <a href="/wiki/Paraspecies" title="Paraspecies">paraspecies</a>) gives rise to a daughter species without itself becoming extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-AlbertReis2011_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlbertReis2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research indicates as many as 20 percent of all animal species and between 20 and 50 percent of plant species are paraphyletic.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounting for these facts, some taxonomists argue that paraphyly is a trait of nature that should be acknowledged at higher taxonomic levels.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aub15_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aub15-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cladists advocate a phylogenetic species concept <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that does not consider species to exhibit the properties of monophyly or paraphyly, concepts under that perspective which apply only to groups of species.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consider Zander's extension of the "paraphyletic species" argument to higher taxa to represent a <a href="/wiki/Category_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Category error">category error</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uses_for_paraphyletic_groups">Uses for paraphyletic groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Uses for paraphyletic groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Cladistics_generally_discourages_paraphyletic_groups"></span> When the appearance of significant traits has led a subclade on an evolutionary path very divergent from that of a more inclusive clade, it often makes sense to study the paraphyletic group that remains without considering the larger clade. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a> evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">Artiodactyla</a> (even-toed ungulates, like deer, cows, pigs and hippopotamuses - <a href="/wiki/Cervidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervidae">Cervidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suidae" title="Suidae">Suidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamidae" title="Hippopotamidae">Hippopotamidae</a>, the families that contain these various artiodactyls, are all monophyletic groups) has taken place in environments so different from that of the <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">Cetacea</a> (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) that the Artiodactyla are often studied in isolation even though the cetaceans are a descendant group. The <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryote</a> group is another example; it is paraphyletic because it is composed of two Domains (Eubacteria and Archaea) and excludes (the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a>). It is very useful because it has a clearly defined and significant distinction (absence of a cell nucleus, a <a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphy">plesiomorphy</a>) from its excluded descendants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Also, some systematists recognize paraphyletic groups as being involved in evolutionary transitions, the development of the first tetrapods from their ancestors for example. Any name given to these hypothetical ancestors to distinguish them from tetrapods—"fish", for example—necessarily picks out a paraphyletic group, because the descendant tetrapods are not included.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other systematists consider reification of paraphyletic groups to obscure inferred patterns of evolutionary history.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">evolutionary grade</a>" is sometimes used for paraphyletic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Ancestors_Tale_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancestors_Tale-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a>, paraphyly, and <a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyly</a> have been used in deducing key genes for <a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">barcoding</a> of diverse group of species.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independently_evolved_traits">Independently evolved traits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Independently evolved traits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current phylogenetic hypotheses of tetrapod relationships imply that <a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparity</a>, the production of offspring without the external laying of a fertilized egg, developed <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">independently</a> in the lineages that led to humans (<i>Homo sapiens</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Water_Skink" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Water Skink">southern water skinks</a> (<i>Eulampus tympanum</i>, a kind of lizard). Put another way, viviparity is a synapomorphy for <a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">Theria</a> within mammals, and an autapomorphy for <i><a href="/wiki/Eulamprus_tympanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulamprus tympanum">Eulamprus tympanum</a></i> (or perhaps a synapomorphy, if other <i>Eulamprus</i> species are also viviparous).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Groupings based on independently-developed traits such as these examples of viviparity represent examples of <a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyly</a>, not paraphyly.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Not_paraphyly">Not paraphyly</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Not paraphyly"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergent evolution</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_fish" title="Amphibious fish">Amphibious fish</a> are polyphyletic, not paraphyletic. Although they appear similar, several different groups of amphibious fishes such as <a href="/wiki/Mudskipper" title="Mudskipper">mudskippers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lungfish" title="Lungfish">lungfishes</a> evolved independently in a process of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> in distant relatives faced with similar ecological circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flightless_bird" title="Flightless bird">Flightless birds</a> are polyphyletic because they independently (in parallel) lost the ability to fly.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Animals with a <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fin</a> are not paraphyletic, even though their last common ancestor may have had such a fin, because the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> ancestors of porpoises did not have such a fin, whereas pre-Mesozoic fish did have one.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">Quadrupedal</a> <a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">archosaurs</a> are not a paraphyletic group. <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">Bipedal</a> dinosaurs like <i><a href="/wiki/Eoraptor" title="Eoraptor">Eoraptor</a></i>, ancestral to quadrupedal ones, were descendants of the last common ancestor of quadrupedal dinosaurs and other quadrupedal archosaurs like the crocodilians.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-exhaustive_list_of_paraphyletic_groups">Non-exhaustive list of paraphyletic groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Non-exhaustive list of paraphyletic groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following list recapitulates a number of paraphyletic groups proposed in the literature, and provides the corresponding monophyletic taxa. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Paraphyletic taxon</th> <th>Excluded clades</th> <th>Corresponding monophyletic taxon</th> <th>References and notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Cellular organisms</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Berg_360_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berg_360-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protista</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">Invertebrates</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrata</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Agassiz2013_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agassiz2013-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">Worm</a></td> <td>Multiple groups</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2007_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2007-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2006_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2006-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Radiata" title="Radiata">Radiata</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Platyzoa" title="Platyzoa">Platyzoa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetrapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapoda">Tetrapoda</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrate</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-treeoflife_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-treeoflife-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptiles</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">Birds</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">Sauropsida</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-tudge_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tudge-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Nonavian Dinosaur</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosauria</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">Lizard</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snakes">Snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphisbaenia" title="Amphisbaenia">Amphisbaenia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Squamates" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamates">Squamates</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plagiaulacida" title="Plagiaulacida">Plagiaulacidans</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cimolodonta" title="Cimolodonta">Cimolodonta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arginbaataridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginbaataridae">Arginbaataridae</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Multituberculata" title="Multituberculata">Multituberculata</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pelycosaur" title="Pelycosaur">Pelycosaurs</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Therapsida" title="Therapsida">Therapsida</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Synapsida" title="Synapsida">Synapsida</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Benton_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">Even-toed ungulates</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">Cetacea</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cetartiodactyla" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetartiodactyla">Cetartiodactyla</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-O'Leary,_2001_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Leary,_2001-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MamEv_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MamEv-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Archaeoceti" title="Archaeoceti">Archaeoceti</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neoceti" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoceti">Neoceti</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">Cetacea</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Thewissen-2002_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thewissen-2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prosimian" title="Prosimian">Prosimians</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">Simiiformes</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetraconata" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraconata">Tetraconata</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Andrew2011_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrew2011-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bjoern2012_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bjoern2012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wasps" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasps">Wasps</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">Ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bees" class="mw-redirect" title="Bees">Bees</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apocrita" title="Apocrita">Apocrita</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_et_al,_2013_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_et_al,_2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sawfly" title="Sawfly">Sawfly</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apocrita" title="Apocrita">Apocrita</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Sharkey_2007_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharkey_2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vespoidea" title="Vespoidea">Vespoidea</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apoidea" title="Apoidea">Apoidea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">Ants</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Euaculeata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Euaculeata (page does not exist)">Euaculeata</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_et_al,_2013_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_et_al,_2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Parasitica" title="Parasitica">Parasitica</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aculeata" title="Aculeata">Aculeata</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apocrita" title="Apocrita">Apocrita</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nautiloidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Nautiloidea">Nautiloidea</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ammonoidea" title="Ammonoidea">Ammonoidea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coleoidea" title="Coleoidea">Coleoidea</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cephalopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopoda">Cephalopoda</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Lindgren2004_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindgren2004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Charophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charophyte">Charophyte</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">Embryophyte</a> (Land plants)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Becker2009_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker2009-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">Dicotyledon</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocotyledon</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">Angiosperm</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Simpson_2006_139–140_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpson_2006_139–140-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">Moth</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">Butterfly</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-scoble_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoble-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Coral</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Stampar_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stampar-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Jellyfish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydroidolina" title="Hydroidolina">Hydroidolina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoa</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Zou2012_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zou2012-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cycloneuralia" title="Cycloneuralia">Cycloneuralia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Panarthropoda</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shimek_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shimek-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mecoptera" title="Mecoptera">Mecoptera</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Siphonaptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphonaptera">Siphonaptera</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mecopteroidea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mecopteroidea (page does not exist)">Mecopteroidea</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthoathecata" title="Anthoathecata">Anthoathecata</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Leptothecata" title="Leptothecata">Leptothecata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siphonophorae" title="Siphonophorae">Siphonophorae</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydroidolina" title="Hydroidolina">Hydroidolina</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">Monkey</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hominoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoidea">Hominoidea</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Simiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Simiiformes">Simiiformes</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Antelope" title="Antelope">Antelope</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bovini" title="Bovini">Bovini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caprinae" title="Caprinae">Caprinae</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bovid" class="mw-redirect" title="Bovid">Bovidae</a> </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">Tree model</a></div> <p>The concept of paraphyly has also been applied to <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>, where the methods of <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a> have found some utility in comparing languages. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> form a paraphyletic group of the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> because they consist of the nine branches of the Austronesian family that are not <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a> and are restricted to the island of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Glossary of scientific naming</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The history of flowering plant classification can be found under <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Phylogeny" title="Flowering plant">History of the classification of flowering plants</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Romer-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Romer_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRomer1970" class="citation book cs1">Romer, A. S. (1970) [1949]. <i>The Vertebrate Body</i> (4th ed.). W.B. Saunders.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vertebrate+Body&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=W.B.+Saunders&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bailly1981-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bailly1981_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bailly1981_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bailly1981_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailly1981" class="citation book cs1">Bailly, Anatole (1 January 1981). <i>Abrégé du dictionnaire grec français</i>. Paris: Hachette. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-01-003528-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-01-003528-9"><bdi>978-2-01-003528-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/461974285">461974285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abr%C3%A9g%C3%A9+du+dictionnaire+grec+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=1981-01-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F461974285&rft.isbn=978-2-01-003528-9&rft.aulast=Bailly&rft.aufirst=Anatole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tabularium-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tabularium_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tabularium_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tabularium_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailly" class="citation web cs1">Bailly, Anatole. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tabularium.be/bailly/">"Greek-french dictionary online"</a>. <i>www.tabularium.be</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tabularium.be&rft.atitle=Greek-french+dictionary+online&rft.aulast=Bailly&rft.aufirst=Anatole&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tabularium.be%2Fbailly%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2007" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Keith (10 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ucilIjrex5cC&pg=PA9"><i>Handbook of Plant Science</i></a>. 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-0031.1997.tb00325.x">"Forum – Taxonomic Stability is Ignorance"</a>. <i>Cladistics</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 367–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-0031.1997.tb00325.x">10.1111/j.1096-0031.1997.tb00325.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34911226">34911226</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55540349">55540349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cladistics&rft.atitle=Forum+%E2%80%93+Taxonomic+Stability+is+Ignorance&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=367-372&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55540349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34911226&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1096-0031.1997.tb00325.x&rft.aulast=Dominguez&rft.aufirst=Eduardo&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Quentin+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1096-0031.1997.tb00325.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapp2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sapp, Jan (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1197417">"The prokaryote–eukaryote dichotomy: meanings and mythology"</a>. <i>Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews</i>. <b>69</b> (2): 292–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.69.2.292-305.2005">10.1128/MMBR.69.2.292-305.2005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1197417">1197417</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15944457">15944457</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+prokaryote%E2%80%93eukaryote+dichotomy%3A+meanings+and+mythology&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=292-305&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1197417%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15944457&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.69.2.292-305.2005&rft.aulast=Sapp&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1197417&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStackebrabdtTindellLudwigGoodfellow1999" class="citation book cs1">Stackebrabdt, E.; Tindell, B.; Ludwig, W.; Goodfellow, M. (1999). "Prokaryotic Diversity and Systematics". In Lengeler, Joseph W.; Drews, Gerhart; Schlegel, Hans Günter (eds.). <i>Biology of the prokaryotes</i>. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 679.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prokaryotic+Diversity+and+Systematics&rft.btitle=Biology+of+the+prokaryotes&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=679&rft.pub=Georg+Thieme+Verlag&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Stackebrabdt&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Tindell%2C+B.&rft.au=Ludwig%2C+W.&rft.au=Goodfellow%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simpson_2006_139–140-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simpson_2006_139–140_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simpson_2006_139–140_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2006">Simpson 2006</a>, pp. 139–140<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSimpson2006 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span>. "It is now thought that the possession of two cotyledons is an ancestral feature for the taxa of the flowering plants and not an apomorphy for any group within. The 'dicots' ... are paraphyletic ...."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Leary,_2001-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Leary,_2001_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Leary,_2001_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary2001" class="citation journal cs1">O'Leary, Maureen A. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F41.3.487">"The Phylogenetic Position of Cetaceans: Further Combined Data Analyses, Comparisons with the Stratigraphic Record and a Discussion of Character Optimization"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Zoologist" class="mw-redirect" title="American Zoologist">American Zoologist</a></i>. <b>41</b> (3): 487–506. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.555.8631">10.1.1.555.8631</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F41.3.487">10.1093/icb/41.3.487</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Zoologist&rft.atitle=The+Phylogenetic+Position+of+Cetaceans%3A+Further+Combined+Data+Analyses%2C+Comparisons+with+the+Stratigraphic+Record+and+a+Discussion+of+Character+Optimization&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=487-506&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.555.8631%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F41.3.487&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=Maureen+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficb%252F41.3.487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romer_&_Parson-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Romer_&_Parson_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Romer" title="Alfred Romer">Romer, A. S.</a> & Parsons, T. S. (1985): <i>The Vertebrate Body.</i> (6th ed.) Saunders, Philadelphia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharkey_2007-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharkey_2007_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharkey_2007_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharkey_2007_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey2007" class="citation journal cs1">Sharkey, M. J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p548.pdf">"Phylogeny and classification of Hymenoptera"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Zootaxa</i>. <b>1668</b>: 521–548. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.1668.1.25">10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.25</a>. <q>Symphyta and Apocrita have long been considered as suborders of Hymenoptera but since recognition of the paraphyletic nature of the Symphyta (Köningsmann 1977, Rasnitsyn 1988) and the advent of cladistic methods the subordinal classification should be avoided. Likewise the woodwasps are thought to be non-monophyletic, forming a grade that is ancestral relative to Apocrita and Orussidae. The traditional hymenopteran classification is faulty, by cladistic criteria, in the same way as pre-cladistic vertebrate classifications in which groups sharing plesiomorphic characterswere recognized as natural, e.g., fishes were once grouped together as 'Pisces', which excluded tetrapods.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zootaxa&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+and+classification+of+Hymenoptera&rft.volume=1668&rft.pages=521-548&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11646%2Fzootaxa.1668.1.25&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=M.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mapress.com%2Fzootaxa%2F2007f%2Fzt01668p548.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Betancur-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Betancur_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetancur-R,_Ricardo2013" class="citation journal cs1">Betancur-R, Ricardo; et al. 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"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves resolution of the animal tree of life". <i>Nature</i>. <b>452</b> (7188): 745–749. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.452..745D">2008Natur.452..745D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06614">10.1038/nature06614</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18322464">18322464</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4397099">4397099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Broad+phylogenomic+sampling+improves+resolution+of+the+animal+tree+of+life&rft.volume=452&rft.issue=7188&rft.pages=745-749&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature06614&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4397099%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18322464&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.452..745D&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=CW&rft.au=Hejnol%2C+A&rft.au=Matus%2C+DQ&rft.au=Pang%2C+K&rft.au=Browne%2C+WE&rft.au=Smith%2C+SA&rft.au=Seaver%2C+E&rft.au=Rouse%2C+GW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebsterCopleyJennerMackenzie-Dodds2006" class="citation journal cs1">Webster, Bonnie L.; Copley, Richard R.; Jenner, Ronald A.; Mackenzie-Dodds, Jacqueline A.; Bourlat, Sarah J.; Rota-Stabelli, Omar; Littlewood, D. T. J.; Telford, Maximilian J. (November 2006). "Mitogenomics and phylogenomics reveal priapulid worms as extant models of the ancestral Ecdysozoan". <i>Evolution & Development</i>. <b>8</b> (6): 502–510. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1525-142X.2006.00123.x">10.1111/j.1525-142X.2006.00123.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17073934">17073934</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22823313">22823313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution+%26+Development&rft.atitle=Mitogenomics+and+phylogenomics+reveal+priapulid+worms+as+extant+models+of+the+ancestral+Ecdysozoan&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=502-510&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22823313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17073934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1525-142X.2006.00123.x&rft.aulast=Webster&rft.aufirst=Bonnie+L.&rft.au=Copley%2C+Richard+R.&rft.au=Jenner%2C+Ronald+A.&rft.au=Mackenzie-Dodds%2C+Jacqueline+A.&rft.au=Bourlat%2C+Sarah+J.&rft.au=Rota-Stabelli%2C+Omar&rft.au=Littlewood%2C+D.+T.+J.&rft.au=Telford%2C+Maximilian+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_Edward_E.Fox,_Richard_S.Barnes,_Robert_D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. 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Belmont, CA: <a href="/wiki/Cengage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage">Thomson-Brooks/Cole</a>. pp. 788ff. – see particularly p. 804. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-025982-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-025982-7"><bdi>0-03-025982-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003107287">2003107287</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/752875516">752875516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=23+GNATHIFERA&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+zoology%3A+a+functional+evolutionary+approach&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=788ff.+-+see+particularly+p.+804&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Thomson-Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F752875516&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003107287&rft.isbn=0-03-025982-7&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shimek-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shimek_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShimek,_Ronald2006" class="citation web cs1">Shimek, Ronald (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reefkeeping.com/issues/2006-01/rs/index.php">"Nano-Animals, Part I: Rotifers"</a>. Reefkeeping.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nano-Animals%2C+Part+I%3A+Rotifers&rft.pub=Reefkeeping.com&rft.date=2006-01&rft.au=Shimek%2C+Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freefkeeping.com%2Fissues%2F2006-01%2Frs%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronRa2010" class="citation audio-visual cs1">AronRa (16 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4A-dMqEbSk8"><i>Turns out we DID come from monkeys!</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Turns+out+we+DID+come+from+monkeys%21&rft.date=2010-01-16&rft.au=AronRa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D4A-dMqEbSk8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180110174441/https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/earlyprimates/early_2.htm">"Early Primate Evolution: The First Primates"</a>. <i>anthro.palomar.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/early_2.htm">the original</a> on 10 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=anthro.palomar.edu&rft.atitle=Early+Primate+Evolution%3A+The+First+Primates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthro.palomar.edu%2Fearlyprimates%2Fearly_2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonReeder2005" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Don E. & Reeder, DeeAnn M. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JgAMbNSt8ikC&pg=PA699"><i>Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-8221-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-8221-4"><bdi>0-8018-8221-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mammal+Species+of+the+World%3A+A+Taxonomic+and+Geographic+Reference%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8018-8221-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Don+E.&rft.au=Reeder%2C+DeeAnn+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJgAMbNSt8ikC%26pg%3DPA699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 699.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenhill, Simon J. and Russell D. Gray. (2009.) "Austronesian Language and Phylogenies: Myths and Misconceptions About Bayesian Computational Methods", in <i>Austronesian Historical Linguistics and Culture History: a Festschrift for Robert Blust</i>, edited by Alexander Adelaar and Andrew Pawley. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson,_Michael_George2006" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Michael George (2006). <i>Plant systematics</i>. Burlington; San Diego; London: <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-644460-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-644460-5"><bdi>978-0-12-644460-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+systematics&rft.place=Burlington%3B+San+Diego%3B+London&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-12-644460-5&rft.au=Simpson%2C+Michael+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParaphyly" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41059863?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Paraphyletic groups as natural units of biological classification</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraphyly&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paraphyletic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Paraphyly" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Paraphyly">Paraphyly</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Funk, D. J.; Omland, K. E. (2003). "Species-level paraphyly and polyphyly: Frequency, cause and consequences, with insights from animal mitochondrial DNA". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Ecology,_Evolution,_and_Systematics" title="Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics">Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics</a></i>. <b>34</b>: 397–423. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132421">10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132421</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33951905">33951905</a></span>.</cite><span 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title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/48px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/64px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenesis" title="Phylogenesis">Phylogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladogram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_network" title="Phylogenetic network">Phylogenetic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_branch_attraction" title="Long branch attraction">Long branch attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">Clade</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_grade" title="Evolutionary grade">Grade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">Lineage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_lineage" title="Ghost lineage">Ghost lineage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_population" title="Ghost population">Ghost population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inference methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics)" title="Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)">Maximum parsimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_reconciliation" title="Phylogenetic reconciliation">Phylogenetic reconciliation</a></li> <li>Probabilistic methods <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference_in_phylogeny" title="Bayesian inference in phylogeny">Bayesian inference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distance_matrices_in_phylogeny" title="Distance matrices in phylogeny">Distance-matrix methods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neighbor-joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighbor-joining">Neighbor-joining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPGMA" title="UPGMA">UPGMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_squares_inference_in_phylogeny" title="Least squares inference in phylogeny">Least squares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-taxon_analysis" title="Three-taxon analysis">Three-taxon analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_comparative_methods" title="Phylogenetic comparative methods">Phylogenetic comparative methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_niche_conservatism" title="Phylogenetic niche conservatism">Phylogenetic niche conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_signal" title="Phylogenetic signal">Phylogenetic signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_phylogenetics_software" title="List of phylogenetics software">Phylogenetics software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenomics" title="Phylogenomics">Phylogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">Phylogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group traits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">Primitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorphy">Plesiomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">Symplesiomorphy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Derived <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy">Apomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy">Synapomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapomorphy" title="Autapomorphy">Autapomorphy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">Monophyly</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paraphyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">Polyphyly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nomenclature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_group" title="Crown group">Crown group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">Sister group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">Basal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supertree" title="Supertree">Supertree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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