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<li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Establishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasions_of_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasions_of_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Invasions of Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasions_of_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Ming_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Ming_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Conquest of the Ming dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Ming_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Revolt of the Three Feudatories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territorial_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Territorial expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Later history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Organization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Organization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ethnic composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banner_soldiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banner_soldiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Banner soldiers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Banner_soldiers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Banner soldiers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Banner_soldiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prominent_Bannermen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_Bannermen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Prominent Bannermen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_Bannermen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Banners</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat-k%C3%AE" title="Pat-kî – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pat-kî" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osm_korouhv%C3%AD" title="Osm korouhví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Osm korouhví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acht_Banner" title="Acht Banner – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Acht Banner" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocho_Banderas" title="Ocho Banderas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ocho Banderas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huit_Banni%C3%A8res" title="Huit Bannières – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Huit Bannières" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%94%EA%B8%B0%EC%A0%9C" title="팔기제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="팔기제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delapan_Panji" title="Delapan Panji – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Delapan Panji" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Bandiere" title="Otto Bandiere – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Otto Bandiere" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ثمانى رايات – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثمانى رايات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%88%D1%83%D1%83" title="Найман хошуу – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Найман хошуу" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendelsysteem" title="Vendelsysteem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vendelsysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E6%97%97" title="八旗 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="八旗" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_%C3%A5tte_banner" title="De åtte banner – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="De åtte banner" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakkiz_bayroqlar" title="Sakkiz bayroqlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sakkiz bayroqlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiem_Chor%C4%85gwi" title="Osiem Chorągwi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Osiem Chorągwi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oito_Estandartes" title="Oito Estandartes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Oito Estandartes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Восьмизнамённая армия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Восьмизнамённая армия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osem_praporov" title="Osem praporov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Osem praporov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85tta_f%C3%A4nikorna" title="Åtta fänikorna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Åtta fänikorna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%87" title="แปดกองธง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แปดกองธง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekiz_Sancak" title="Sekiz Sancak – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sekiz Sancak" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%83%D9%83%D9%89%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%87%D9%86" title="سەككىز خوشۇن – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سەككىز خوشۇن" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1t_k%E1%BB%B3" title="Bát kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bát kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E6%97%97%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="八旗制度 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="八旗制度" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E6%97%97" title="八旗 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="八旗" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E6%97%97" title="八旗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="八旗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q340803#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eight_Banners" title="Special:EditPage/Eight Banners">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Eight+Banners%22">"Eight Banners"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Eight+Banners%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Eight+Banners%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Eight+Banners%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Eight+Banners%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Eight+Banners%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military and administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Eight Banners</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><span data-sort-value="China"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Musketeers" class="mw-redirect" title="Musketeers">Musketeers</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a><br /> <p><a href="/wiki/Qing_conquest_of_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing conquest of Ming">Qing conquest of Ming</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ningyuan" title="Battle of Ningyuan">Battle of Ningyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> </p> <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/9px-Manju_gisun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/14px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/19px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="27" data-file-height="111" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> text.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Manchu" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu alphabet</a>.</div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Eight Banners</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">八旗</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">bāqí</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">pa<sup>1</sup>-ch'i<sup>2</sup></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Pat-kî</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Mongolian name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Cyrillic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Cyrillic script">Mongolian Cyrillic</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Mongolian-language text"><span lang="mn">Найман хошуу</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Mongolian-language text"><span lang="mn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠨ ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/SASM/GNC_romanization#Mongolian" title="SASM/GNC romanization">SASM/GNC</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Mongolian-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="mn-Latn">naiman khoshuu</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Manchu name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">jakūn gūsa</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Eight Banners</b> (in <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> <i>jakūn gūsa</i>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E6%97%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:八旗">八旗</a></span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bāqí</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">pa<sup>1</sup>-ch'i<sup>2</sup></span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠨ <br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span></span>) were administrative and military divisions under the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties of China into which all <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> households were placed. In war, the Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a>, the banner armies played an instrumental role in his unification of the fragmented <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen people</a> (who would later be renamed the "Manchu" under Nurhaci's son <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a>) and in the Qing dynasty's <a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Qing_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming–Qing transition">conquest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> forces were incorporated into the growing Qing military establishment, the Mongol Eight Banners and <a href="/wiki/Han_Eight_Banners" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Eight Banners">Han Eight Banners</a> were created alongside the original Manchu banners. The banner armies were considered the elite forces of the Qing military, while the remainder of imperial troops were incorporated into the vast <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a>. Membership in the banners became hereditary, and bannermen were granted land and income. After the defeat of the Ming dynasty, Qing emperors continued to rely on the Eight Banners in their subsequent military campaigns. After the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a> of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> of the mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as the <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a>. Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment">Establishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Establishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up a battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198553–54_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198553–54-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198554_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198554-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200159_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200159-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bordered variant of each flag was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead. </p><p>The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in the late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to Manchu. That same year the Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners (<a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span>, <i>monggo gūsa</i>; <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">八旗蒙古</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bāqí ménggǔ</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn">Монгол найман хошуу</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200159_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200159-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasions_of_Korea">Invasions of Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Invasions of Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></div> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a>, the banner armies participated in two invasions of <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> in the Korean Peninsula first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Joseon was forced to end its relationship with the Ming and become a Qing tributary instead. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_the_Ming_dynasty">Conquest of the Ming dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Conquest of the Ming dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a></div> <p>Initially, Han troops were incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985168–169_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985168–169-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general <a href="/wiki/Zu_Dashou" title="Zu Dashou">Zu Dashou</a>'s forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dalinghe" title="Battle of Dalinghe">siege of Dalinghe</a> that same year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985182–183_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985182–183-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200643_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200643-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1636, Hong Taiji proclaimed the creation of the Qing dynasty. </p><p>Between 1637 and 1642,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman197784–_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman197784–-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rawski1998_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawski1998-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Old Han Army, mostly made up of <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong</a> natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Eight Banners (<a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ<br />ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ</span> <i>nikan cooha</i> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡠᠵᡝᠨ<br />ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ</span> <i>ujen cooha</i>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">八旗漢軍</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bāqí hànjūn</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn">Хятад найман хошуу</span>). The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as the Manchu Eight Banners (<a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span>, <i>manju gūsa</i>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">八旗滿洲</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">bāqí mǎnzhōu</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn">Манжийн Найман хошуу</span>). Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200159_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200159-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by the Han Banners.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Cosmo_2007_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Cosmo_2007-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Hong Taiji's death, <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a>, commander of the Solid White Banner, became regent. He quickly purged his rivals and took control over Hong Taiji's Solid Blue Banner. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200630_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200630-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year, rebels led by <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a> captured <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen</a>, committed suicide. Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a> to defeat Li at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a> and secure Beijing for the Qing. The young <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> was then enthroned in the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985257–313_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985257–313-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ming defectors played a major role in the Qing conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a>. Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing were often <a href="/wiki/Heqin#Qing_dynasty" title="Heqin">given women from the imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage</a> while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Qing differentiated between Han bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han bannermen were made out of ethnic Han who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin1987141_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin1987141-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006146_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006146-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was this multi-ethnic force, in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered the Central Plain for the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1991175_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1991175-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hong Taiji recognized that Han defectors were needed by the Qing in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou leniently.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing showed in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military that the Qing valued military skills to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces while the Qing foremost used defected Han troops to fight as the vanguard during their conquest of the Central Plain.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Liaodong Han military frontiersmen were prone to mixing and acculturating with (non-Han) tribesmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198539–_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198539–-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongol officer Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198541–_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198541–-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who defected.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198542–_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198542–-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liaodong Han transfrontiersmen soldiers acculturated to Manchu culture and used Manchu names. Manchus lived in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopted Han-style agriculture before the Qing conquest of the Ming.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198543–_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198543–-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Han transfrontismen abandoned their Han names and identities and Nurhaci's secretary Dahai might have been one of them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198544–_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198544–-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were not enough ethnic Manchus to conquer the Central Plain, so they relied on defeating and absorbing Mongols, and more importantly, adding Han to the Eight Banners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012116–_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012116–-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the massive number of Han soldiers who were absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection, Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Qing, so the Qing established an artillery corps made out of Han soldiers in 1641 and the swelling of Han numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 of all Eight Han Banners being created.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012117–_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012117–-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was defected Han armies which conquered southern China for the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012118–_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012118–-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han bannermen, later, some exceptions were made to allowing to reside in the inner city Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made out of defected Ming military forces who joined the Qing, in order to help rule northern China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985480–_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985480–-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was Green Standard Han troops who actively military governed China locally while Han Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen who were only brought into emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985481–_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985481–-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han official's sons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008154–_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008154–-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Manchu Prince Regent Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han official Feng Quan,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985872–_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985872–-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985868–_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985868–-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Znamenniemantchur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Znamenniemantchur.jpg/220px-Znamenniemantchur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Znamenniemantchur.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Banners of late 17th century</figcaption></figure> <p>To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQXHbhsfaJAYCpgPA140_140-141.]_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQXHbhsfaJAYCpgPA140_140-141.]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decree was formulated by Dorgon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Guangzhou massacre of Ming loyalist Han forces and civilians in 1650 by Qing forces, was entirely carried out by Han Bannermen led by Han generals <a href="/wiki/Shang_Kexi" title="Shang Kexi">Shang Kexi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geng_Jimao" title="Geng Jimao">Geng Jimao</a>. </p><p>The Qing sent Han Bannermen to fight against <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Koxinga</a>'s Ming loyalists in Fujian.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing carried out massive depopulation policy <a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">clearances</a> forcing people to evacuated the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources, this has led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproved the entirely irrelevant claim that alleged fear of the water on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation and clearances.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarian", both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved in the fighting for the Qing side and carried out the worst slaughter.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Revolt of the Three Feudatories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg/300px-The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg/450px-The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg/600px-The_Great_Victory_at_Qurman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1034" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Battle of Qurman, 1759</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg/300px-Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg/450px-Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg/600px-Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers of the Blue banner during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a> Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a>, who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard soldiers to crush the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing thought that Han were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as the primary military forces, considering Han troops as better at fighting other Han people, and these Han generals achieved victory over the rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by the Han Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 213 Han Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-Di_Cosmo_2007_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Di_Cosmo_2007-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673 to 1674.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012119–_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012119–-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing had the support of the majority of Han soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012120–_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012120–-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012121–122_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012121–122-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_expansion">Territorial expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Territorial expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></div> <p>Koxinga's rattan shield troops became famous for <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Zeelandia" title="Siege of Fort Zeelandia">fighting and defeating the Dutch in Taiwan</a>. After the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Koxinga's former followers on Taiwan</a>, Koxinga's grandson <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Keshuang" title="Zheng Keshuang">Zheng Keshuang</a> and his troops were incorporated into the Eight Banners. His <a href="/wiki/Rattan" title="Rattan">rattan</a> shield soldiers (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were used against the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Russian Cossacks at Albazin</a>. </p><p>Under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, the Eight Banners participated in a series of military campaigns to subdue Ming loyalists and neighboring states. In the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a>, the banner armies fought alongside troops of the Green Standard Army, expanding the Qing empire to its greatest territorial extent. Though partly successful, the campaigns were a heavy financial burden on the Qing treasury, and exposed weaknesses in the Qing military. Many bannermen lost their lives in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Burma campaign</a>, often as the result of tropical diseases, to which they had little resistance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_history">Later history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Later history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the banners were instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">transition from Ming to Qing</a> in the 17th century, they began to fall behind rising Western powers in the 18th century. By the 1730s, the traditional martial spirit had been lost, as the well-paid Bannerman spent their time gambling and theatergoing. Subsidizing the 1.5 million men, women and children in the system was an expensive proposition, compounded by embezzlement and corruption. Destitution in the northeastern garrisons led many Manchu Bannermen to abandon their posts and in response the Qing government either sentenced them with penal slavery or death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley199056–57_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley199056–57-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, the Eight Banners and Green Standard troops proved unable to put down the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a> on their own. Regional officials like <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a> were instructed to raise their own forces from the civilian population, leading to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a>, among others. Along with the <a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a> of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Townsend_Ward" title="Frederick Townsend Ward">Frederick Townsend Ward</a>, it was these warlord armies (known as <i><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">yongying</a></i>) who finally succeeded in restoring Qing control in this turbulent period.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(missionary)" title="John Ross (missionary)">John Ross</a>, a Scots missionary who served in Manchuria in the 19th century, wrote of the bannermen, "Their claim to be military men is based on their descent rather than on their skill in arms; and their pay is given them because of their fathers' prowess, and not at all from any hopes of their efficiency as soldiers. Their soldierly qualities are included in the accomplishments of idleness, riding, and the use of the bow and arrow, at which they practice on a few rare occasions each year."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1891683_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1891683-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg/220px-Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg/330px-Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg/440px-Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2786" data-file-height="2050" /></a><figcaption>Chinese soldiers in <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>; the left is a Bannerman</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>, 1899–1901, the European powers recruited 10,000 Bannermen from the Metropolitan Banners into <a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a> and gave them modernized training and weapons. One of these was the <a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a>. However, many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1990174_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1990174-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pro-Boxer Bannermen sustained heavy casualties and subsequently were driven into desperate poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads200080_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads200080-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Erfeng" title="Zhao Erfeng">Zhao Erfeng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Erxun" title="Zhao Erxun">Zhao Erxun</a> were two important Han Bannermen in the late Qing. </p><p>By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty began training and creating <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a> units based on Western training, equipment and organization. Nevertheless, the banner system remained in existence until the fall of the Qing in 1912, and even beyond, with a rump organization continuing to function until 1924. </p><p>At the end of the Qing dynasty, all members of the Eight Banners, regardless of their original ethnicity, were considered by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> to be Manchu. </p><p>Han Bannermen became an elite political class in <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengtian province">Fengtian province</a> in the late Qing period and into the Republican era.<sup id="cite_ref-Enatsu2004_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enatsu2004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1780s, after the <a href="/wiki/Jahriyya_revolt" title="Jahriyya revolt">Jahriyya revolt</a> in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the highest level, the eight banners were categorized according to two groupings. The three "upper" banners (both Yellow Banners and the <a href="/wiki/Plain_White_Banner" title="Plain White Banner">Plain White Banner</a>) were under the nominal command of the emperor himself, whereas the five "lower" banners were commanded by others. The banners were also split into a "left wing" and a "right wing" according to how they would be arrayed in battle. In Beijing, the left wing occupied the eastern banner neighborhoods and the right wing occupied the western ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200179_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200179-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:3008px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Eight Banners in formation for the Qianlong Emperor's Grand Review. Left wing banners are depicted on the viewer's right side, right wing on the left."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg/3000px-The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg" decoding="async" width="3000" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg/4500px-The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg/6000px-The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9541" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Grand_Review_-_No.3_-_Reviewing_Battle_Formation_cropped_center.jpg" title="File:The Grand Review - No.3 - Reviewing Battle Formation cropped center.jpg"> </a></div>The Eight Banners in formation for the Qianlong Emperor's Grand Review. Left wing banners are depicted on the viewer's right side, right wing on the left.</div></div></div> <p>The smallest unit in a banner army was the company, or <i>niru</i> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">佐領</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zuǒlǐng</span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn">Сум</span>), composed nominally of 300 soldiers and their families. The term <i>niru</i> means "arrow" in the Manchu language, and was originally the Manchu name for a <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> party, which would be armed with bows and arrows. 15 companies (4,500 men) made up one <i>jalan</i> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">參領</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">cānlǐng</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn">Заланг</span>). 4 <i>jalan</i> constituted a <i>gūsa</i> (banner, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">旗</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">qí</span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: <span lang="mn">Хошуу</span>), with a total of 60 companies, or 18,000 men. The actual sizes often varied substantially from these standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200630_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200630-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto"> <tbody><tr> <th>gūsa </th> <th>jalan </th> <th>niru </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠵᠠᠯᠠᠨ</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠨᡳᡵᡠ</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Banner </th> <th>English </th> <th>Manchu </th> <th>Mongolian </th> <th>Chinese </th> <th>L/R </th> <th>U/L </th></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg/150px-Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg/225px-Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg/300px-Bordered_Yellow_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bordered_Yellow_Banner" title="Bordered Yellow Banner">Bordered Yellow Banner</a> </td> <td><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡴᡠᠪᡠᡥᡝ<br />ᠰᡠᠸᠠᠶᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> kubuhe suwayan gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠬᠥᠪᠡᠭᠡᠲᠦ<br />ᠰᠢᠷᠠ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> köbegetü sir-a qosiɣu </td> <td>鑲黃旗 xiānghuángqí </td> <td>Left </td> <td>Upper </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg/150px-Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg/225px-Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg/300px-Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Plain_Yellow_Banner" title="Plain Yellow Banner">Plain Yellow Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡤᡠᠯᡠ<br />ᠰᡠᠸᠠᠶᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> gulu suwayan gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ<br />ᠰᠢᠷᠠ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> siluɣun sir-a qosiɣu </td> <td>正黃旗 zhènghuángqí </td> <td>Right </td> <td>Upper </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plain_White_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Plain_White_Banner.svg/150px-Plain_White_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Plain_White_Banner.svg/225px-Plain_White_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Plain_White_Banner.svg/300px-Plain_White_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Plain_White_Banner" title="Plain White Banner">Plain White Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡤᡠᠯᡠ<br />ᡧᠠᠩᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> gulu šanggiyan gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ<br />ᠴᠠᠭᠠᠨ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> siluɣun čaɣan qosiɣu </td> <td>正白旗 zhèngbáiqí </td> <td>Left </td> <td>Upper </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plain_Red_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Plain_Red_Banner.svg/150px-Plain_Red_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Plain_Red_Banner.svg/225px-Plain_Red_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Plain_Red_Banner.svg/300px-Plain_Red_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Plain_Red_Banner" title="Plain Red Banner">Plain Red Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡤᡠᠯᡠ<br />ᡶᡠᠯᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> gulu fulgiyan gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ<br />ᠤᠯᠠᠭᠠᠨ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> siluɣun ulaɣan qosiɣu </td> <td>正紅旗 zhènghóngqí </td> <td>Right </td> <td>Lower </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bordered_White_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bordered_White_Banner.svg/150px-Bordered_White_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bordered_White_Banner.svg/225px-Bordered_White_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bordered_White_Banner.svg/300px-Bordered_White_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bordered_White_Banner" title="Bordered White Banner">Bordered White Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡴᡠᠪᡠᡥᡝ<br />ᡧᠠᠩᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> kubuhe šanggiyan gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠬᠥᠪᠡᠭᠡᠲᠦ<br />ᠴᠠᠭᠠᠨ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> köbegetü čaɣan qosiɣu </td> <td>鑲白旗 xiāngbáiqí </td> <td>Left </td> <td>Lower </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bordered_Red_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Bordered_Red_Banner.svg/150px-Bordered_Red_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Bordered_Red_Banner.svg/225px-Bordered_Red_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Bordered_Red_Banner.svg/300px-Bordered_Red_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bordered_Red_Banner" title="Bordered Red Banner">Bordered Red Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡴᡠᠪᡠᡥᡝ<br />ᡶᡠᠯᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> kubuhe fulgiyan gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠬᠥᠪᠡᠭᠡᠲᠦ<br />ᠤᠯᠠᠭᠠᠨ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> köbegetü ulaɣan qosiɣu </td> <td>鑲紅旗 xiānghóngqí </td> <td>Right </td> <td>Lower </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plain_Blue_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Plain_Blue_Banner.svg/150px-Plain_Blue_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Plain_Blue_Banner.svg/225px-Plain_Blue_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Plain_Blue_Banner.svg/300px-Plain_Blue_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Plain_Blue_Banner" title="Plain Blue Banner">Plain Blue Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡤᡠᠯᡠ<br />ᠯᠠᠮᡠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> gulu lamun gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ<br />ᠬᠥᠬᠡ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> siluɣun köke qosiɣu </td> <td>正藍旗 zhènglánqí </td> <td>Left </td> <td>Lower </td></tr> <tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg/150px-Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg/225px-Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg/300px-Bordered_Blue_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bordered_Blue_Banner" title="Bordered Blue Banner">Bordered Blue Banner</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡴᡠᠪᡠᡥᡝ<br />ᠯᠠᠮᡠᠨ<br />ᡤᡡᠰᠠ</span> kubuhe lamun gūsa </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠬᠥᠪᠡᠭᠡᠲᠦ<br />ᠬᠥᠬᠡ<br />ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ</span> köbegetü köke qosiɣu </td> <td>鑲藍旗 xiānglánqí </td> <td>Right </td> <td>Lower </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_composition">Ethnic composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ethnic composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Identity_in_the_Eight_Banners" title="Identity in the Eight Banners">Identity in the Eight Banners</a></div> <p>Initially, the banner armies were primarily made up of individuals from the various Manchu tribes. As new populations were incorporated into the empire, the armies were expanded to accommodate troops of different ethnicities. The banner armies would eventually encompass three principal <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chinese ethnic groups">ethnic components</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Manchus" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchus">Manchus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, and various smaller ethnic groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Xibe_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Xibe people">Xibe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Daur_people" title="Daur people">Daur</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Evenks" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenks</a>. </p><p>When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were stories of Han migrating to the Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society and Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchu Cuigiya 崔佳氏 clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tohoro 托和啰 (<a href="/wiki/Duanfang" title="Duanfang">Duanfang</a>'s clan) claimed Han Chinese origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads2011_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads2011-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taveirne2004_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taveirne2004-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley199948–_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley199948–-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of <a href="/wiki/Fushun" title="Fushun">Fushun</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a>, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangxi emperor">Kangxi emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The transfer of families from Han Banners or Bondservant status (<a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a>) to Manchu Banners, switching their ethnicity from Han to Manchu was called <i>Taiqi</i> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%AC%E6%97%97" class="extiw" title="zh:抬旗">抬旗</a>) in Chinese. They would be transferred to the "upper three" Manchu Banners. It was a policy of the Qing to transfer to immediate families<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the brothers, father) of the mother of an Emperor into the upper three Manchu Banners and having "giya" 佳 appended to the end of their surname to Manchufy it.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhoads2011_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhoads2011-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Qing Aisin Gioro Imperial family, and the close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu. The Han Bannerwoman <a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoyichun" title="Empress Xiaoyichun">Empress Xiaoyichun</a> and her entire family were transferred to the Manchu Banners due to her status as the mother of an Emperor and their surname was change from Wei 魏 to Weigiya 魏佳. </p><p>The Qing said that "Manchu and Han are one house" 滿漢一家 and said that the difference was "not between Manchu and Han, but instead between Bannerman and civilian" 不分滿漢，但問旗民<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 但問旗民，不問滿漢.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200184_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200184-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Qianlong emperor">Qianlong emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999128_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999128-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was between 1618-1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999103–105_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999103–105-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on <a href="/wiki/List_of_Manchu_clans" title="List of Manchu clans">Qing lists of Manchu clans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manchu families adopted Han Chinese sons from families of bondservant <a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a> (baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and the Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001324_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001324-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001331_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001331-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in the Banners which previously were reserved for Jurchen Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were the remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many Jurchen Manchus being deprived of their traditional positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the Han Manchus supplanting Jurchen Manchus economic and social status.These Han Manchus were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that the Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from Jurchen Manchus in terms of military skills.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001325_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001325-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from the 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008144–145_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008144–145-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa. </p><p>Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility o the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley199014_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley199014-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jiang Xingzhou 姜興舟, a Han bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner married a Muslim woman in <a href="/wiki/Mukden" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden">Mukden</a> during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he was not executed.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Banner_soldiers">Banner soldiers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Banner soldiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_hunting_party.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Qing_hunting_party.jpg/350px-Qing_hunting_party.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Qing_hunting_party.jpg/525px-Qing_hunting_party.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Qing_hunting_party.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Bannermen accompanying an Imperial hunting party. Hunting served as a military exercise and to improve coordination between military units.</figcaption></figure> <p>From the time China was brought under the rule of the Qing dynasty, the banner soldiers became more professional and bureaucratized. Once the Manchus took over governing, they could no longer satisfy the material needs of soldiers by garnishing and distributing booty; instead, a salary system was instituted, ranks standardized, and the Eight Banners became a sort of hereditary military caste, though with a strong ethnic inflection. Banner soldiers took up permanent positions, either as defenders of the capital, Beijing, where roughly half of them lived with their families, or in the provinces, where some eighteen garrisons were established. The largest banner garrisons throughout most of the Qing dynasty were at <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>. Sizable banner populations were also placed in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> and at strategic points along the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prominent_Bannermen">Prominent Bannermen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Prominent Bannermen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agui" title="Agui">Agui</a> – participated in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a> and the suppression of the Jinchuan hill peoples. Member of the Plain Blue Banner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a> – commander in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a>. Member of the Bordered Yellow Banner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuk%27anggan" title="Fuk'anggan">Fuk'anggan</a> – commander in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a>. Member of the Bordered Yellow Banner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geng_Zhongming" title="Geng Zhongming">Geng Zhongming</a> – Ming dynasty warlord. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Yellow Banner after submitting to Qing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Yongfang" title="Li Yongfang">Li Yongfang</a> – Ming dynasty frontier commander. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Blue Banner after surrendering to Qing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi_Lang" title="Shi Lang">Shi Lang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Keshuang" title="Zheng Keshuang">Zheng Keshuang</a> – grandson of <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Koxinga</a>. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Red Banner after surrendering to Qing.</li> <li>Zhu Zhiliang – a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Imperial Family</a>. Granted the title <a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Extended_Grace" title="Marquis of Extended Grace">Marquis of Extended Grace</a> and inducted into the Chinese Plain White Banner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zu_Dashou" title="Zu Dashou">Zu Dashou</a> – Ming dynasty frontier commander. Inducted into the Chinese Plain Yellow Banner after surrendering to Qing.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_Eight_Banners" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Eight Banners">Han Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia" title="Banners of Inner Mongolia">Banners of Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_in_the_Eight_Banners" title="Identity in the Eight Banners">Identity in the Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_military_tactics_and_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol military tactics and organization">Mongol military tactics and organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darugha" title="Darugha">Darugha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Franz Michael, "Military organization and power structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 18.4 (1949): 469-483 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/18/4/469.full.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925211433/https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/18/4/469.full.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-09-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198553–54-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198553–54_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198554-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198554_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200159-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200159_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200159_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200159_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985168–169-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985168–169_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 168–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985182–183-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985182–183_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 182–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200643-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200643_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2006">Elliott 2006</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman197784–-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman197784–_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1977">Wakeman 1977</a>, pp. 84–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawski1998-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rawski1998_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEvelyn_S._Rawski1998" class="citation book cs1">Evelyn S. Rawski (15 November 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA61"><i>The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 61–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92679-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92679-0"><bdi>978-0-520-92679-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.pages=61-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998-11-15&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92679-0&rft.au=Evelyn+S.+Rawski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5iN5J9G76h0C%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Di_Cosmo_2007-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Cosmo_2007_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Di_Cosmo_2007_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200630-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200630_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200630_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2006">Elliott 2006</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985257–313-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985257–313_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 257–313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin1987141-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin1987141_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaquin1987">Naquin 1987</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006146-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006146_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1991175-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1991175_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1991">Rawski 1991</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA65"><i>The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1 ; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. 1978. pp. 65–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6"><bdi>978-0-521-24334-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Pt.+1+%3B+The+Ch%27ing+Empire+to+1800&rft.pages=65-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24334-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhi2THl2FUZ4C%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198539–-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198539–_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 39–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198541–-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198541–_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 41–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFjVAAAAMAAJ&q=li+huai+monkey+li"><i>Oriens extremus</i></a>. Kommissionverlag O. Harrasowitz. 1959. p. 137.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oriens+extremus&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Kommissionverlag+O.+Harrasowitz.&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFjVAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dli%2Bhuai%2Bmonkey%2Bli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198542–-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198542–_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 42–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198543–-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198543–_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 43–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman198544–-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman198544–_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 44–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012116–-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012116–_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2012">Graff & Higham 2012</a>, pp. 116–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012117–-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012117–_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2012">Graff & Higham 2012</a>, pp. 117–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012118–-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012118–_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2012">Graff & Higham 2012</a>, pp. 118–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985478–_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 478–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985480–-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985480–_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 480–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985481–-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985481–_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 481–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008154–-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008154–_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalthall2008">Walthall 2008</a>, pp. 154–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985872–-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985872–_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 872–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985868–-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985868–_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, pp. 868–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140111230216/http://www.chss.iup.edu/chr/CHR-2004Fall-11-WANG-research%20notes-final.pdf">Wang 2004, pp. 215–216 & 219–221.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQXHbhsfaJAYCpgPA140_140-141.]-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQXHbhsfaJAYCpgPA140_140-141.]_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalthall2008">Walthall 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA140">140-141.</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Sealords live in vain : Fujian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, pp. 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17">Di Cosmo 2007</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012119–-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012119–_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2012">Graff & Higham 2012</a>, pp. 119–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012120–-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012120–_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2012">Graff & Higham 2012</a>, pp. 120–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012121–122-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012121–122_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraffHigham2012">Graff & Higham 2012</a>, pp. 121–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley199056–57-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley199056–57_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1990">Crossley 1990</a>, pp. 56–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Franz Michael, "Military organization and power structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 18.4 (1949): 469-483 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/18/4/469.full.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925211433/https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/18/4/469.full.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-09-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1891683-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1891683_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoss1891">Ross 1891</a>, p. 683.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1990174-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1990174_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1990">Crossley 1990</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads200080-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhoads200080_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhoads2000">Rhoads 2000</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enatsu2004-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Enatsu2004_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoshiki_Enatsu2004" class="citation book cs1">Yoshiki Enatsu (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4txwAAAAMAAJ&q=rolls+bannermen+zhang+zuolin"><i>Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing</i></a>. Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-165-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-165-9"><bdi>978-0-89264-165-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Banner+Legacy%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Fengtian+Local+Elite+at+the+End+of+the+Qing&rft.pub=Center+for+Chinese+Studies%2C+The+University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-89264-165-9&rft.au=Yoshiki+Enatsu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4txwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Drolls%2Bbannermen%2Bzhang%2Bzuolin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yongwei, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0188-2740-032, QL 43.3.30 (April 26, 1778).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Šande 善德 , MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3238-046, QL 54.5.6 (May 30, 1789) and Šande , MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3248-028, QL 54.6.30 (August 20, 1789).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1789 Mongol Code (Ch. 蒙履 Menggu lüli , Mo. Mongγol čaγaǰin-u bičig ), (Ch. 南省，給駐防爲 , Mo. emün-e-tü muji-dur čölegüljü sergeyilen sakiγči quyaγ-ud-tur boγul bolγ-a ). Mongol Code 蒙例 (Beijing: Lifan yuan, 1789; reprinted Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968), p. 124. Batsukhin Bayarsaikhan, Mongol Code (Mongγol čaγaǰin - u bičig), Monumenta Mongolia IV (Ulaanbaatar: Centre for Mongol Studies, National University of Mongolia, 2004), p. 142. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200179-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200179_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSneath2007" class="citation book cs1">Sneath, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWMaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT113"><i>The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 99–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51167-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51167-4"><bdi>978-0-231-51167-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Headless+State%3A+Aristocratic+Orders%2C+Kinship+Society%2C+and+Misrepresentations+of+Nomadic+Inner+Asia&rft.pages=99-100&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-51167-4&rft.aulast=Sneath&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkWMaAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3nMzAAAAMAAJ&q=known+only+by+his+sobriquet+%22Han+Official%22+Nikan+Wailan,+as+well+as+the+many+Jurchens/Manchus+who+recounted+family+legends+of+originating+in+20+This"><i>Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi</i></a>. Society for Qing Studies. 1989. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%CA%BBing+Shih+Wen+T%CA%BBi&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Society+for+Qing+Studies&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3nMzAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dknown%2Bonly%2Bby%2Bhis%2Bsobriquet%2B%2522Han%2BOfficial%2522%2BNikan%2BWailan%2C%2Bas%2Bwell%2Bas%2Bthe%2Bmany%2BJurchens%2FManchus%2Bwho%2Brecounted%2Bfamily%2Blegends%2Bof%2Boriginating%2Bin%2B20%2BThis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">《清朝通志·氏族略·满洲八旗姓》</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhoads2011-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads2011_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhoads2011_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_J._M._Rhoads2011" class="citation book cs1">Edward J. M. Rhoads (1 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&q=tao+tohoro+han&pg=PA55"><i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i></a>. University of Washington Press. pp. 55–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80412-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80412-5"><bdi>978-0-295-80412-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&rft.pages=55-&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2011-12-01&rft.isbn=978-0-295-80412-5&rft.au=Edward+J.+M.+Rhoads&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtgq1miGno-4C%26q%3Dtao%2Btohoro%2Bhan%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taveirne2004-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taveirne2004_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Taveirne2004" class="citation book cs1">Patrick Taveirne (January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2japTNPRNAC&q=tao+tohoro+han&pg=PA339"><i>Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911</i></a>. Leuven University Press. pp. 339–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-365-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-365-7"><bdi>978-90-5867-365-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han-Mongol+Encounters+and+Missionary+Endeavors%3A+A+History+of+Scheut+in+Ordos+%28Hetao%29+1874-1911&rft.pages=339-&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2004-01&rft.isbn=978-90-5867-365-7&rft.au=Patrick+Taveirne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2japTNPRNAC%26q%3Dtao%2Btohoro%2Bhan%26pg%3DPA339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley199948–-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley199948–_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1999">Crossley 1999</a>, pp. 48–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3nMzAAAAMAAJ&q=Nikan+wailan"><i>Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi</i></a>. Society for Qing Studies. 1989. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%CA%BBing+Shih+Wen+T%CA%BBi&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Society+for+Qing+Studies&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3nMzAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DNikan%2Bwailan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHummel1943" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a>, ed. (1943). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Tuan-fang"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period/Tuan-fang">"Tuan-fang" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tuan-fang&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1983" class="citation journal cs1">Crossley, Pamela (June 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/398599/summary">"restricted access The Tong in Two Worlds: Cultural Identities in Liaodong and Nurgan during the 13th-17th centuries"</a>. <i>Ch'ing-shih Wen-t'i</i>. <b>4</b> (9). Johns Hopkins University Press: 21–46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ch%27ing-shih+Wen-t%27i&rft.atitle=restricted+access+The+Tong+in+Two+Worlds%3A+Cultural+Identities+in+Liaodong+and+Nurgan+during+the+13th-17th+centuries&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=21-46&rft.date=1983-06&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F398599%2Fsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1999">Crossley 1999</a>, pp. 113–115, 115– <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_T._Rowe2010" class="citation book cs1">William T. Rowe (15 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner&pg=PA11"><i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 11–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05455-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05455-4"><bdi>978-0-674-05455-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Last+Empire%3A+The+Great+Qing&rft.pages=11-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010-02-15&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05455-4&rft.au=William+T.+Rowe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKN7Awmzx2PAC%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuchang_ZhouRonald_R._GrayMark_S._Ferrara2009" class="citation book cs1">Ruchang Zhou; Ronald R. Gray; Mark S. Ferrara (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ROFO8h-e6IC&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner&pg=PA68"><i>Between Noble and Humble: Cao Xueqin and the Dream of the Red Chamber</i></a>. Peter Lang. pp. 68–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-0407-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-0407-7"><bdi>978-1-4331-0407-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Noble+and+Humble%3A+Cao+Xueqin+and+the+Dream+of+the+Red+Chamber&rft.pages=68-&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4331-0407-7&rft.au=Ruchang+Zhou&rft.au=Ronald+R.+Gray&rft.au=Mark+S.+Ferrara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ROFO8h-e6IC%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, pp. 87– <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_E._Mungello1994" class="citation book cs1">David E. Mungello (January 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D8KV-ia0RpYC&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner&pg=PA29"><i>The Forgotten Christians of Hangzhou</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 29–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1540-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1540-0"><bdi>978-0-8248-1540-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Christians+of+Hangzhou&rft.pages=29-&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1994-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1540-0&rft.au=David+E.+Mungello&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD8KV-ia0RpYC%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvelyn_S._Rawski1998" class="citation book cs1">Evelyn S. Rawski (15 November 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner&pg=PA72"><i>The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 72–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92679-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92679-0"><bdi>978-0-520-92679-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.pages=72-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998-11-15&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92679-0&rft.au=Evelyn+S.+Rawski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5iN5J9G76h0C%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3nMzAAAAMAAJ&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner"><i>Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi</i></a>. Society for Qing Studies. 1989. pp. 80, 84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%CA%BBing+Shih+Wen+T%CA%BBi&rft.pages=80%2C+84&rft.pub=Society+for+Qing+Studies&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3nMzAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8GkUAQAAIAAJ&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner"><i>Ch'ing-shih Wen-t'i</i></a>. Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i. 1983. pp. 22, 28, 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%27ing-shih+Wen-t%27i&rft.pages=22%2C+28%2C+29&rft.pub=Ch%27ing-shih+wen-t%27i&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8GkUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Standaert2001" class="citation book cs1">N. Standaert (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KzZtAAAAMAAJ&q=tong+kangxi+uncles+banner"><i>Handbook of Christianity in China</i></a>. Brill. p. 444. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11431-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11431-9"><bdi>978-90-04-11431-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Christianity+in+China&rft.pages=444&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11431-9&rft.au=N.+Standaert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKzZtAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtong%2Bkangxi%2Buncles%2Bbanner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160201233950/http://jds.cass.cn/UploadFiles/zyqk/2011/10/201110032046280835.pdf">"jds.cass.cn"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jds.cass.cn/UploadFiles/zyqk/2011/10/201110032046280835.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=jds.cass.cn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjds.cass.cn%2FUploadFiles%2Fzyqk%2F2011%2F10%2F201110032046280835.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepaper.cn/baidu.jsp?contid=1392798">"发现东亚（十）〡"满"与"旗"：族、籍之间_澎湃研究所_澎湃新闻-The Paper"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%8F%91%E7%8E%B0%E4%B8%9C%E4%BA%9A%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%EF%BC%89%E3%80%A1%22%E6%BB%A1%22%E4%B8%8E%22%E6%97%97%22%EF%BC%9A%E6%97%8F%E3%80%81%E7%B1%8D%E4%B9%8B%E9%97%B4_%E6%BE%8E%E6%B9%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80_%E6%BE%8E%E6%B9%83%E6%96%B0%E9%97%BB-The+Paper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepaper.cn%2Fbaidu.jsp%3Fcontid%3D1392798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200184-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200184_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999128-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999128_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1999">Crossley 1999</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999103–105-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999103–105_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1999">Crossley 1999</a>, pp. 103–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/84183523.html">"我姓阎,满族正黄旗,请问我的满姓可能是什么~_百度知道"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%88%91%E5%A7%93%E9%98%8E%2C%E6%BB%A1%E6%97%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%BB%84%E6%97%97%2C%E8%AF%B7%E9%97%AE%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E6%BB%A1%E5%A7%93%E5%8F%AF%E8%83%BD%E6%98%AF%E4%BB%80%E4%B9%88~_%E7%99%BE%E5%BA%A6%E7%9F%A5%E9%81%93&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzhidao.baidu.com%2Fquestion%2F84183523.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.51cto.com/sky66/1741624">"《满族姓氏寻根大全·满族老姓全录》_我的天空的技术博客_51Cto博客"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E6%BB%A1%E6%97%8F%E5%A7%93%E6%B0%8F%E5%AF%BB%E6%A0%B9%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%A8%C2%B7%E6%BB%A1%E6%97%8F%E8%80%81%E5%A7%93%E5%85%A8%E5%BD%95%E3%80%8B_%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E5%A4%A9%E7%A9%BA%E7%9A%84%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8D%9A%E5%AE%A2_51Cto%E5%8D%9A%E5%AE%A2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.51cto.com%2Fsky66%2F1741624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yukunid.blog.sohu.com/16777875.html">"此博客只允许博主自己查看"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%AD%A4%E5%8D%9A%E5%AE%A2%E5%8F%AA%E5%85%81%E8%AE%B8%E5%8D%9A%E4%B8%BB%E8%87%AA%E5%B7%B1%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fyukunid.blog.sohu.com%2F16777875.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.sina.cn/dpool/blog/s/blog_6277172c0100hfb3.html">http://blog.sina.cn/dpool/blog/s/blog_6277172c0100hfb3.html</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.sina.cn%2Fdpool%2Fblog%2Fs%2Fblog_6277172c0100hfb3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001324-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001324_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001331-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001331_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001325-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001325_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008144–145-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalthall2008144–145_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalthall2008">Walthall 2008</a>, pp. 144–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley199014-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley199014_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1990">Crossley 1990</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawski2001" class="citation book cs1">Rawski, Evelyn S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t7AwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66"><i>The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22837-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22837-5"><bdi>0-520-22837-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.pages=66&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-520-22837-5&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt7AwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> 照文武官員負罪逃竄例絞侯SYD 52.1.7 (February 24, 1787).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">GZSL,juan1272, QL 52.1.8 (February 25, 1787). </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Bijia, et al. "Interethnic Marriage in Northeast China, 1866–1913." Demographic Research, vol. 38, 2018, p. 953. JSTOR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26457068?seq=27#metadata_info_tab_contents">https://www.jstor.org/stable/26457068?seq=27#metadata_info_tab_contents</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1990" class="citation cs2">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NUTE8V-WhwoC"><i>Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00877-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00877-6"><bdi>978-0-691-00877-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orphan+Warriors%3A+Three+Manchu+Generations+and+the+End+of+the+Qing+World&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00877-6&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNUTE8V-WhwoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Ho, Dahpon David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3pk3t096"><i>Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-century China</i></a> (PhD). University of California, San Diego.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Sealords+Live+in+Vain%3A+Fujian+and+the+Making+of+a+Maritime+Frontier+in+Seventeenth-century+China&rft.inst=University+of+California%2C+San+Diego&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Dahpon+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3pk3t096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation cs2">Elliott, Mark C. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-4684-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2006" class="citation cs2">—— (2006), "Concepts of Ethnicity", in Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Siu, Helen F.; Sutton, Donald S. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC"><i>Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China</i></a>, Studies on China, vol. 28, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23015-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23015-6"><bdi>978-0-520-23015-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Concepts+of+Ethnicity&rft.btitle=Empire+at+the+Margins%3A+Culture%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Frontier+in+Early+Modern+China&rft.series=Studies+on+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23015-6&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEtNVMUx9qIIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="citation cs2">Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), <i>China: A New History</i> (2nd enlarged ed.), Cambridge: MA; London, England: The Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01828-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01828-1"><bdi>0-674-01828-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+New+History&rft.place=Cambridge%3A+MA%3B+London%2C+England&rft.edition=2nd+enlarged&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-674-01828-1&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John+King&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Merle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraffHigham2012" class="citation book cs1">Graff, David Andrew; Higham, Robin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn3QpyJn9JIC"><i>A Military History of China</i></a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3584-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3584-7"><bdi>978-0-8131-3584-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+China&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-3584-7&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=David+Andrew&rft.au=Higham%2C+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSn3QpyJn9JIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaquin1987" class="citation cs2">Naquin, Susan (1987), <i>Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century</i>, Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04602-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04602-1"><bdi>978-0-300-04602-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Society+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-04602-1&rft.aulast=Naquin&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawski1991" class="citation cs2">Rawski, Evelyn S. (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179">"Ch'ing imperial marriage and problems of rulership"</a>, in Watson, Rubie Sharon; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (eds.), <i>Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society</i>, University of California Press, pp. 170–203, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07124-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07124-7"><bdi>978-0-520-07124-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch%27ing+imperial+marriage+and+problems+of+rulership&rft.btitle=Marriage+and+Inequality+in+Chinese+Society&rft.pages=170-203&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07124-7&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgAIcwz3V_JsC%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation cs2">Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C"><i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i></a>, University of Washington Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-98040-0"><bdi>0-295-98040-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-295-98040-0&rft.aulast=Rhoads&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQiM2pF5PDR8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1891" class="citation cs2">Ross, John (1891), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wSmal6QRlboC"><i>The Manchus, Or The Reigning Dynasty of China: Their Rise and Progress</i></a>, E. Stock</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchus%2C+Or+The+Reigning+Dynasty+of+China%3A+Their+Rise+and+Progress&rft.pub=E.+Stock&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwSmal6QRlboC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1988), <i>Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-hsi Emperor: Bondservant and Master</i>, Yale Historical Publications: Miscellany, vol. 85, <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04277-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04277-1"><bdi>978-0-300-04277-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ts%27ao+Yin+and+the+K%27ang-hsi+Emperor%3A+Bondservant+and+Master&rft.series=Yale+Historical+Publications%3A+Miscellany&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-300-04277-1&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1990" class="citation cs2">—— (1990), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_Modern_China" title="The Search for Modern China">The Search for Modern China</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-30780-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-30780-8"><bdi>0-393-30780-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+Modern+China&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-393-30780-8&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Wakeman" title="Frederic Wakeman">Wakeman, Frederic</a> (1977), <i>The Fall of Imperial China</i>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-933680-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-933680-5"><bdi>0-02-933680-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Imperial+China&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-02-933680-5&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1985" class="citation cs2">—— (1985), <i>The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China</i>, Berkeley, CA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04804-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04804-0"><bdi>0-520-04804-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+The+Manchu+Reconstruction+of+Imperial+Order+in+Seventeenth-century+China&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-520-04804-0&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalthall2008" class="citation cs2">Walthall, Anne (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&q=qinzong+gioro"><i>Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History</i></a>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25444-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25444-2"><bdi>978-0-520-25444-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Servants+of+the+Dynasty%3A+Palace+Women+in+World+History&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25444-2&rft.aulast=Walthall&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQXHbhsfaJAYC%26q%3Dqinzong%2Bgioro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2008" class="citation cs2">Wang, Shuo (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148">"Qing Imperial Women"</a>, in Walthall, Anne (ed.), <i>Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History</i>, University of California Press, pp. 137–158, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25444-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25444-2"><bdi>978-0-520-25444-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Qing+Imperial+Women&rft.btitle=Servants+of+the+Dynasty%3A+Palace+Women+in+World+History&rft.pages=137-158&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25444-2&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Shuo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQXHbhsfaJAYC%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>The Manchus: or The reigning dynasty of China; their rise and progress<i>, by John Ross, a publication from 1880, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eight_Banners&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1989), "The Qianlong Retrospect on the Chinese-martial (hanjun) Banners", <i>Late Imperial China</i>, <b>10</b> (2): 63–107, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flate.1989.0004">10.1353/late.1989.0004</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143342206">143342206</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Late+Imperial+China&rft.atitle=The+Qianlong+Retrospect+on+the+Chinese-martial+%28hanjun%29+Banners&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=63-107&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flate.1989.0004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143342206%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1999" class="citation cs2">—— (1999), <i>A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-92884-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-92884-9"><bdi>0-520-92884-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Translucent+Mirror%3A+History+and+Identity+in+Qing+Imperial+Ideology&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-520-92884-9&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2010), Kagan, Kimberly (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ai1_5IHQ9vsC"><i>The Imperial Moment</i></a>, Paul Bushkovitch, Nicholas Canny, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Arthur Eckstein, Frank Ninkovich, Loren J. Samons, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05409-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05409-7"><bdi>978-0-674-05409-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Moment&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05409-7&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAi1_5IHQ9vsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Enatsu, Yoshiki (2004), <i>Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing</i>, University of Michigan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-165-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-165-9"><bdi>978-0-89264-165-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Banner+Legacy%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Fengtian+Local+Elite+at+the+End+of+the+Qing&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-89264-165-9&rft.aulast=Enatsu&rft.aufirst=Yoshiki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Im, Kaye Soon. "The Development of the Eight Banner System and its Social Structure," <i>Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities</i> (1991), Issue 69, pp 59–93</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Lococo, Paul (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKpj1YfXfHEC&pg=PA122">"The Qing Empire"</a>, in Graff, David A.; Higham, Robin (eds.), <i>A Military History of China</i> (2nd ed.), University Press of Kentucky, pp. 115–133, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4067-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4067-4"><bdi>978-0-8131-4067-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Qing+Empire&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+China&rft.pages=115-133&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-4067-4&rft.aulast=Lococo&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwKpj1YfXfHEC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Michael, Franz. "Military organization and power structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 18.4 (1949): 469-483 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/18/4/469.full.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925211433/https://phr.ucpress.edu/content/ucpphr/18/4/469.full.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-09-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998), <i>The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-92679-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-92679-X"><bdi>0-520-92679-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-520-92679-X&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEight+Banners" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper Three Banners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bordered_Yellow_Banner" title="Bordered Yellow Banner">Bordered Yellow Banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_Yellow_Banner" title="Plain Yellow Banner">Plain Yellow Banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_White_Banner" title="Plain White Banner">Plain White Banner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lower Five Banners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plain_Red_Banner" title="Plain Red Banner">Plain Red Banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bordered_White_Banner" title="Bordered White Banner">Bordered White Banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bordered_Red_Banner" title="Bordered Red Banner">Bordered Red Banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_Blue_Banner" title="Plain Blue Banner">Plain Blue Banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bordered_Blue_Banner" title="Bordered Blue Banner">Bordered Blue Banner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supreme commanders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">the Emperor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Upper Three Banners)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Li_(%E7%A6%AE)" title="Prince Li (禮)">Prince Li</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Plain Red Banner)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Su" title="Prince Su">Prince Su</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bordered White Banner)</span></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese_Eight_Banners" title="Han Chinese Eight Banners">Han Chinese Eight Banners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inner Companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Booi_Manju_Niru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Booi Manju Niru (page does not exist)">Booi Manju Niru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cigu_Niru" title="Cigu Niru">Cigu Niru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fandzi_Niru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fandzi Niru (page does not exist)">Fandzi Niru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoise_Niru" title="Hoise Niru">Hoise Niru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oros_Niru" title="Oros Niru">Oros Niru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solho_Niru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solho Niru (page does not exist)">Solho Niru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a><br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton 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