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<li id="toc-In_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>In the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Korenizatsiya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korenizatsiya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Korenizatsiya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korenizatsiya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Educational_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educational_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Educational reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educational_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rapprochement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rapprochement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Rapprochement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rapprochement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Russian_Federation_(1991–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Russian_Federation_(1991–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>In the Russian Federation (1991–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Russian_Federation_(1991–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country/region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country/region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>By country/region</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_country/region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By country/region subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_country/region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Azerbaijan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Azerbaijan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Azerbaijan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Azerbaijan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belarus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belarus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Belarus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belarus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Prussia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Prussia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>East Prussia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Prussia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latvia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latvia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Latvia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latvia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithuania_and_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithuania_and_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Lithuania and Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithuania_and_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bessarabia/Moldova" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bessarabia/Moldova"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Bessarabia/Moldova</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bessarabia/Moldova-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Ukraine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Russification</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3_(%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A)" title="ترويس (استيعاب ثقافي) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترويس (استيعاب ثقافي)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusificaci%C3%B3n" title="Rusificación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Rusificación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusla%C5%9Fd%C4%B1rma" title="Ruslaşdırma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ruslaşdırma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%96%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Русіфікацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Русіфікацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%96%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Русіфікацыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Русіфікацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russificaci%C3%B3" title="Russificació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Russificació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%80%C4%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8_(%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Вырăслатни (политика) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вырăслатни (политика)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusifikace" title="Rusifikace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rusifikace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russificering" title="Russificering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Russificering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russifizierung" title="Russifizierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Russifizierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venestamine" title="Venestamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Venestamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BA%CF%81%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Εκρωσισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εκρωσισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusificaci%C3%B3n" title="Rusificación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rusificación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusigo" title="Rusigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rusigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errusiartze" title="Errusiartze – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errusiartze" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="روسی‌سازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روسی‌سازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification" title="Russification – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Russification" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusificaci%C3%B3n" title="Rusificación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rusificación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%ED%99%94" title="러시아화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러시아화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ռուսականացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուսականացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusifikacija" title="Rusifikacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rusifikacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusifikasi" title="Rusifikasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rusifikasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Уырысыфикаци – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Уырысыфикаци" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russificazione" title="Russificazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Russificazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="רוסיפיקציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רוסיפיקציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რუსიფიკაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რუსიფიკაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83" title="Орыстандыру – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Орыстандыру" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81rkrievo%C5%A1ana" title="Pārkrievošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pārkrievošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusifikacija" title="Rusifikacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rusifikacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russifikazzjoni" title="Russifikazzjoni – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Russifikazzjoni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE)" title="Оросжуулалт (бодлого) – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Оросжуулалт (бодлого)" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russificatie" title="Russificatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Russificatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E5%8C%96" title="ロシア化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロシア化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russifisering" title="Russifisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Russifisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusyfikacja" title="Rusyfikacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rusyfikacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" 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Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Русификация (политика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusifikimi" title="Rusifikimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rusifikimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Русификација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Русификација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusifikacija" title="Rusifikacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rusifikacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven%C3%A4l%C3%A4ist%C3%A4minen" title="Venäläistäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Venäläistäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russifiering" title="Russifiering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Russifiering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Measures to increase the influence of Russian culture and language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For Russification of a computer, see <a href="/wiki/Computer_Russification" title="Computer Russification">Computer Russification</a>. For influence of Russian on other languages as a linguistic phenomenon, see <a href="/wiki/Russianism" title="Russianism">Russianism</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Russification" title="Special:EditPage/Russification">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Russification%22">"Russification"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Russification%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Russification%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Russification%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Russification%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Russification%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russification_evidence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Russification_evidence.jpg/250px-Russification_evidence.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Russification_evidence.jpg/375px-Russification_evidence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Russification_evidence.jpg/500px-Russification_evidence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1399" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a>, Belarus, 2011: old street sign in <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> (right) replaced with new one in <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> (left).</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Russification</b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">русификация</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">rusifikatsiya</i></span>), <b>Russianisation</b> or <b>Russianization</b>, is a form of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">cultural assimilation</a> in which non-<a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> adopt <a href="/wiki/Russian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian culture">Russian culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a> either voluntarily or as a result of a deliberate state policy.<sup id="cite_ref-ego_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ego-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russification was at times pursued by the governments of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, either as a goal in itself or as a consequence of policies aimed at centralisation and modernisation.<sup id="cite_ref-ego_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ego-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major areas of Russification are politics and culture. In politics, an element of Russification is assigning <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian nationals</a> to lead administrative positions in national institutions. In culture, Russification primarily amounts to the hegemony of the Russian language in official business and the strong influence of the Russian language on national idioms. The shifts in <a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">demographics</a> in favor of the ethnic Russian population are sometimes considered a form of Russification as well. </p><p>Some researchers distinguish <i>Russification</i>, as a process of changing one's ethnic self-label or identity from a non-Russian <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonym</a> to Russian, from <i>Russianization</i>, the spread of the Russian language, culture, and people into non-Russian cultures and regions, distinct also from <a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietization</a> or the imposition of institutional forms established by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> throughout the territory ruled by that party.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, although Russification is usually <a href="/wiki/Conflation" title="Conflation">conflated</a> across Russification, Russianization, and Russian-led Sovietization, each can be considered a distinct process. Russianization and Sovietization, for example, did not automatically lead to Russification – a change in language or self-identity of non-Russian people to being Russian. Thus, despite long exposure to the Russian language and culture, as well as to Sovietization, at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet era">Soviet era</a>, non-Russians were on the verge of becoming a majority of the population in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Russification of <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic-speaking</a> people, such as <a href="/wiki/Vepsians" title="Vepsians">Vepsians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mordvins" title="Mordvins">Mordvins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mari_people" title="Mari people">Maris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Permians" title="Permians">Permians</a>, indigenous to large parts of western and central Russia had already begun with the original eastward expansion of <a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="East Slavic peoples">East Slavs</a>. Written records of the oldest period are scarce, but <a href="/wiki/Toponym" class="mw-redirect" title="Toponym">toponymic</a> evidence indicates<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that this expansion was accomplished at the expense of various <a href="/wiki/Volga_Finns" title="Volga Finns">Volga-Finnic peoples</a>, who were gradually assimilated by Russians; beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Merya_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Merya people">Merya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muromians" class="mw-redirect" title="Muromians">Muroma</a> early in the 2nd millennium AD.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/13th" class="mw-redirect" title="13th">13th</a> to <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th century</a>, the Russification of the <a href="/wiki/Komi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Komi people">Komi</a> began but it did not penetrate the Komi heartlands until the 18th century. However, by the 19th century, Komi-Russian <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a> had become the norm and there was an increasing Russian influence on the <a href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Russian defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> in 1856 and the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> of 1863, Tsar Alexander II increased Russification to reduce the threat of future rebellions. Russia was populated by many minority groups, and forcing them to accept the Russian culture was an attempt to prevent self-determination tendencies and separatism. In the 19th century, Russian settlers on traditional Kazakh land (misidentified as Kyrgyz at the time) drove many of the <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a> over the border to China.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russification was extended to non-Muscovite ethnographic groups that composed former <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus</a>, namely <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusians</a>, whose vernacular language and culture developed differently from that of Muscovy due to separation after the partitioning of Kievan Rus.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mentality behind Russification when applied to these groups differed from that applied to others, in that they were claimed to be part of the <a href="/wiki/All-Russian_nation" title="All-Russian nation">All-Russian or Triune Russian nation</a> by the Russian Imperial government and by subscribers to <a href="/wiki/Russophilia" title="Russophilia">Russophilia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russification competed with contemporary nationalist movements in Ukraine and Belarus that were developing during the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian Imperial authorities as well as modern Russian nationalists asserted that Russification was an organic national consolidation process that would accomplish the goals of homogenizing the Russian nation as they saw it, and reversing the effects of <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Soviet_Union">In the Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">1917 revolution</a>, authorities in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a> decided to abolish the use of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> in native languages in Soviet-controlled Central Asia, in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, and in the Volga region (including <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a>). This detached the local Muslim populations from exposure to the language and writing system of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. The new alphabet for these languages was based on the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> and was also inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish alphabet</a>. By the late 1930s, the policy had changed. In 1939–1940, the Soviets decided that a number of these languages (including <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bashkir_language" title="Bashkir language">Bashkir</a>) would henceforth use variations of the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillization in the Soviet union</a>). Not only that, the spelling and writing of these new Cyrillic words must also be in accordance with the Russian language.<sup id="cite_ref-grenoble_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grenoble-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some historians evaluating the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as a colonial <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">empire</a>, applied the "<a href="/wiki/Prison_of_peoples" title="Prison of peoples">prison of nations</a>" idea to the USSR. Thomas Winderl wrote "The USSR became in a certain sense more a prison-house of nations than the old Empire had ever been."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Korenizatsiya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a></div> <p>Stalin's <i><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_National_Question" title="Marxism and the National Question">Marxism and the National Question</a></i> (1913) provided the basic framework for nationality policy in the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-Rouland_2004_183_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rouland_2004_183-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early years of said policy, from the early 1920s to the mid-1930s, were guided by the policy of <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">korenizatsiya</a> ("indigenization"), during which the new Soviet regime sought to reverse the long-term effects of Russification on the non-Russian populations.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the regime was trying to establish its power and <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimacy</a> throughout the former Russian empire, it went about constructing regional administrative units, recruiting non-Russians into leadership positions, and promoting non-Russian languages in government administration, the courts, the schools, and the mass media. The slogan then established was that local cultures should be "socialist in content but national in form." That is, these cultures should be transformed to conform with the Communist Party's socialist project for the Soviet society as a whole but have active participation and leadership by the indigenous nationalities and operate primarily in the local languages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Early nationality policies shared with later policy the object of assuring control by the Communist Party over all aspects of Soviet political, economic, and social life. The early Soviet policy of promoting what one scholar has described as "ethnic particularism"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another as "institutionalized multinationality",<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had a double goal. On the one hand, it had been an effort to counter Russian chauvinism by assuring a place for non-Russian languages and cultures in the newly formed Soviet Union. On the other hand, it was a means to prevent the formation of alternative ethnically based <a href="/wiki/Political_movement" title="Political movement">political movements</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">pan-Islamism</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">pan-Turkism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One way of accomplishing this was to promote what some regard as artificial distinctions between ethnic groups and languages rather than promoting the amalgamation of these groups and a common set of languages based on Turkish or another regional language.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Soviet nationalities policy from its early years sought to counter these two tendencies by assuring a modicum of cultural autonomy to non-Russian nationalities within a <a href="/wiki/Federal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal system">federal system</a> or structure of government, though maintaining that the ruling Communist Party was monolithic, not federal. A process of <a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">"national-territorial delimitation"</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:национально-территориальное размежевание">ru:национально-территориальное размежевание</a>) was undertaken to define the official territories of the non-Russian populations within the Soviet Union. The federal system conferred the highest status to the titular nationalities of union republics, and lower status to the titular nationalities of autonomous republics, autonomous provinces, and autonomous okrugs. In all, some 50 nationalities had a republic, province, or okrug of which they held nominal control in the federal system. Federalism and the provision of native-language education ultimately left as a legacy a large non-Russian public that was educated in the languages of their ethnic groups and that identified a particular homeland on the territory of the Soviet Union.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II">World War II</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 1930s, policies had shifted. Purges in some of the national regions, such as <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Ukraine" title="Russification of Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, had occurred already in the early 1930s. Before the turnabout in Ukraine in 1933, a purge of <a href="/wiki/Veli_%C4%B0braimov" title="Veli İbraimov">Veli İbraimov</a> and his leadership in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic">Crimean ASSR</a> in 1929 for "national deviation" led to the Russianization of government, education, and the media and to the creation of a special alphabet for Crimean Tatar to replace the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the two dangers that <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> had identified in 1923, now <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_nationalism" title="Bourgeois nationalism">bourgeois nationalism</a> (local nationalism) was said to be a greater threat than Great Russian chauvinism (great power chauvinism).<sup id="cite_ref-ChulosPiirainen8_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChulosPiirainen8-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1937, <a href="/wiki/Faizullah_Khojaev" class="mw-redirect" title="Faizullah Khojaev">Faizullah Khojaev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akmal_Ikramov" title="Akmal Ikramov">Akmal Ikramov</a> were removed as leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbek SSR">Uzbek SSR</a>, and in 1938, during the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_the_Twenty_One" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial of the Twenty One">third great Moscow show trial</a>, convicted and subsequently put to death for alleged anti-Soviet nationalist activities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After Stalin, an ethnic Georgian, became the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union, the Russian language gained greater emphasis. In 1938, Russian became a required subject of study in every Soviet school, including those in which a non-Russian language was the principal medium of instruction for other subjects (e.g., mathematics, science, and social studies). In 1939, non-Russian languages that <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Latinisation in the Soviet Union">had been given</a> Latin-based scripts in the late 1920s <a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">were given new scripts</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Before and during World War II, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">deported</a> to Central Asia and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> many entire nationalities for their alleged and largely disproven <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">collaboration</a> with the German invaders: <a href="/wiki/Volga_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga German">Volga Germans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechens" title="Chechens">Chechens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ingush_people" title="Ingush people">Ingush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkars" title="Balkars">Balkars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalmyks" title="Kalmyks">Kalmyks</a>, and others. Shortly after the war, he deported many <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Estonians" title="Estonians">Estonians</a> to Siberia as well.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war, the leading role of the Russian people in the Soviet family of nations and nationalities was promoted by Stalin and his successors. This shift was most clearly underscored by Communist Party General Secretary Stalin's Victory Day toast to the Russian people in May 1945:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I would like to raise a toast to the health of our Soviet people and, before all, the Russian people. I drink, before all, to the health of the Russian people, because in this war they earned general recognition as the leading force of the Soviet Union among all the nationalities of our country.</p></blockquote> <p>The view was reflected in the new <a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">State Anthem of the Soviet Union</a> which started with: "An unbreakable union of free republics, <a href="/wiki/Great_Russia" title="Great Russia">Great Russia</a> has sealed forever."<sup id="cite_ref-Marxists.org_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marxists.org-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthems of nearly all Soviet republics mentioned "Russia" or "Russian nation" singled out as "brother", "friend", "elder brother" (<a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbek SSR</a>) or "stronghold of friendship" (<a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmen SSR</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the official literature on nationalities and languages in subsequent years continued to speak of there being 130 equal languages in the USSR,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in practice a hierarchy was endorsed in which some nationalities and languages were given special roles or viewed as having different long-term futures.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Educational_reforms">Educational reforms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Educational reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An analysis of textbook publishing found that education was offered for at least one year and it was also offered to children who were in at least the first class (grade) in 67 languages between 1934 and 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Educational reforms were undertaken after <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> became First Secretary of the Communist Party in the late 1950s and launched a process of replacing non-Russian schools with Russian ones for the nationalities that had lower status in the federal system, the nationalities whose populations were smaller and the nationalities which were already bilingual on a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nominally, this process was guided by the principle of "voluntary parental choice." But other factors also came into play, including the size and formal political status of the group in the Soviet federal hierarchy and the prevailing level of bilingualism among parents.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1970s schools in which non-Russian languages served as the principal medium of instruction operated in 45 languages, while seven more indigenous languages were taught as subjects of study for at least one class year. By 1980, instruction was offered in 35 non-Russian languages of the peoples of the USSR, just over half the number in the early 1930s. </p><p>In most of these languages, schooling was not offered for the complete ten-year curriculum. For example, within the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> in 1958–59, full 10-year schooling in the native language was offered in only three languages: Russian, <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bashkir_language" title="Bashkir language">Bashkir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Silver_1974_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silver_1974-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And some nationalities had minimal or no native-language schooling. By 1962–1963, among non-Russian nationalities that were indigenous to the RSFSR, whereas 27% of children in classes I-IV (primary school) studied in Russian-language schools, 53% of those in classes V-VIII (incomplete secondary school) studied in Russian-language schools, and 66% of those in classes IX-X studied in Russian-language schools. Although many non-Russian languages were still offered as a subject of study at a higher class level (in some cases through complete general secondary school – the 10th class), the pattern of using the Russian language as the main medium of instruction accelerated after Khrushchev's parental choice program got underway.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Pressure to convert the main medium of instruction to Russian was evidently higher in urban areas. For example, in 1961–62, reportedly only 6% of <a href="/wiki/Volga_Tatars" title="Volga Tatars">Tatar</a> children living in urban areas attended schools in which <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a> was the main medium of instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-Silver_1974_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silver_1974-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly in <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> in 1965, schools in which the indigenous language was the medium of instruction existed only in rural areas. The pattern was probably similar, if less extreme, in most of the non-Russian <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">union republics</a>, although in Belarus and Ukraine, schooling in urban areas was highly Russianized.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rapprochement">Rapprochement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rapprochement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The promotion of federalism and of non-Russian languages had always been a strategic decision aimed at expanding and maintaining Communist Party rule. On the theoretical plane, the Communist Party's official doctrine was of eventual national differences and nationalities as such would disappear. In official party doctrine as it was reformulated in the Third Program of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> at the 22nd <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of the CPSU">Party Congress</a> in 1961, although the program stated that ethnic distinctions would eventually disappear and a single common language would be adopted by all nationalities in the Soviet Union, "the obliteration of national distinctions, and especially language distinctions, is a considerably more drawn-out process than the obliteration of class distinctions." At the time, Soviet nations and nationalities were further flowering their cultures and drawing together (сближение – sblizhenie) into a stronger union. In his Report on the Program to the Congress, Khrushchev used even stronger language: that the process of further rapprochement (sblizhenie) and greater unity of nations would eventually lead to a merging or fusion (слияние – sliyanie) of nationalities.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khrushchev's formula of rapprochement-fusing was moderated slightly when <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> replaced Khrushchev as General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1964 (a post he held until his death in 1982). Brezhnev asserted that rapprochement would lead ultimately to the complete unity of nationalities. "Unity" is an ambiguous term because it can imply either the maintenance of separate national identities but a higher stage of mutual attraction, similarity between nationalities or total disappearance of ethnic differences. In the political context of the time, rapprochement-unity was regarded as a softening of the pressure toward Russification that Khrushchev had promoted with his endorsement of sliyanie.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The 24th Party Congress in 1971 launched the idea that a new "<a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a>" was forming on the territory of the USSR, a community for which the common language – the language of the "Soviet people" – was the Russian language, consistent with the role that Russian was playing for the fraternal nations and nationalities in the territory already. This new community was labeled a people (народ – <i>narod</i>), not a nation (нация – <i>natsiya</i>), but in that context the Russian word <i>narod</i> ("people") implied an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group"><i>ethnic</i> community</a>, not just a civic or political community.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>October 13, 1978, the Soviet Council of Ministers enacted (but did not officially publish) 1978 Decree No. 835, titled "On measures to further improve the teaching and learning of the Russian language in the Union Republics", directing mandating the teaching of <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, starting in first grade, in the other 14 Republics. The new rule was accompanied by a statement that Russian was a "second native language" for all Soviet citizens and "the only means of participation in social life across the nation." The Councils of Ministers of the Republics across the USSR enacted resolutions based on Decree No. 835. Other aspects of Russification contemplated that native languages would gradually be removed from newspapers, radio and television in favor of Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, until the end of the Soviet era, doctrinal rationalization had been provided for some of the practical policy steps that were taken in the areas of education and the media. First of all, the transfer of many "national schools" (schools based on local languages) to Russian as a medium of instruction accelerated under Khrushchev in the late 1950s and continued into the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, the new doctrine was used to justify the special place of the Russian language as the "language of inter-nationality communication" (язык межнационального общения) in the USSR. Use of the term "inter-nationality" (межнациональное) rather than the more conventional "international" (международное) focused on the special <i>internal</i> role of Russian language rather than on its role as a language of international discourse. That Russian was the most widely spoken language, and that Russians were the majority of the population of the country, were also cited in justification of the special place of the Russian language in government, education, and the media.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the 27th CPSU Party Congress in 1986, presided over by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, the 4th Party Program reiterated the formulas of the previous program: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Characteristic of the national relations in our country are both the continued flourishing of the nations and nationalities and the fact that they are steadily and voluntarily drawing closer together on the basis of equality and fraternal cooperation. Neither artificial prodding nor holding back of the objective trends of development is admissible here. In the long term historical perspective, this development will lead to complete unity of the nations.... The equal right of all citizens of the USSR to use their native languages and the free development of these languages will be ensured in the future as well. At the same time learning the Russian language, which has been voluntarily accepted by the Soviet people as a medium of communication between different nationalities, besides the language of one's nationality, broadens one's access to the achievements of science and technology and of Soviet and world culture.</p></blockquote> <p>During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian 'diaspora' in the non-Russian Soviet republics had reached 25 million.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg/250px-Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg/375px-Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg/500px-Krasta_Street_sign_in_R%C4%93zekne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A remnant of linguistic Russification in Latvia – a <a href="/wiki/Latvian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Latvian SSR">Soviet</a> bilingual (Latvian-Russian) <a href="/wiki/Street_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Street sign">street sign</a> in <a href="/wiki/R%C4%93zekne" title="Rēzekne">Rēzekne</a> in 2011</figcaption></figure> <p>Progress in the spread of the Russian language as a second language and the gradual displacement of other languages was monitored in Soviet censuses. The Soviet censuses of 1926, 1937, 1939, and 1959, had included questions on "native language" (родной язык) as well as "nationality." The 1970, 1979, and 1989 censuses added to these questions one on "other language of the peoples of the USSR" that an individual could "use fluently" (свободно владеть). It is speculated that the explicit goal of the new question on the "second language" was to monitor the spread of Russian as the language of internationality communication.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each of the official homelands within the Soviet Union was regarded as the only homeland of the titular nationality and its language, while the Russian language was regarded as the language for interethnic communication for the whole Soviet Union. Therefore, for most of the Soviet era, especially after the <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">korenizatsiya</a> (indigenization) policy ended in the 1930s, schools in which non-Russian Soviet languages would be taught were not generally available outside the respective ethnically based administrative units of these ethnicities. Some exceptions appeared to involve cases of historic rivalries or patterns of assimilation between neighboring non-Russian groups, such as between Tatars and Bashkirs in Russia or among major Central Asian nationalities. For example, even in the 1970s schooling was offered in at least seven languages in <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>: Russian, <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karakalpak_language" title="Karakalpak language">Karakalpak</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While formally all languages were equal, in almost all Soviet republics the Russian/local <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a> was "asymmetric": the <a href="/wiki/Titular_nation" title="Titular nation">titular nation</a> learned Russian, whereas immigrant Russians generally did not learn the local language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In addition, many non-Russians who lived outside their respective administrative units tended to become Russified linguistically; that is, they not only learned Russian as a second language but they also adopted it as their home language or mother tongue – although some still retained their sense of <i>ethnic</i> identity or origins even after shifting their native language to Russian. This includes both the traditional communities (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a> in the northwestern <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Vilnius_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Vilnius region">Eastern Vilnius region</a></i>) or the <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaliningrad Oblast</a> (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Lithuania_Minor" title="Lithuania Minor">Lithuania Minor</a></i>)) and the communities that appeared during Soviet times such as <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusian</a> workers in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, whose children attended primarily the Russian-language schools and thus the further generations are primarily speaking Russian as their native language; for example, 57% of Estonia's Ukrainians, 70% of Estonia's Belarusians and 37% of Estonia's Latvians claimed Russian as the native language in the last Soviet census of 1989. Russian replaced <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> and other languages as the main language of many Jewish communities inside the Soviet Union as well.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another consequence of the mixing of nationalities and the spread of <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a> and linguistic Russification was the growth of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage" title="Interracial marriage">intermarriage</a> and a process of <i>ethnic</i> Russification—coming to call oneself Russian by nationality or ethnicity, not just speaking Russian as a second language or using it as a primary language. In the last decades of the Soviet Union, ethnic Russification (or <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_assimilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic assimilation">ethnic assimilation</a>) was moving very rapidly for a few nationalities such as the <a href="/wiki/Karelians" title="Karelians">Karelians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mordvinians" class="mw-redirect" title="Mordvinians">Mordvinians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether children born in mixed families to one Russian parent were likely to be raised as Russians depended on the context. For example, the majority of children in North <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> with one of each parent chose Russian as their nationality on their internal passport at age 16. Children of mixed Russian and Estonian parents living in <a href="/wiki/Tallinn" title="Tallinn">Tallinn</a> (the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>), or mixed Russian and Latvian parents living in <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a> (the capital of <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>), or mixed Russian and Lithuanian parents living in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> (the capital of <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>) most often chose as their own nationality that of the titular nationality of their republic – not Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More generally, patterns of <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">linguistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">ethnic assimilation</a> (Russification) were complex and cannot be accounted for by any single factor such as educational policy. Also relevant were the traditional cultures and religions of the groups, their residence in urban or rural areas, their contact with and exposure to the Russian language and to ethnic Russians, and other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Russian_Federation_(1991–present)"><span id="In_the_Russian_Federation_.281991.E2.80.93present.29"></span>In the Russian Federation (1991–present)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In the Russian Federation (1991–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #36c; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Category:Conservatism in Russia">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#154E9D; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">Conservatism in Russia</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/90px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/135px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/180px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="568" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duginism" class="mw-redirect" title="Duginism">Duginism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-Russian_nation" title="All-Russian nation">All-Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism#Russia" title="Christian nationalism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilia</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pochvennichestvo" title="Pochvennichestvo">Pochvennichestvo</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist conservatism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_autocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy#Russia" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism#Praise" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism#Russia" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Orthodoxy" title="Nuclear Orthodoxy">Nuclear Orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></i></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Russian culture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russification</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">Sobornost</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_democracy" title="Sovereign democracy">Sovereign democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russia" title="Great Russia">Great Russia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">White émigré</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">Zemstvo</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Aksakov" title="Konstantin Aksakov">Aksakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Boot" title="Alexander Boot">Boot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Chudinova" title="Elena Chudinova">Chudinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Frank" title="Semyon Frank">Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilyin" title="Ivan Ilyin">Ilyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Katkov" title="Mikhail Katkov">Katkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Leontiev" title="Konstantin Leontiev">Leontiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Lilienfeld" title="Paul von Lilienfeld">von Lilienfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serge_Obolensky" title="Serge Obolensky">Obolensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Pobedonostsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhanov" title="Alexander Prokhanov">Prokhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Rozanov" title="Vasily Rozanov">Rozanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Semyonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Semyonov">Semyonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Shafarevich" title="Igor Shafarevich">Shafarevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Shcherbatov" title="Mikhail Shcherbatov">Shcherbatov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Sorokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Strakhov" title="Nikolay Strakhov">Strakhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Surkov" title="Vladislav Surkov">Surkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Tikhomirov" title="Lev Tikhomirov">Tikhomirov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_(Shevkunov)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikhon (Shevkunov)">Tikhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaevich_Trubetskoy" title="Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy">Trubetskoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Uvarov" title="Sergey Uvarov">Uvarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Vikulov" title="Sergey Vikulov">Vikulov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">von Wrangel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Yuryev" title="Mikhail Yuryev">Yuryev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/St_Petersburg_Dialogues" title="St Petersburg Dialogues">St Petersburg Dialogues</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1821)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Organic_Theory_of_Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Organic Theory of Societies">The Organic Theory of Societies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1873)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Revolution" title="Sociology of Revolution">Sociology of Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">1925</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1973)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Geopolitics" title="Foundations of Geopolitics">Foundations of Geopolitics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1997)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Notre_Dame_de_Paris_Mosque" title="The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque">The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Fourth_Political_Theory" title="The Fourth Political Theory">The Fourth Political Theory</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Butina" title="Maria Butina">Butina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dubrovin" title="Alexander Dubrovin">Dubrovin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Durnovo" title="Ivan Durnovo">Durnovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Gryzlov" title="Boris Gryzlov">Gryzlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Kolchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov" title="Lavr Kornilov">Kornilov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Lilienfeld" title="Paul von Lilienfeld">von Lilienfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yury_Luzhkov" title="Yury Luzhkov">Luzhkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_Malyshkin" title="Oleg Malyshkin">Malyshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yelena_Mizulina" title="Yelena Mizulina">Mizulina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Pikhno" title="Dmitry Pikhno">Pikhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Pobedonostsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Rodzianko" title="Mikhail Rodzianko">Rodzianko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Rogozin" title="Dmitry Rogozin">Rogozin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Rostopchin" title="Fyodor Rostopchin">Rostopchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Sadovnichiy" title="Viktor Sadovnichiy">Sadovnichiy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Shulgin" title="Vasily Shulgin">Shulgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Slutsky_(politician)" title="Leonid Slutsky (politician)">Slutsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Surkov" title="Vladislav Surkov">Surkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Tolstoy" title="Dmitry Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_von_Ungern-Sternberg" title="Roman von Ungern-Sternberg">von Ungern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Uvarov" title="Sergey Uvarov">Uvarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Vladimir_Alexandrovich_of_Russia" title="Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia">Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Volodin" title="Vyacheslav Volodin">Volodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Yuryev" title="Mikhail Yuryev">Yuryev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Zhirinovsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><b>Active</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia_Party" title="Eurasia Party">Eurasia Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russia_(political_party)" title="Great Russia (political party)">Great Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Russia" title="Liberal Democratic Party of Russia">Liberal Democratic Party of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchist_Party_of_Russia" title="Monarchist Party of Russia">Monarchist Party of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodina_(political_party)" title="Rodina (political party)">Rodina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_All-People%27s_Union" title="Russian All-People's Union">Russian All-People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Right_Forces" title="Union of Right Forces">Union of Right Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a></li></ul> <p><b>Defunct</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/For_Truth" title="For Truth">For Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union">Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Union_(Russia)" title="People's Union (Russia)">People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamyat" title="Pamyat">Pamyat Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Russian_People" title="Union of the Russian People">Union of the Russian People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-Russia_People%27s_Front" title="All-Russia People's Front">All-Russia People's Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izborsky_Club" title="Izborsky Club">Izborsky Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krepostniki" title="Krepostniki">Krepostniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_of_Russian_Solidarists" title="National Alliance of Russian Solidarists">National Alliance of Russian Solidarists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Russian_People_(2005)" title="Union of the Russian People (2005)">Union of the Russian People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Elementy" title="Elementy">Elementy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Defunct)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kievlyanin" title="Kievlyanin">Kievlyanin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kozma_Minin_(newspaper)" title="Kozma Minin (newspaper)">Kozma Minin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nash_Sovremennik" title="Nash Sovremennik">Nash Sovremennik</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russkoye_Znamya" title="Russkoye Znamya">Russkoye Znamya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zavtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Zavtra">Zavtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Znamya_(newspaper)" title="Znamya (newspaper)">Znamya</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Islamism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Islamism">Anti-Islamism</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Anti-national sentiments</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Russia" title="Anti-American sentiment in Russia">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Russia" title="Antisemitism in Russia">Jew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia#Russia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment#Russia" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment#Russia" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Russia" title="Politics of Russia">Politics of Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Liberalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_for_Russians" title="Russia for Russians">Russia for Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin" title="Russia under Vladimir Putin">Russia under Vladimir Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Serfdom in Russia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silovik" title="Silovik">Silovik</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Template:Conservatism in Russia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Template talk:Conservatism in Russia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism in Russia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The enforced Russification of Russia's remaining indigenous minorities continued in Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union, especially in connection with <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and the declining population <a href="/wiki/Russian_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Cross">replacement rates</a> (particularly low among the more western groups). As a result, several of Russia's indigenous languages and cultures are currently considered <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered</a>. E.g. between the 1989 and 2002 censuses, the assimilation numbers of the Mordvins have totalled over 100,000, a major loss for a people totalling less than one million in number.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 19 June 2018, the Russian <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">State Duma</a> adopted a bill that made education in all languages but Russian optional, overruling previous laws by <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Subdivisions of Russia">ethnic autonomies</a>, and reducing instruction in minority languages to only two hours a week.<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bill has been likened by some commentators, such as in <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>, to the policy of Russification.<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the bill was still being considered, advocates for minorities warned that the bill could endanger their languages and traditional cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law came after a lawsuit in the summer of 2017, where a Russian mother claimed that her son had been "materially harmed" by learning the <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar language</a>, while in a speech Putin argued that it was wrong to force someone to learn a language that is not their own.<sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later "language crackdown" in which autonomous units were forced to stop mandatory hours of native languages was also seen as a move by Putin to "build identity in Russian society".<sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protests and petitions against the bill by either civic society, groups of public intellectuals or regional governments came from <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a> (with attempts for demonstrations suppressed),<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chuvashia" title="Chuvashia">Chuvashia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mari_El" title="Mari El">Mari El</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/North_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="North Ossetia">North Ossetia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kabardino-Balkaria,<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Karachays" title="Karachays">Karachays</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Kumyk_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumyk people">Kumyks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Avars" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Avars">Avars</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ingushetia" title="Ingushetia">Ingushetia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Duma representatives from the Caucasus did not oppose the bill,<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it prompted a large outcry in the North Caucasus<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with representatives from the region being accused of cowardice.<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law was also seen as possibly destabilizing, threatening ethnic relations and revitalizing the various North Caucasian nationalist movements.<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The International Circassian Organization called for the law to be rescinded before it came into effect.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twelve of Russia's ethnic autonomies, including five in the Caucasus called for the legislation to be blocked.<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 10 September 2019, <a href="/wiki/Udmurtia" title="Udmurtia">Udmurt</a> activist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Razin" title="Albert Razin">Albert Razin</a> <a href="/wiki/Self-immolation" title="Self-immolation">self-immolated</a> in front of the regional government building in <a href="/wiki/Izhevsk" title="Izhevsk">Izhevsk</a> as it was considering passing the controversial bill to reduce the status of the <a href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 2002 and 2010 the number of Udmurt speakers dwindled from 463,000 to 324,000.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other languages in the Volga region recorded similar declines in the number of speakers; between the 2002 and 2010 censuses the number of <a href="/wiki/Mari_language" title="Mari language">Mari</a> speakers declined from 254,000 to 204,000<sup id="cite_ref-auto_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Chuvash_language" title="Chuvash language">Chuvash</a> recorded only 1,042,989 speakers in 2010, a 21.6% drop from 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is attributed to a gradual phasing out of indigenous language teaching both in the cities and rural areas while regional media and governments shift exclusively to Russian. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a>, the law came after a decade in which educational opportunities in the indigenous languages was reduced by more than 50%, due to budget reductions and federal efforts to decrease the role of languages other than Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, numerous indigenous languages in the North Caucasus showed significant decreases in their numbers of speakers even though the numbers of the corresponding nationalities increased, leading to fears of <a href="/wiki/Language_replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Language replacement">language replacement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The numbers of Ossetian, Kumyk and Avar speakers dropped by 43,000, 63,000 and 80,000 respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2018, it has been reported that the North Caucasus is nearly devoid of schools that teach in mainly their native languages, with the exception of one school in North Ossetia, and a few in rural regions of Dagestan; this is true even in largely monoethnic Chechnya and Ingushetia.<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chechen and Ingush are still used as languages of everyday communication to a greater degree than their North Caucasian neighbours, but sociolinguistics argue that the current situation will lead to their degradation relative to Russian as well.<sup id="cite_ref-ODLangLaw_54-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODLangLaw-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, a <a href="/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia" title="2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia">set of amendments</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia" title="Constitution of Russia">Russian constitution</a> was approved by the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">State Duma</a><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later the <a href="/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)" title="Federation Council (Russia)">Federation Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the amendments enshrined Russian nation as the "state-forming nationality" (Russian: <i>государствообразующий народ</i>) and Russian the “language of the state-forming nationality”.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amendment has been met with criticism from Russia's minorities<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who argue that it goes against the principle that Russia is a multinational state and will only marginalize them further.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amendments were welcomed by <a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Malofeev" title="Konstantin Malofeev">Konstantin Malofeev</a><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Starikov" title="Nikolai Starikov">Nikolai Starikov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The changes in Constitution were preceded by "Strategy of government's national policy of Russian Federation" issued in December 2018, which stated that "all-Russian civic identity is founded on Russia cultural dominant, inherent to all nations of Russian Federation".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the release of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Census_(2021)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Census (2021)">latest census</a> in 2022, results showed a catastrophic decline in the number of many ethnic groups, particularly peoples of the Volga region. Between 2010 and 2022, the number of people identifying as ethnic <a href="/wiki/Mari_people" title="Mari people">Mari</a> dropped by 22.6%, from 548,000 to 424,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnic <a href="/wiki/Chuvash_people" title="Chuvash people">Chuvash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Udmurt_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurt people">Udmurts</a> dropped by 25% and 30% respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More vulnerable groups like the <a href="/wiki/Mordvins" title="Mordvins">Mordvins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Komi-Permyaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Komi-Permyaks">Komi-Permyaks</a> saw even larger declines, dropping by 35% and 40% respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the former of which resulted in Mordvins no longer being among the top ten largest ethnic groups in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country/region"><span id="By_country.2Fregion"></span>By country/region</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: By country/region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Azerbaijan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russia was introduced to the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a> following its colonisation in the first half of the nineteenth century after <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a> was forced to cede its Caucasian territories per the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gulistan" title="Treaty of Gulistan">Treaty of Gulistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay" title="Treaty of Turkmenchay">Treaty of Turkmenchay</a> in 1813 and 1828 respectively to Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1830 there were schools with Russian as the language of instruction in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Shusha" title="Shusha">Shusha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, Yelisavetpol (<a href="/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan" title="Ganja, Azerbaijan">Ganja</a>), and Shemakha (<a href="/wiki/Shamakhi" title="Shamakhi">Shamakhi</a>); later such schools were established in Kuba (<a href="/wiki/Quba" title="Quba">Quba</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ordubad" title="Ordubad">Ordubad</a>, and Zakataly (<a href="/wiki/Zaqatala_(city)" title="Zaqatala (city)">Zaqatala</a>). Education in Russian was unpopular amongst ethnic Azerbaijanis until 1887 when Habib bey Mahmudbeyov and Sultan Majid Ganizadeh founded the first Russian–Azerbaijani school in Baku. A secular school with instruction in both Russian and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azeri</a>, its programs were designed to be consistent with the cultural values and traditions of the Muslim population.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, 240 such schools for both boys and girls, including a women's college founded in 1901, were established prior to the "Sovietization" of the South Caucasus.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Russian-Azeri reference library opened in 1894.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1918, during the short period of <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Democratic Republic">Azerbaijan's independence</a>, the government declared Azeri the official language, but the use of Russian in government documents was permitted until all civil servants mastered the official language.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Soviet era, the large Russian population of Baku, the quality and prospects of education in Russia, increased access to Russian literature, and other factors contributed to the intensive Russification of Baku's population. Its direct result by the mid-twentieth century was the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Supra-ethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supra-ethnic">supra-ethnic</a> urban Baku subculture, uniting people of Russian, Azerbaijani, Armenian, Jewish, and other origins and whose special features were being <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">cosmopolitan</a> and Russian-speaking.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The widespread use of Russian resulted in a phenomenon of 'Russian-speaking Azeris', i.e. an emergence of an urban community of Azerbaijani-born ethnic Azeris who considered Russian their native language.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970, 57,500 Azeris (1.3%) identified Russian as their native language.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belarus">Belarus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Belarus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Belarus" title="Russification of Belarus">Russification of Belarus</a></div> <p>Russian and Soviet authorities conducted policies of Russification of Belarus from 1772 to 1991, interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Belarusization" title="Belarusization">Belarusization</a> policy in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the pro-Russian president <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko" title="Alexander Lukashenko">Alexander Lukashenko</a> gained power in 1994, the Russification policy was renewed.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smok_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smok-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suomineito_(Isto).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Suomineito_%28Isto%29.jpg/220px-Suomineito_%28Isto%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Suomineito_%28Isto%29.jpg/330px-Suomineito_%28Isto%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Suomineito_%28Isto%29.jpg/440px-Suomineito_%28Isto%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><i>The Attack</i> (<i>Hyökkäys</i>), <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Isto" title="Edvard Isto">Edvard Isto</a> (1899), symbolically depicting the <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Finland" title="Russification of Finland">Russification of Finland</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Finland" title="Russification of Finland">Russification of Finland</a></div> <p>The Russification of Finland (1899–1905, 1908–1917), <i>sortokaudet</i> ("times of oppression" in <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>) was a governmental policy of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> aimed at the termination of Finland's <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">autonomy</a>. Finnish opposition to Russification was one of the main factors that ultimately led to <a href="/wiki/Finland%27s_declaration_of_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Finland's declaration of independence">Finland's declaration of independence</a> in 1917. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Prussia">East Prussia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: East Prussia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Northern part of the German province of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> was annexed by the Soviet Union to <a href="/wiki/RSFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="RSFSR">RSFSR</a> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> becoming the <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaliningrad Oblast</a>. While the former German population was <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">expelled</a> or <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_of_Germans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union">deported to the Soviet Union for forced labor</a>, a systematic settlement of the Kaliningrad Oblast with Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians took place. Almost all cultural assets reminiscent of the Germans (e.g., churches, castles, palaces, monuments, drainage systems, etc.) were demolished or left to decay. All <a href="/wiki/German_exonyms_(Kaliningrad_Oblast)" title="German exonyms (Kaliningrad Oblast)">settlements were given names in the Russian language</a>, the same for bodies of water, forests and other geographical features. Northern East Prussia was completely Russified.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latvia">Latvia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Latvia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Latvia" title="Russian language in Latvia">Russian language in Latvia</a></div> <p>On September 14, 1885, an <a href="/wiki/Ukaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukaz">ukaz</a> was signed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> setting the mandatory use of Russian for <a href="/wiki/Baltic_governorates" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic governorates">Baltic governorate</a> officials. In 1889, it was extended to apply to official proceedings of the Baltic municipal governments as well.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the beginning of the 1890s, Russian was enforced as the <a href="/wiki/Language_of_instruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Language of instruction">language of instruction</a> in Baltic governorate schools.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_Latvia_in_1944" title="Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944">re-occupation of Latvia</a> in 1944, Russian became the language of State business, and Russian served as the language of inter-ethnic communication among the increasingly urbanized non-Russian ethnic groups, making cities major centres for the use of the Russian language and making functional bilingualism in Russian a minimum necessary for the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an attempt to partially reverse the Soviet Russification policies and give the Latvian language more equal positions to Russian, the so-called Latvian national communist faction within the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Latvia" title="Communist Party of Latvia">Communist Party of Latvia</a> passed a bill in 1957 that made the knowledge of both Latvian and Russian obligatory for all Communist Party employees, government functionaries, and service sector staff. The law included a 2-year deadline for gaining proficiency in both languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Loader_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loader-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1958, as the two-year deadline for the bill was approaching, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> set out to enact an education reform, a component of which, the so-called Thesis 19, would give parents in all of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Republics">Soviet Republics</a>, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a>, a choice for their children in public schools to study either the language of the republic's <a href="/wiki/Titular_nation" title="Titular nation">titular nation</a> (in this case Latvian) or Russian, as well as one <a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a>, in contrast, to the previous education system, where it was mandatory for school children to learn all three languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Loader_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loader-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to strong opposition from the Latvian national communists and the Latvian public, Latvian SSR was only one of two of the 12 Soviet Republics that did not yield to the increasing pressure to adopt Thesis 19 and excluded its contents from their ratified statutes. This led to the eventual purge of the Latvian national communists from the Communist Party ranks between 1959 and 1962. A month after the removal of the Latvian National Communist leader <a href="/wiki/Eduards_Berklavs" title="Eduards Berklavs">Eduards Berklavs</a> All-Union legislation was implemented in Latvia by <a href="/wiki/Arv%C4%ABds_Pel%C5%A1e" title="Arvīds Pelše">Arvīds Pelše</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Loader_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loader-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an attempt to further widen the use of Russian and reverse the work of the national communists, a <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual school">bilingual school</a> system was established in Latvia, with parallel classes being taught in both Russian and Latvian. The number of such schools increased dramatically, including regions where the Russian population was minimal, and by July 1963 there were already 240 bilingual schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Loader_99-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loader-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effect of the reform was the gradual decline in the number of assigned hours for learning Latvian in Russian schools and the increase in hours allocated for learning Russian in Latvian schools. In 1964–1965 the total weekly average of Latvian language classes and Russian language and literature classes in Latvian schools across all grades was reported to be 38.5 and 72.5 hours respectively, in comparison with 79 hours being devoted to the Russian language and 26 hours being devoted to Latvian language and literature in Russian schools. The reform has been attributed to the persistence of poor Latvian language knowledge among Russians living in Latvia and the increasing language gap between Latvians and Russians.<sup id="cite_ref-Loader_99-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loader-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972, the <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_17_Latvian_communists" title="Letter of 17 Latvian communists">Letter of 17 Latvian communists</a>, was smuggled outside the Latvian SSR and circulated in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, accusing the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> of "<a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_chauvinism" title="Great Russian chauvinism">Great Russian chauvinism</a>" and "progressive Russification of all life in Latvia":<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The first main task is to transfer from Russia, Belorussia, and the Ukraine as many Russians, Belorussians and Ukrainians as possible, and to resettle them permanently in Latvia (...) Now the republic already has a number of large enterprises where there are almost no Latvians among the workers, engineering-technical personnel, and directors (...); there are also those where most of the workers are Latvians, but none of the executives understands Latvian (...) About 65% of the doctors working in municipal health institutions do not speak Latvian (...) Demands of the newcomers to increase Russian-language radio and television broadcasts in the republic are being satisfied. At the present time one radio program and one television program is broadcast entirely in Russian, and the other program is mixed. Thus about two-thirds of the radio and television broadcasts in the republic are in Russian. (...) about half of the periodicals published in Latvia are in Russian anyway. Works of Latvian writers and school textbooks in Latvian cannot be published, because there is a lack of paper, but books written by Russian authors and school textbooks in Russian are published. (..) There are many collectives where Latvians have an absolute majority. Nevertheless, if there is a single Russian in the collective, he will demand that the meeting be conducted in Russian, and his demand will be satisfied. If this is not done, then the collective is accused of nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithuania_and_Poland">Lithuania and Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Lithuania and Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Poles_during_the_Partitions" title="Russification of Poles during the Partitions">Russification of Poles during the Partitions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Joseph_Church_demolition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/St_Joseph_Church_demolition.jpg/220px-St_Joseph_Church_demolition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/St_Joseph_Church_demolition.jpg/330px-St_Joseph_Church_demolition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/St_Joseph_Church_demolition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._Joseph_the_Betrothed,_Vilnius" title="Church of St. Joseph the Betrothed, Vilnius">Church of St. Joseph the Betrothed</a> demolished by the order of authorities in Vilnius, 1877</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th century, the Russian Empire strove to replace<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> languages and dialects with Russian in those areas, which were annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> (1772–1795) and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1815). Imperial Russia faced a crucial critical cultural situation by 1815: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Large sections of Russian society had come under the foreign influence as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic wars</a> and appeared open to change. As a consequence of absorbing so much Polish territory, by 1815 no less than 64 percent of the nobility of the Romanov realm was of Polish descent, and since there were more literate <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a> than Russians, more people within it could read and write Polish than Russian. The third largest city, Vilnius, was entirely Polish in character and its university was the best in the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Russification in <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a> intensified after the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> of 1831, and in particular after the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> of 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-Kevin_O'Connor_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kevin_O'Connor-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1864, the Polish and Belarusian languages were banned in public places; in the 1880s, Polish was banned in schools, on school grounds, and in the offices of Congress Poland. Research and teaching of the Polish language, Polish history, or Catholicism were forbidden. <a href="/wiki/Illiteracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiteracy">Illiteracy</a> rose as Poles refused to learn Russian. Students were beaten for resisting Russification.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Polish underground education network was formed, including the famous <a href="/wiki/Flying_University" title="Flying University">Flying University</a>. According to Russian estimates, by the start of the 20th century, around one-third of the inhabitants in the territory of Congress Poland participated in secret teaching with use of <a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Polish literary works</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in the 1840s, Russia considered introducing <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> for spelling the Polish language, with the first school books printed in the 1860s; the reform was eventually deemed unnecessary because of the introduction of school education in the Russian language.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:284px;max-width:284px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg/140px-Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg/210px-Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg/280px-Auksa_altorius_latin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="819" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:138px;max-width:138px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg/136px-Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg/204px-Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg/272px-Auksa_altorius_cirillics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="696" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Two issues of the same Lithuanian popular prayer book on Lithuanian, <i>Auksa altorius</i> (<i>Golden Altar</i>). Under the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban" title="Lithuanian press ban">Lithuanian press ban</a>, the version on the left was illegal from 1865 to 1904 because it was printed in the Latin alphabet. The one on the right in Cyrillic was legal and paid for by the government.</div></div></div></div> <p>A similar development took place in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kevin_O'Connor_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kevin_O'Connor-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its <a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor General of Lithuania">Governor General</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Nikolayevich_Muravyov-Vilensky" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov-Vilensky">Mikhail Muravyov</a> (in office 1863–1865), prohibited the public use of spoken Polish and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> and closed Polish and Lithuanian schools; teachers from other parts of Russia who did not speak these languages were moved in to teach pupils. Muravyov also <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban" title="Lithuanian press ban">banned the use</a> of <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Gothic</a> scripts in publishing. He was reported as saying, "What the Russian bayonet didn't accomplish, the Russian school will." ("Что не додѣлалъ русскій штыкъ – додѣлаетъ русская школа.") This ban, lifted only in 1904, was disregarded by the <i><a href="/wiki/Knygne%C5%A1iai" class="mw-redirect" title="Knygnešiai">Knygnešiai</a></i>, the Lithuanian book smugglers, who brought Lithuanian publications printed in the Latin alphabet, the historic orthography of the Lithuanian language, from <a href="/wiki/Lithuania_Minor" title="Lithuania Minor">Lithuania Minor</a> (part of East Prussia) and from the United States into the Lithuanian-speaking areas of Imperial Russia. The knygnešiai came to symbolise the resistance of <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a> against Russification. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Appeal_explaining_the_policy_of_Muscovization_conducted_by_the_tsarist_government,_sending_Lithuanian_peasants_to_Muscovia,_and_settling_Lithuanian_villages_with_Muscovite_families,_calling_for_opposition_to_it,_1904.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Appeal_explaining_the_policy_of_Muscovization_conducted_by_the_tsarist_government%2C_sending_Lithuanian_peasants_to_Muscovia%2C_and_settling_Lithuanian_villages_with_Muscovite_families%2C_calling_for_opposition_to_it%2C_1904.jpg/300px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Appeal_explaining_the_policy_of_Muscovization_conducted_by_the_tsarist_government%2C_sending_Lithuanian_peasants_to_Muscovia%2C_and_settling_Lithuanian_villages_with_Muscovite_families%2C_calling_for_opposition_to_it%2C_1904.jpg/450px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Appeal_explaining_the_policy_of_Muscovization_conducted_by_the_tsarist_government%2C_sending_Lithuanian_peasants_to_Muscovia%2C_and_settling_Lithuanian_villages_with_Muscovite_families%2C_calling_for_opposition_to_it%2C_1904.jpg/600px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5304" data-file-height="1956" /></a><figcaption>Appeal explaining the policy of Muscovization conducted by the tsarist government, sending Lithuanian peasants to Muscovia, and settling Lithuanian villages with Muscovite families, calling for opposition to it, 1904</figcaption></figure> <p>The Russification campaign also promoted the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Orthodox">Russian Orthodox</a> faith over Catholicism. The measures used included closing down Catholic monasteries, officially banning the building of new churches and giving many of the old ones to the Russian Orthodox church, banning <a href="/wiki/Catholic_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic schools">Catholic schools</a> and establishing state schools that taught only the Orthodox religion, requiring Catholic priests to preach only officially approved sermons, requiring that Catholics who married members of the Orthodox church convert, requiring Catholic nobles to pay an additional tax in the amount of 10% of their profits, limiting the amount of land a Catholic peasant could own, and switching from the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> (used by Catholics) to the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian</a> one (used by members of the Orthodox church). </p><p>Most of the Orthodox Church property in the 19th century Congress Poland was acquired at the expense of the Catholic Church of both rites (Roman and <a href="/wiki/Greek_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Catholic">Greek Catholic</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the 1863 <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a>, many manors and great chunks of land were confiscated from nobles of Polish and Lithuanian descent who were accused of helping the uprising; these properties were later given or sold to Russian nobles. Villages where supporters of the uprising lived were repopulated by ethnic Russians. <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">Vilnius University</a>, where the language of instruction had been Polish rather than Russian, closed in 1832. Lithuanians and Poles were banned from holding any public jobs (including professional positions, such as teachers and doctors) in Lithuania; this forced educated Lithuanians to move to other parts of the Russian Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Lithuania" title="Statutes of Lithuania">old legal code</a> was dismantled and a new one based on the Russian code and written in the Russian language was enacted; Russian became the only administrative and juridical language in the area. Most of these actions ended at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1904–1905, but others took longer to be reversed; <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">Vilnius University</a> re-opened only after Russia had lost control of the city in 1919. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bessarabia/Moldova"><span id="Bessarabia.2FMoldova"></span>Bessarabia/Moldova</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bessarabia/Moldova"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia_Governorate" title="Bessarabia Governorate">Bessarabia Governorate</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1812. In 1816 Bessarabia became an autonomous state, but only until 1828. In 1829, the use of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a> was forbidden in the administration. In 1833, the use of the Romanian language was forbidden in churches. In 1842, teaching in Romanian was forbidden in secondary schools; it was forbidden in elementary schools in 1860. </p><p>The Russian authorities encouraged the migration of <a href="/wiki/Moldovans" title="Moldovans">Moldovans</a> to other provinces of the Russian Empire (especially in <a href="/wiki/Kuban" title="Kuban">Kuban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>), while foreign ethnic groups (especially Russians and Ukrainians, called in the 19th century "<a href="/wiki/Little_Russia" title="Little Russia">Little Russians</a>") were encouraged to settle there. Though the 1817 census did not record ethnicity, Romanian authors have claimed that Bessarabia was populated at the time by 86% Moldovans, 6.5% Ukrainians, 1.5% Russians (<a href="/wiki/Lipovans" title="Lipovans">Lipovans</a>), and 6% other ethnic groups. 80 years later, in 1897, the ethnic structure was very different: only 56% Moldovans, but 11.7% Ukrainians, 18.9% Russians, and 13.4% other ethnic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 80 years, between 1817 and 1897, the share of the Moldovan population dropped by 30%. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia in 1940</a>, the Romanian population of Bessarabia was persecuted by Soviet authorities,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> especially in the years following the annexation, based mostly on social, educational, and political grounds; because of this, Russification laws were imposed again on the Romanian population.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Moldovan_language" title="Moldovan language">Moldovan language</a> promoted during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a> by the Soviet authorities first in the <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic</a>, and after 1940 taught in the <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>, was actually the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a> but written with a version of the Cyrillic script derived from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_alphabet" title="Russian alphabet">Russian alphabet</a>. Proponents of Cyrillic orthography argue that the Romanian language was historically written with the Cyrillic script, albeit a different version of it (see <a href="/wiki/Moldovan_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet">Moldovan alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Romanian Cyrillic alphabet">Romanian Cyrillic alphabet</a> for a discussion of this controversy).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukraine">Ukraine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ukraine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>. The reason given is: The 2022 invasion of Ukraine and efforts of russification in annexed territories by Russia in Ukraine.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Ukraine" title="Russification of Ukraine">Russification of Ukraine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg/330px-%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg/440px-%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80._Valuev_Circular.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Valuev_Circular" title="Valuev Circular">Valuev Circular</a> of 1863, was designed to eradicate the usage of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian language</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Nationalism.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Nationalism.jpg/150px-Russian_Nationalism.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Nationalism.jpg/225px-Russian_Nationalism.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Russian_Nationalism.jpg/300px-Russian_Nationalism.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Language supremacy poster in <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a>, Ukraine, 2013. The writing on the poster (in Russian): "In the matter of literature, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Slavic-Russian</a> language has indisputably supremacy to all European languages"</figcaption></figure> <p>Russian and Soviet authorities conducted policies of Russification of Ukraine from 1709 to 1991, interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a> policy in the 1920s. Since Ukraine's independence, its government has implemented <a href="/wiki/Ukrainization" title="Ukrainization">Ukrainization</a> policies to decrease the use of Russian and favour Ukrainian. The Russification policy included various instruments, most notably an explicit ban on using Ukrainian language in print or importing literature, staging plays or lectures in Ukrainian from 1876 (<a href="/wiki/Ems_Ukaz" title="Ems Ukaz">Ems Ukaz</a>). </p><p>A number of Ukrainian activists died by suicide in protest against Russification, including <a href="/wiki/Vasyl_Makukh" title="Vasyl Makukh">Vasyl Makukh</a> in 1968 and <a href="/wiki/Oleksa_Hirnyk" title="Oleksa Hirnyk">Oleksa Hirnyk</a> in 1978. </p><p>Following the 2014 <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Russian annexation of Crimea</a> and the emergence of <a href="/wiki/2014_Donbas_status_referendums" title="2014 Donbas status referendums">unrecognized Russian-backed entities</a> in Eastern Ukraine, a subtle<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> form of Russification was initiated, despite these <a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Ukraine" title="Russian language in Ukraine">areas being predominantly Russian-speaking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_distribution_of_Russian_speakers" title="Geographical distribution of Russian speakers">Geographical distribution of Russian speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Russia" title="Territorial evolution of Russia">Territorial evolution of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_diaspora" title="Russian diaspora">Russian diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Russian imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ems_Ukaz" title="Ems Ukaz">Ems Ukaz</a> – 1876 decree banning use of Ukrainian language in Russian Empire</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ego-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ego_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ego_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/russification-sovietization">"Russification / Sovietization — EGO"</a>. <i>EGO | Europäische Geschichte Online</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EGO+%7C+Europ%C3%A4ische+Geschichte+Online&rft.atitle=Russification+%2F+Sovietization+%E2%80%94+EGO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieg-ego.eu%2Fen%2Fthreads%2Fmodels-and-stereotypes%2Frussification-sovietization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vernon V. Aspaturian, "The Non-Russian Peoples," in Allen Kassof, Ed., <i>Prospects for Soviet Society</i> (New York: Praeger, 1968): 143–198. Aspaturian also distinguished both Russianization and Russification from Sovietization, the process of spreading Soviet institutions and the Soviet socialist restructuring of social and economic relations in accordance with the ruling Communist Party's vision. (Aspaturian was a Soviet studies specialist, Evan Pugh Professor Emeritus of political science and former director of the Slavic and Soviet Language and Area Center at <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University" title="Pennsylvania State University">Pennsylvania State University</a>.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver,"Demographic Sources of the Changing Ethnic Composition of the Soviet Union," <i>Population and Development Review</i> 15, No. 4 (Dec., 1989), pp. 609–656.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaarikivi2006" class="citation book cs1">Saarikivi, Janne (2006). <i>Substrata Uralica: Studies on the Finno-Ugrian substrate in Northern Russian dialects</i> (PhD thesis). Tartu University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9949-11-474-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-9949-11-474-0"><bdi>978-9949-11-474-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Substrata+Uralica%3A+Studies+on+the+Finno-Ugrian+substrate+in+Northern+Russian+dialects&rft.pub=Tartu+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9949-11-474-0&rft.aulast=Saarikivi&rft.aufirst=Janne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelimski2006" class="citation journal cs1">Helimski, Eugene (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/venaja/nwrussia/eng/Conference/pdf/Helimski.pdf">"The "Northwestern" Group of Finno-Ugric Languages and its Heritage in the Place Names and Substratum Vocabulary of the Russian North"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Slavica Helsingiensia</i>. <b>27</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavica+Helsingiensia&rft.atitle=The+%22Northwestern%22+Group+of+Finno-Ugric+Languages+and+its+Heritage+in+the+Place+Names+and+Substratum+Vocabulary+of+the+Russian+North&rft.volume=27&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Helimski&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.helsinki.fi%2Fvenaja%2Fnwrussia%2Feng%2FConference%2Fpdf%2FHelimski.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahkonen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rahkonen, Pauli (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/susa/93/rahkonen.pdf">"Finno-Ugrian hydronyms of the river Volkhov and Luga catchment areas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja</i>. <b>2011</b> (93). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33340%2Fsusa.82436">10.33340/susa.82436</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244880934">244880934</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen+Seuran+Aikakauskirja&rft.atitle=Finno-Ugrian+hydronyms+of+the+river+Volkhov+and+Luga+catchment+areas&rft.volume=2011&rft.issue=93&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.33340%2Fsusa.82436&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244880934%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rahkonen&rft.aufirst=Pauli&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgr.fi%2Fsusa%2F93%2Frahkonen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeinonen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Leinonen, Marja (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.helsinki.fi/slavica-helsingiensia/files/2019/11/sh27-Leinonen.pdf">"The Russification of Komi"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Slavica Helsingiensia</i>. <b>27</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavica+Helsingiensia&rft.atitle=The+Russification+of+Komi&rft.volume=27&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Leinonen&rft.aufirst=Marja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.helsinki.fi%2Fslavica-helsingiensia%2Ffiles%2F2019%2F11%2Fsh27-Leinonen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander_Douglas_Mitchell_Carruthers,_Jack_Humphrey_Miller1914" class="citation book cs1">Alexander Douglas Mitchell Carruthers, Jack Humphrey Miller (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DHsTAAAAYAAJ&q=chinese+kirghiz+driven+over+russian+settlers"><i>Unknown Mongolia: a record of travel and exploration in north-west Mongolia and Dzungaria, Volume 2</i></a>. Philadelphia: Lippincott. p. 345<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unknown+Mongolia%3A+a+record+of+travel+and+exploration+in+north-west+Mongolia+and+Dzungaria%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=Lippincott&rft.date=1914&rft.au=Alexander+Douglas+Mitchell+Carruthers%2C+Jack+Humphrey+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDHsTAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dchinese%2Bkirghiz%2Bdriven%2Bover%2Brussian%2Bsettlers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span>(Original from Harvard University)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1967" class="citation book cs1">Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). <i>The Russian empire 1801-1917</i>. Oxford history of modern Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">485–</span>492.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+empire+1801-1917&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+history+of+modern+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E485-%3C%2Fspan%3E492&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/russia-and-ukraine-the-tangled-history-that-connects-and-divides-them">"Russia and Ukraine: the tangled history that connects—and divides—them"</a>. <i>History</i>. 24 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=Russia+and+Ukraine%3A+the+tangled+history+that+connects%E2%80%94and+divides%E2%80%94them&rft.date=2023-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fhistory%2Farticle%2Frussia-and-ukraine-the-tangled-history-that-connects-and-divides-them&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRussophiles.htm">"Russophiles"</a>. <i>www.encyclopediaofukraine.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com&rft.atitle=Russophiles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofukraine.com%2Fdisplay.asp%3Flinkpath%3Dpages%255CR%255CU%255CRussophiles.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolstø2023" class="citation journal cs1">Kolstø, Pål (23 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17449057.2023.2247664">"Ukrainians and Russians as 'One People': An Ideologeme and its Genesis"</a>. <i>Ethnopolitics</i>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17449057.2023.2247664">10.1080/17449057.2023.2247664</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F106420">10852/106420</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-9057">1744-9057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnopolitics&rft.atitle=Ukrainians+and+Russians+as+%27One+People%27%3A+An+Ideologeme+and+its+Genesis&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2023-08-23&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F106420&rft.issn=1744-9057&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17449057.2023.2247664&rft.aulast=Kolst%C3%B8&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A5l&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F17449057.2023.2247664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1967" class="citation book cs1">Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). <i>The Russian empire 1801-1917</i>. Oxford history of modern Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">410–</span>412.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+empire+1801-1917&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+history+of+modern+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E410-%3C%2Fspan%3E412&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubtelny2012" class="citation book cs1">Subtelny, Orest (2012). <i>Ukraine: a history</i> (4th ed.). Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0991-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0991-4"><bdi>978-1-4426-0991-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+a+history&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0991-4&rft.aulast=Subtelny&rft.aufirst=Orest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2003" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2003). <i>The reconstruction of nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999</i>. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10586-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10586-5"><bdi>978-0-300-10586-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+reconstruction+of+nations%3A+Poland%2C+Ukraine%2C+Lithuania%2C+Belarus%2C+1569%E2%80%931999&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10586-5&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimka1999" class="citation book cs1">Himka, John-Paul (1999). <i>Religion and nationality in Western Ukraine: the Greek catholic church and the Ruthenian national movement in Galicia, 1867–1900</i>. McGill-Queen's studies in the history of religion. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">24–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-1812-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-1812-4"><bdi>978-0-7735-1812-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+nationality+in+Western+Ukraine%3A+the+Greek+catholic+church+and+the+Ruthenian+national+movement+in+Galicia%2C+1867%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Montreal&rft.series=McGill-Queen%27s+studies+in+the+history+of+religion&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-1812-4&rft.aulast=Himka&rft.aufirst=John-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFГоризонтов2007" class="citation book cs1">Горизонтов, Л. Е. (2007). <i>К Украинско-белорусские исторические и историографические параллели // Україна—Білорусь. Політичні, екомомчіні та культурні аспекти взаємин</i>. Чернівці-Вільнюс.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9A+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8+%2F%2F+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B0%E2%80%94%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8C.+%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96%2C+%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%87%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96+%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96+%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD.&rft.place=%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%86%D1%96-%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8E%D1%81&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%9B.+%D0%95.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFНосевич" class="citation web cs1">Носевич, В. Л. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101118080800/http://vln.by/node/42">"Белорусы: становление этноса и «национальная идея"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vln.by/node/42">the original</a> on 18 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8B%3A+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0+%D0%B8+%C2%AB%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%8F&rft.aulast=%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87&rft.aufirst=%D0%92.+%D0%9B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvln.by%2Fnode%2F42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-grenoble-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grenoble_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenoble2006" class="citation book cs1">Grenoble, L. A. (11 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUeWBwAAQBAJ&q=cyrillization%2520soviet%2520people&pg=PA54"><i>Language Policy in the Soviet Union</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-48083-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-48083-6"><bdi>978-0-306-48083-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Policy+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006-04-11&rft.isbn=978-0-306-48083-6&rft.aulast=Grenoble&rft.aufirst=L.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWUeWBwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcyrillization%252520soviet%252520people%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBekus2010" class="citation book cs1">Bekus, Nelly (1 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DiwPRpRYt2kC"><i>Struggle Over Identity: The Official and the Alternative "Belarusianness"</i></a>. Central European University Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9776-68-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9776-68-5"><bdi>978-963-9776-68-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Struggle+Over+Identity%3A+The+Official+and+the+Alternative+%22Belarusianness%22&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.isbn=978-963-9776-68-5&rft.aulast=Bekus&rft.aufirst=Nelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDiwPRpRYt2kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rouland_2004_183-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rouland_2004_183_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRouland2004">Rouland 2004</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a general timeline of Soviet policy towards the nationalities, see the Russian-language Wikipedia article on "Nationalities policy of Russia" (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Национальная политика России">ru:Национальная политика России</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yuri Slezkine, "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, Or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," <i><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a></i> 53, No. 2 (Summer 1994): 414–452.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Brubaker" title="Rogers Brubaker">Rogers Brubaker</a>, "Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account," <i>Theory and Society</i> 23 (February, 1994): 47–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This was not focused simply on religion. In the Revolutionary and immediate post-Revolutionary period, after at first coöpting <a href="/wiki/Jadid" title="Jadid">jadidist</a> Tatar <a href="/wiki/Mirs%C3%A4yet_Soltan%C4%9F%C3%A4liev" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirsäyet Soltanğäliev">Sultan Galiyev</a> into a leadership position in the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), the Soviet regime soon turned to fight against his project and ideas for uniting Muslim peoples in a broader national liberal movement.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Slezkine (1994) and Ronald Wixman, <i>Language Aspects of Ethnic Patterns and Processes in the North Caucasus,</i> University of Chicago Geography Research Series, No. 19 (1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wixman (1980). One scholar has pointed out that the basic task of defining "what was a nationality" was assigned to ethnographers immediately after the formation of the USSR in 1924, and that they were asked to work quickly so that a population census could be taken with accounting by nationality. In contrast, the only complete imperial Russian census in 1897 did not use nationality at all as a category but instead used religion and language as ethnic markers. See Francine Hirsch, "The Soviet Union as a Work in Progress: Ethnographers and Category Nationality in the 1926, 1937, and 1939 Censuses," <i><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a></i> 56 (Summer 1997): 256–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. B. Paksoy, "Crimean Tatars," in <i>Modern Encyclopedia of Religions in Russia and Soviet Union</i> (Academic International Press, 1995), Vol. VI: 135–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChulosPiirainen8-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ChulosPiirainen8_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timo Vihavainen: <i>Nationalism and Internationalism. How did the Bolsheviks Cope with National Sentiments?</i> in <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia#ChulosPiirainen2000" title="Korenizatsiia">Chulos & Piirainen 2000</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Conquest, <i>The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities</i> (London: MacMillan, 1970) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-10575-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-10575-3">0-333-10575-3</a>); S. Enders Wimbush and Ronald Wixman, "The Meskhetian Turks: A New Voice in Central Asia," <i>Canadian Slavonic Papers</i> 27, Nos. 2 and 3 (Summer and Fall, 1975): 320–340; and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nekrich" title="Alexander Nekrich">Alexander Nekrich</a>, <i>The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War</i> (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00068-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00068-0">0-393-00068-0</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This translation is drawn from CyberUSSR.com: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/s-toast-r.html">http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/s-toast-r.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marxists.org-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marxists.org_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/sounds/lyrics/anthem.htm">"Lyrics: The Soviet National Anthem"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Lyrics%3A+The+Soviet+National+Anthem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Fussr%2Fsounds%2Flyrics%2Fanthem.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/istoricheskiy-narrativ-gosudarstvennyh-gimnov-i-politika-natsionalnoy-pamyati/viewer">"Исторический нарратив государственных гимнов и политика национальной памяти"</a>. <i>cyberleninka.ru</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cyberleninka.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcyberleninka.ru%2Farticle%2Fn%2Fistoricheskiy-narrativ-gosudarstvennyh-gimnov-i-politika-natsionalnoy-pamyati%2Fviewer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, M. I. Isaev, Сто тридцать равноправных; о языках народов СССР. [One hundred and thirty with equal rights; on languages of the peoples of the USSR]. Moscow: Nauka, 1970.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the specialized literature on sociolinguistics that evolved in the 1960s and later, scholars described such a hierarchy of societal functions by distinguishing Russian at the top of the hierarchy as the "language of inter-nationality communication," then the "national literary languages" of major Soviet nations (Ukrainian, Estonian, Uzbek, etc.), the "literary languages" of smaller nationalities and peoples (Chuvash, Mordvinian, etc.), and the languages of small ethnic groups. (See, <i>inter alia</i>, Yu. D. Desheriyev and I. F. Protchenko, Равитие языков народов СССР в советскую эпоху [Development of languages of the peoples of the USSR in the Soviet epoch]. Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1968.) For an analysis by an American scholar of the different "functions" of major nationalities in the Soviet system of rule, see John A. Armstrong, "The Ethnic Scene in the Soviet Union: The View of the Dictatorship," in Erich Goldhagen, Ed., <i>Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Union</i> (New York: Praeger, 1968): 3–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the differential and changing roles of Russian and the non-Russian languages in Soviet education over time see Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, "Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy: 1934–1980," <i>American Political Science Review</i> 78 (December, 1984): 1019–1039.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yaroslav Bilinsky, "The Soviet Education Laws of 1958–59 and Soviet Nationality Policy," <i><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Studies">Soviet Studies</a></i> 14 (Oct. 1962): 138–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian D. Silver, "The Status of National Minority Languages in Soviet Education: An Assessment of Recent Changes," <i><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Studies">Soviet Studies</a></i> 26 (Jan. 1974): 28–40; Isabelle Kreindler,"The Changing Status of Russian in the Soviet Union," <i>International Journal of the Sociology of Language</i> 33 (1982): 7–39; Anderson and Silver (1984).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silver_1974-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Silver_1974_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silver_1974_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Silver (1974).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bilinsky (1962).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scholars often misattribute the endorsement of "sliyanie" to the Party Program.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This word does not appear in the Party Program but only in Khrushchev's Report on the Program (his second speech at the Congress), though it did appear in officially approved literature about nationalities policy in subsequent years.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Republic of Latvia", by Ina Druviete, in <i>Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe</i>, ed. by Christina Bratt Paulston and Donald Peckham (Multilingual Matters, 1998) pp.172-173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Anderson and Silver (1984). During this period, in most of the non-Russian official regions, the Ministry of Education distributed three main alternative school curricula, for: (1) Russian schools in which all subjects were taught in Russian, except for foreign (non-Soviet) languages; (2) "national schools" in which the native language was used as the main medium of instruction and Russian was taught as a subject of study (which might be termed the traditional national school); and (3) "national schools" in which Russian was the main medium of instruction and the native language was taught only as a separate subject (a new type of "national school" established after the 1958–59 education reforms). There were also some hybrid versions of the latter two types.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pål Kolstø, "Political construction sites: Nation-building in Russia and the post-Soviet States". Boulder, Colorado: Westview press 2000, pp. 81–104 uncorrected version, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folk.uio.no/palk/ch02.htm">Chapter 2, par. "Nations and Nation-Building in Eastern Europe"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171219130957/http://folk.uio.no/palk/ch02.htm">Archived</a> 19 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folk.uio.no/palk/PCSch05russian%20diasporas.htm">Chapter 5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050102081015/http://folk.uio.no/palk/PCSch05russian%20diasporas.htm">Archived</a> 2 January 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian D. Silver, "The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses," in Ralph S. Clem, Ed., <i>Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses</i> (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1986): 70–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, "Some Factors in the Linguistic and Ethnic Russification of Soviet Nationalities: Is Everyone Becoming Russian?" in Lubomyr Hajda and Mark Beissinger, Eds., <i>The Nationality Factor in Soviet Politics and Society</i> (Boulder: Westview, 1990): 95–130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a summary of ethno-linguistic research conducted by Soviet scholars see <a href="/wiki/Rasma_K%C4%81rkli%C5%86a" title="Rasma Kārkliņa">Rasma Kārkliņa</a>. 1986. <i>Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The Perspective from Below</i> (Boston and London: Allen & Unwin).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian Silver, "Social Mobilization and the Russification of Soviet Nationalities," <i>American Political Science Review</i> 68 (March, 1974): 45–66; Brian D. Silver, "Language Policy and the Linguistic Russification of Soviet Nationalities," in Jeremy R. Azrael, Ed., <i>Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices</i> (New York: Praeger, 1978): 250–306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLallukka2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lallukka, Seppo (2008). "Venäjän valtakunnallinen ja suomalais-ugrilainen väestökriisi". In Saarinen, Sirkka; Herrala, Eeva (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/uh/uh3.html"><i>Murros: Suomalais-ugrilaiset kielet ja kulttuurit globalisaation paineessa</i></a>. Uralica Helsingiensia (in Finnish). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-5667-05-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-952-5667-05-9"><bdi>978-952-5667-05-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ven%C3%A4j%C3%A4n+valtakunnallinen+ja+suomalais-ugrilainen+v%C3%A4est%C3%B6kriisi&rft.btitle=Murros%3A+Suomalais-ugrilaiset+kielet+ja+kulttuurit+globalisaation+paineessa&rft.series=Uralica+Helsingiensia&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-952-5667-05-9&rft.aulast=Lallukka&rft.aufirst=Seppo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgr.fi%2Fuh%2Fuh3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FALangLaw-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FALangLaw_50-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russia-fsu/2018-08-01/putins-plan-russify-caucasus">"Putin's Plan to Russify the Caucasus"</a>. Foreign Affairs. 1 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Putin%27s+Plan+to+Russify+the+Caucasus&rft.date=2018-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2Frussia-fsu%2F2018-08-01%2Fputins-plan-russify-caucasus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ria.ru/society/20180619/1523019471.html">"Госдума приняла в первом чтении законопроект об изучении родных языков"</a>. RIA Novosti. 19 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0+%D0%B2+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%87%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82+%D0%BE%D0%B1+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.date=2018-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fria.ru%2Fsociety%2F20180619%2F1523019471.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DWLangLaw-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DWLangLaw_52-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/russian-minorities-fear-for-languages-amid-new-restrictions/a-41639610">"Russian minorities fear for languages amid new restrictions"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9+%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%83+%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%E2%80%94+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4&rft.date=2020-06-26&rft.au=elen-sta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnstarikov.ru%2Fpochemu-russkie-gosudarstvoobrazujushhij-narod-116433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFИванович2021" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Иванович, Некрасов Сергей (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vestnik-muiv.ru/article/gosudarstvoobrazuyushchiy-narod-pravovye-i-nravstvennye-aspekty-konstitutsionnoy-terminologii/">"ГОСУДАРСТВООБРАЗУЮЩИЙ НАРОД: ПРАВОВЫЕ И НРАВСТВЕННЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ КОНСТИТУЦИОННОЙ ТЕРМИНОЛОГИИ"</a> (in Russian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A3%D0%94%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%9E%D0%91%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%97%D0%A3%D0%AE%D0%A9%D0%98%D0%99+%D0%9D%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%94%3A+%D0%9F%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%92%D0%AB%D0%95+%D0%98+%D0%9D%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%92%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%92%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%9D%D0%AB%D0%95+%D0%90%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%95%D0%9A%D0%A2%D0%AB+%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%A3%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%9D%D0%9E%D0%99+%D0%A2%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%9C%D0%98%D0%9D%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%9E%D0%93%D0%98%D0%98&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87&rft.aufirst=%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvestnik-muiv.ru%2Farticle%2Fgosudarstvoobrazuyushchiy-narod-pravovye-i-nravstvennye-aspekty-konstitutsionnoy-terminologii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mariuver.com/2023/01/05/mari-menshe-4/">"There are almost a quarter fewer Maris in Russia"</a>. <i>MariUver</i> (in Russian). 4 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MariUver&rft.atitle=There+are+almost+a+quarter+fewer+Maris+in+Russia&rft.date=2023-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmariuver.com%2F2023%2F01%2F05%2Fmari-menshe-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idelreal.org/a/32205329.html">"Since 2010, the number of Chuvash in Russia has decreased by 25%, and the number of Udmurts has decreased by 30%"</a>. <i>Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</i> (in Russian). 3 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=Since+2010%2C+the+number+of+Chuvash+in+Russia+has+decreased+by+25%25%2C+and+the+number+of+Udmurts+has+decreased+by+30%25.&rft.date=2023-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.idelreal.org%2Fa%2F32205329.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idelreal.org/a/32210928.html">"In Russia, there are 40% fewer Komi-Permyaks, 35% fewer Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha), 30% fewer Udmurts, and more than 20% fewer Chuvash and Mari"</a>. <i>Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</i> (in Russian). 5 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=In+Russia%2C+there+are+40%25+fewer+Komi-Permyaks%2C+35%25+fewer+Mordovians+%28Erzya+and+Moksha%29%2C+30%25+fewer+Udmurts%2C+and+more+than+20%25+fewer+Chuvash+and+Mari&rft.date=2023-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.idelreal.org%2Fa%2F32210928.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nazaccent.ru/content/39786-rosstat-s-2010-po-2021-god-v-rossii-stalo-na-million-menshe-ukraincev.html">"Rosstat: From 2010 to 2021, There are One Million Fewer Ukrainians in Russia"</a>. <i>NazaAccent</i> (in Russian). 5 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NazaAccent&rft.atitle=Rosstat%3A+From+2010+to+2021%2C+There+are+One+Million+Fewer+Ukrainians+in+Russia.&rft.date=2023-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnazaccent.ru%2Fcontent%2F39786-rosstat-s-2010-po-2021-god-v-rossii-stalo-na-million-menshe-ukraincev.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2014" class="citation book cs1">Dowling, Timothy C. (2 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&q=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&pg=PA728"><i>Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond ...</i></a> Abc-Clio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598849486" title="Special:BookSources/9781598849486"><bdi>9781598849486</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+at+War%3A+From+the+Mongol+Conquest+to+Afghanistan%2C+Chechnya%2C+and+Beyond+...&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft.isbn=9781598849486&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=Timothy+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTq2BQAAQBAJ%26q%3Drusso%2Bpersian%2Bwar%2B1804-1813%26pg%3DPA728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Humbatov, Tamara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.window2baku.com/Net/german8.htm">Baku and the Germans: 1885–1887 years</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719094840/http://www.window2baku.com/Net/german8.htm">Archived</a> 2011-07-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mamedov, N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revolution.allbest.ru/pedagogics/00076509_0.html">education system in Azerbaijan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170205183358/http://revolution.allbest.ru/pedagogics/00076509_0.html">Archived</a> 2017-02-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.azerbembassy.org.cn/rus/historical19.html">Azerbaijan in the second half of the nineteenth century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120529072457/http://www.azerbembassy.org.cn/rus/historical19.html">Archived</a> 2012-05-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aryeh Wasserman. «A Year of Rule by the Popular Front of Azerbaijan». Yaacov Ro'i (ed.). Muslim Eurasia: Conflicting Legaies. Routledge, 1995; p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rumyantsev, Sergey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2005/0217/analit04.php">capital, a city or village.</a> Results of urbanization in a separate taken in the South Caucasus republic.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mamardashvili, Merab. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dergachev.ru/book-geof/19.html">«The solar plexus" of Eurasia.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chertovskikh, Juliana and Lada Stativina . <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bakupages.com/pubs/news-stall/10749_ru.php">Azerbaijan lost Nasiba Zeynalova</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yunusov, Arif. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chairs.stavsu.ru/geo/Conference/c1-67.htm">Ethnic and migration processes in the post-Soviet Azerbaijan</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexandre Bennigsen, S. Enders Wimbush. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yOOcqRsipcUC&pg=PA138">Muslims of the Soviet Empire</a>. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1985; with. 138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/o-russkom-yazyke-v-belorussii/viewer">"О русском языке в Белоруссии"</a> (in Russian). pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9E+%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B5+%D0%B2+%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcyberleninka.ru%2Farticle%2Fn%2Fo-russkom-yazyke-v-belorussii%2Fviewer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/belarus-has-identity-crisis/">Belarus has an identity crisis</a> // openDemocracy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smok-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smok_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://belarusdigest.com/story/author/vadzim-smok/">Vadzim Smok</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://belarusdigest.com/papers/belarusianidentity.pdf">Belarusian Identity: the Impact of Lukashenka’s Rule</a> // <i>Analytical Paper.</i> Ostrogorski Centre, BelarusDigest, 9 December 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://novychas.by/hramadstva/halounaja-bjada-belarusau-u-belarusi-mova">Галоўная бяда беларусаў у Беларусі — мова</a> // <a href="/wiki/Novy_Chas" title="Novy Chas">Novy Chas</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Belarusian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nn.by/?c=ar&i=100322">Аляксандар Русіфікатар</a> // <a href="/wiki/Nasha_Niva" title="Nasha Niva">Nasha Niva</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Belarusian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">About the process of Sovietization/Russification, see Andreas Kossert: 'Ostpreußen: Geschichte und Mythos' (East Prussia: History and Myth). Siedler, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-88680-808-4, pp. 331–348.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThaden2014" class="citation book cs1">Thaden, Edward C., ed. (2014). <i>Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691-615-29-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691-615-29-5"><bdi>978-0691-615-29-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russification+in+the+Baltic+Provinces+and+Finland&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0691-615-29-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThaden2014" class="citation book cs1">Thaden, Edward C., ed. (2014). <i>Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691-615-29-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691-615-29-5"><bdi>978-0691-615-29-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russification+in+the+Baltic+Provinces+and+Finland&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0691-615-29-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenoble2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lenore_Grenoble" title="Lenore Grenoble">Grenoble, Lenore A.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUeWBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204"><i>Language Policy in the Soviet Union</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-1298-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-1298-5"><bdi>1-4020-1298-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Policy+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-4020-1298-5&rft.aulast=Grenoble&rft.aufirst=Lenore+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWUeWBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loader-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loader_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loader_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loader_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loader_99-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loader_99-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoader2016" class="citation journal cs1">Loader, Michael (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lvi.lu.lv/lv/LVIZ_2016_files/3%20numurs/M_Loader_The_Rebellious_LVIZ_2016_3.pdf">"The Rebellious Republic: The 1958 Education Reform and Soviet Latvia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the Institute of Latvian History</i> (3). <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Latvia" title="University of Latvia">University of Latvia</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1298-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1298-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-1298-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Institute+of+Latvian+History&rft.atitle=The+Rebellious+Republic%3A+The+1958+Education+Reform+and+Soviet+Latvia&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-1298-3&rft.aulast=Loader&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lvi.lu.lv%2Flv%2FLVIZ_2016_files%2F3%2520numurs%2FM_Loader_The_Rebellious_LVIZ_2016_3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwertzman1972" class="citation news cs1">Gwertzman, Bernard (27 February 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/27/archives/protest-on-soviet-laid-to-latvians-letter-circulated-in-europe.html">"Protest on Soviet laid to Latvians"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Protest+on+Soviet+laid+to+Latvians&rft.date=1972-02-27&rft.aulast=Gwertzman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1972%2F02%2F27%2Farchives%2Fprotest-on-soviet-laid-to-latvians-letter-circulated-in-europe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.letton.ch/lvx_17com.htm">"The 17 Latvian Communist Protest Letter"</a>. <i>letton.ch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=letton.ch&rft.atitle=The+17+Latvian+Communist+Protest+Letter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.letton.ch%2Flvx_17com.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0tE498cHTFsC"><i>Poland: a history</i></a>. Hammersmith: Harper Press. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780007282753" title="Special:BookSources/9780007282753"><bdi>9780007282753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%3A+a+history&rft.place=Hammersmith&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Harper+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780007282753&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0tE498cHTFsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kevin_O'Connor-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kevin_O'Connor_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kevin_O'Connor_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Connor_(historian)" title="Kevin O'Connor (historian)">O'Connor, Kevin</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3b5nU4bnw4C&pg=RA1-PA58"><i>The History of the Baltic States</i></a>. Greenwood Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32355-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32355-0"><bdi>0-313-32355-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Baltic+States&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-313-32355-0&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3b5nU4bnw4C%26pg%3DRA1-PA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2001" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Brian (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100621015030/http://history.lsa.umich.edu/BPS/When%20Nationalism%20Began%20to%20Hate.pdf"><i>When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515187-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515187-9"><bdi>978-0-19-515187-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.lsa.umich.edu/BPS/When%20Nationalism%20Began%20to%20Hate.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Nationalism+Began+to+Hate%3A+Imagining+Modern+Politics+in+Nineteenth-Century+Poland&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515187-9&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.lsa.umich.edu%2FBPS%2FWhen%2520Nationalism%2520Began%2520to%2520Hate.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998" class="citation book cs1">Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). <i>A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change</i>. Routledge. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415161114" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415161114"><bdi>978-0415161114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Eastern+Europe%3A+Crisis+and+Change&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0415161114&rft.aulast=Bideleux&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Jeffries%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160709195326/http://www.aboutbooks.ru/files/jornal_maintenance/200807/140201321f917b6e9adf4de364365003.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.aboutbooks.ru</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aboutbooks.ru/files/jornal_maintenance/200807/140201321f917b6e9adf4de364365003.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aboutbooks.ru&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aboutbooks.ru%2Ffiles%2Fjornal_maintenance%2F200807%2F140201321f917b6e9adf4de364365003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabaciuk2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Szabaciuk, Andrzej (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7923035"><i>"Rosyjski Ulster". Kwestia chełmska w polityce imperialnej Rosji w latach 1863–1915</i></a> (in Polish). KUL. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7702-819-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7702-819-3"><bdi>978-83-7702-819-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Rosyjski+Ulster%22.+Kwestia+che%C5%82mska+w+polityce+imperialnej+Rosji+w+latach+1863%E2%80%931915&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=KUL&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-83-7702-819-3&rft.aulast=Szabaciuk&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7923035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ion Nistor / Istoria Basarabiei. Editie si studiu bio-bibliografic de Stelian Neagoe / Bucuresti, Editura HUMANITAS, 1991,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijors.net/issue2_2_2013/articles/iliev.html">"Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet – Ivan G. Iliev – IJORS International Journal of Russian Studies"</a>. <i>www.ijors.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ijors.net&rft.atitle=Short+History+of+the+Cyrillic+Alphabet+%E2%80%93+Ivan+G.+Iliev+%E2%80%93+IJORS+International+Journal+of+Russian+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijors.net%2Fissue2_2_2013%2Farticles%2Filiev.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/ukrainian-language-donbas-schools/30165052.html">"Rights Group: Ukrainian Language Near Banished In Donbas Schools"</a>. <i>RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty</i>. 15 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RadioFreeEurope%2FRadioLiberty&rft.atitle=Rights+Group%3A+Ukrainian+Language+Near+Banished+In+Donbas+Schools&rft.date=2019-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Fukrainian-language-donbas-schools%2F30165052.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150403101945/http://www.analitik.org.ua/researches/archives/3dee44d0/41ecef0cad01e/">"Портрет электоратов Ющенко и Януковича"</a>. <i>Web Archive</i> (in Russian). 15 September 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.analitik.org.ua/researches/archives/3dee44d0/41ecef0cad01e/">the original</a> on 3 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Web+Archive&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82+%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%AE%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE+%D0%B8+%D0%AF%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0&rft.date=2019-09-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.analitik.org.ua%2Fresearches%2Farchives%2F3dee44d0%2F41ecef0cad01e%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 60em"> <ul><li>Anderson, Barbara A., and Brian D. Silver. 1984. "Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy: 1934–1980," <i>American Political Science Review</i> 78 (December): 1019–1039.</li> <li>Armstrong, John A. 1968. "The Ethnic Scene in the Soviet Union: The View of the Dictatorship," in Erich Goldhagen, Ed., <i>Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Union</i> (New York: Praeger): 3–49.</li> <li>Aspaturian, Vernon V. 1968. "The Non-Russian Peoples," in Allen Kassof, Ed., <i>Prospects for Soviet Society</i>. New York: Praeger: 143–198.</li> <li>Azrael, Jeremy R., Ed. 1978. <i>Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices.</i> New York: Praeger.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWłodzimierz_Bączkowski1958" class="citation book cs1">Włodzimierz Bączkowski (1958). <i>Russian colonialism: the Tsarist and Soviet empires</i>. New York, Frederick A. Praeger. p. 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+colonialism%3A+the+Tsarist+and+Soviet+empires&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Frederick+A.+Praeger&rft.date=1958&rft.au=W%C5%82odzimierz+B%C4%85czkowski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bilinsky, Yaroslav. 1962. "The Soviet Education Laws of 1958–59 and Soviet Nationality Policy," <i><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Studies">Soviet Studies</a></i> 14 (Oct. 1962): 138–157.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrère_d'Encausse,_Hélène1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Carr%C3%A8re_d%27Encausse" title="Hélène Carrère d'Encausse">Carrère d'Encausse, Hélène</a> (1992). <i>Grand défi (Grand Defile; Bolsheviks and Nations 1917–1930)</i>. Warsaw, Most. p. 186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grand+d%C3%A9fi+%28Grand+Defile%3B+Bolsheviks+and+Nations+1917%E2%80%931930%29&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Warsaw%2C+Most&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Carr%C3%A8re+d%27Encausse%2C+H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest,_Robert1977" class="citation book cs1">Conquest, Robert (1977). <i>The nation killers</i>. Houndmills, Macmillan Press. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-10575-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-10575-3"><bdi>0-333-10575-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nation+killers&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Houndmills%2C+Macmillan+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-333-10575-3&rft.au=Conquest%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrzej_Chwalba1999" class="citation book cs1">Andrzej Chwalba (1999). <i>Polacy w służbie Moskali (Poles in the Muscovite Service)</i>. Kraków, <a href="/wiki/Polish_Scientific_Publishers_PWN" title="Polish Scientific Publishers PWN">PWN</a>. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-01-12753-8" title="Special:BookSources/83-01-12753-8"><bdi>83-01-12753-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polacy+w+s%C5%82u%C5%BCbie+Moskali+%28Poles+in+the+Muscovite+Service%29&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Krak%C3%B3w%2C+PWN&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=83-01-12753-8&rft.au=Andrzej+Chwalba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross,_J._T.2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tomasz_Gross" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Tomasz Gross">Gross, J. T.</a> (2000). <i>Revolution from abroad; the soviet conquest of Poland's western Ukraine and western Belorussia</i>. Princeton, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1"><bdi>0-691-09603-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+from+abroad%3B+the+soviet+conquest+of+Poland%27s+western+Ukraine+and+western+Belorussia&rft.pages=396&rft.pub=Princeton%2C+Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-691-09603-1&rft.au=Gross%2C+J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gasimov, Zaur (Ed.), Kampf um Wort und Schrift. Russifizierung in Osteuropa im 19.-20. Jahrhundert. Göttingen:V&R 2012.</li> <li>Hajda, Lubomyr, and Mark Beissinger, Eds. 1990. <i>The Nationality Factor in Soviet Politics and Society.</i> Boulder, CO: Westview.</li> <li>Kaiser, Robert, and Jeffrey Chinn. 1996. <i>The Russians as the New Minority in the Soviet Successor States</i>. Boulder, CO: Westview.</li> <li>Karklins, Rasma. 1986. <i>Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The Perspective from Below</i>. Boston and London: Allen & Unwin.</li> <li>Kreindler, Isabelle. 1982. "The Changing Status of Russian in the Soviet Union," <i>International Journal of the Sociology of Language</i> 33: 7–39.</li> <li>Lewis, E. Glyn. 1972. <i>Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and its Implementation.</i> The Hague: Mouton.</li> <li>Pavlenko, Aneta. 2008. <i>Multilingualism in Post-Soviet Countries.</i> Multilingual Matters, Tonawanda, NY. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84769-087-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-84769-087-4">1-84769-087-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodkiewicz,_Witold1998" class="citation book cs1">Rodkiewicz, Witold (1998). <i>Russian nationality policy in the Western provinces of the Empire (1863–1905)</i>. Lublin, Scientific Society of Lublin. p. 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-87833-06-1" title="Special:BookSources/83-87833-06-1"><bdi>83-87833-06-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+nationality+policy+in+the+Western+provinces+of+the+Empire+%281863%E2%80%931905%29&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Lublin%2C+Scientific+Society+of+Lublin&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=83-87833-06-1&rft.au=Rodkiewicz%2C+Witold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouland2004" class="citation book cs1">Rouland, Michael (2004). "A nation on stage: music and the 1936 Festival of Kazak Arts". <i><span></span></i>In Neil Edmunds, ed.,<i> Soviet Music and Society under Lenin and Stalin: The baton and sickle </i>(pp. 181–208)<i><span></span></i>. Abingdon & New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/RoutledgeCurzon" class="mw-redirect" title="RoutledgeCurzon">RoutledgeCurzon</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30219-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30219-7"><bdi>978-0-415-30219-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+nation+on+stage%3A+music+and+the+1936+Festival+of+Kazak+Arts&rft.btitle=In+Neil+Edmunds%2C+ed.%2C+Soviet+Music+and+Society+under+Lenin+and+Stalin%3A+The+baton+and+sickle+%28pp.+181%E2%80%93208%29&rft.place=Abingdon+%26+New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=RoutledgeCurzon&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30219-7&rft.aulast=Rouland&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerbak,_Mykola1997" class="citation book cs1">Serbak, Mykola (1997). <i>Natsional'na politika tsarizmu na pravoberežniy Ukrayni (National Politics of Tsardom in Right-bank Ukraine)</i>. Kyiv, <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Shevchenko_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyiv Shevchenko University">Kyiv Shevchenko University Press</a>. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7763-9036-2" title="Special:BookSources/5-7763-9036-2"><bdi>5-7763-9036-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natsional%27na+politika+tsarizmu+na+pravobere%C5%BEniy+Ukrayni+%28National+Politics+of+Tsardom+in+Right-bank+Ukraine%29&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Kyiv%2C+Kyiv+Shevchenko+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=5-7763-9036-2&rft.au=Serbak%2C+Mykola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Silver, Brian D. 1974. "The Status of National Minority Languages in Soviet Education: An Assessment of Recent Changes," <i><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Studies">Soviet Studies</a></i> 26 (January): 28–40.</li> <li>Silver, Brian D. 1986. "The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses," in Ralph S. Clem, Ed., <i>Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses</i> (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press): 70–97.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard_Szymański1983" class="citation book cs1">Leonard Szymański (1983). <i>Zarys polityki caratu wobec szkolnictwa ogólnokształcącego w Królestwie Polskim w latach 1815–1915 (Sketch of the Tsarist Politics Regarding General Education in the Kingdom of Poland Between 1815 and 1915)</i>. Wrocław, AWF. p. 1982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zarys+polityki+caratu+wobec+szkolnictwa+og%C3%B3lnokszta%C5%82c%C4%85cego+w+Kr%C3%B3lestwie+Polskim+w+latach+1815%E2%80%931915+%28Sketch+of+the+Tsarist+Politics+Regarding+General+Education+in+the+Kingdom+of+Poland+Between+1815+and+1915%29&rft.pages=1982&rft.pub=Wroc%C5%82aw%2C+AWF&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Leonard+Szyma%C5%84ski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Thaden, Edward C., Ed. 1981. <i>Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855–1914</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05314-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05314-6">0-691-05314-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks1996" class="citation book cs1">Weeks, Theodore R. (1996). <i>Nation and state in late Imperial Russia: nationalism and Russification on the western frontier, 1863–1914</i>. <a href="/wiki/DeKalb,_Illinois" title="DeKalb, Illinois">DeKalb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University" title="Northern Illinois University">Northern Illinois University</a> Press. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87580-216-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87580-216-8"><bdi>0-87580-216-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nation+and+state+in+late+Imperial+Russia%3A+nationalism+and+Russification+on+the+western+frontier%2C+1863%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=297&rft.pub=DeKalb%2C+Northern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-87580-216-8&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Theodore+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks2001" class="citation journal cs1">Weeks, Theodore R. (2001). "Russification and the Lithuanians, 1863–1905". <i><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a></i>. <b>60</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">96–</span>114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2697645">10.2307/2697645</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2697645">2697645</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163956911">163956911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Russification+and+the+Lithuanians%2C+1863%E2%80%931905&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E114&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163956911%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2697645%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2697645&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Theodore+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks2004" class="citation journal cs1">Weeks, Theodore R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120523232533/http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/480407.pdf">"<i>Russification</i>: Word and Practice 1863–1914"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" title="Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</a></i>. <b>148</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">471–</span>489. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/480407.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Russification%3A+Word+and+Practice+1863%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E471-%3C%2Fspan%3E489&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Theodore+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphilsoc.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F480407.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks,_Theodore_R.2011" class="citation book cs1">Weeks, Theodore R. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010101141"><i>Russification / Sovietization</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russification+%2F+Sovietization&rft.pub=Institute+of+European+History&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Weeks%2C+Theodore+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnbn-resolving.de%2Furn%3Anbn%3Ade%3A0159-2010101141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wixman, Ronald. 1984. <i>The Peoples of the USSR: An Ethnographic Handbook</i>. New York: M.E. Sharpe and London, Macmillan.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Morison2000" class="citation book cs1">John Morison, ed. (2000). <i>Ethnic and national issues in Russian and East European history; selected papers from the Fifth World Congress of Central and East European Studies</i>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Macmillan Press; New York, St. Martin's Press. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-69550-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-69550-X"><bdi>0-333-69550-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+and+national+issues+in+Russian+and+East+European+history%3B+selected+papers+from+the+Fifth+World+Congress+of+Central+and+East+European+Studies&rft.pages=337&rft.pub=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Macmillan+Press%3B+New+York%2C+St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-333-69550-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Problemy natsional'nogo soznaniâ pol'skogo naseleniâ na Belarusi (Problems of National Identity of Poles in Belarus)</i>. Grodno, <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Poles_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Poles in Belarus">Society of Poles in Belarus</a>. 2003. p. 288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problemy+natsional%27nogo+soznani%C3%A2+pol%27skogo+naseleni%C3%A2+na+Belarusi+%28Problems+of+National+Identity+of+Poles+in+Belarus%29&rft.pages=288&rft.pub=Grodno%2C+Society+of+Poles+in+Belarus&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussification" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Russification&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spaudos.lt/LietKalba/Rusifikavimas.en.htm">Russification in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eng.lsm.lv/article/features/video/ltv-online-documentary-examines-russification-and-its-effects.a355952/">LTV online documentary examines 'Russification' and its effects</a>. 16 April 2020. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_of_Latvia" title="Public Broadcasting of Latvia">Public Broadcasting of Latvia</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040930051204/http://www.daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/seminars_conferences/DOLBILOV.pdf">The Civic Identity of Russifying Officials in the Empire’s Northwestern Region after 1863 by Mikhail Dolbilov</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930224745/http://www.regnum.ru/english/557899.html">Permanent mission of Caucasian Institute for Democracy Foundation opened in Tskhinvali</a> – Regnum News Agency (Russia), 9 December 2005</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930191005/http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?idr=527&id=655196">Tatarstan Rejects Dominant Role of Russians</a> – <a href="/wiki/Kommersant" title="Kommersant">Kommersant</a>, 6 March 2006</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ozy.com/fast-forward/forgetting-how-to-speak-russian/4626.article">Forgetting How to Speak Russian | Fast forward | OZY</a> (7 January 2014)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cultural_assimilation56" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cultural_assimilation" title="Template:Cultural assimilation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cultural_assimilation" title="Template talk:Cultural assimilation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cultural_assimilation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cultural assimilation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cultural_assimilation56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africanization" title="Africanization">Africanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanisation" title="Albanisation">Albanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanization" title="Americanization">Americanisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americanization_(immigration)" title="Americanization (immigration)">immigrants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicisation_of_names" title="Anglicisation of names">names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">Anglicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabized_Armenians" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabized Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabized_Berber" title="Arabized Berber">Berbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Arab">Blacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanization_of_Patagonia" title="Araucanization of Patagonia">Araucanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusization" title="Belarusization">Belarusisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soft_Belarusization" title="Soft Belarusization">soft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_nationalism" title="Bengali nationalism">Bengalisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_renamed_places_in_Bangladesh" title="List of renamed places in Bangladesh">placenames</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosniakisation" title="Bosniakisation">Bosniakisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarisation" title="Bulgarisation">Bulgarisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadianization_movement" title="Canadianization movement">Canadianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celticisation" title="Celticisation">Celticisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilenization_of_Tacna,_Arica_and_Tarapac%C3%A1" title="Chilenization of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá">Chilenisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombianization_of_Leticia,_Putumayo_and_Caquet%C3%A1" title="Colombianization of Leticia, Putumayo and Caquetá">Colombianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creolization" title="Creolization">Creolisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatisation" title="Croatisation">Croatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechization" title="Czechization">Czechisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutchification" title="Dutchification">Dutchification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonianization" title="Estonianization">Estonianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeanisation" title="Europeanisation">Europeanisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnicization" title="Finnicization">Finnicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francization" title="Francization">Francisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francization_of_Brussels" title="Francization of Brussels">Brussels</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgification" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgification">Georgification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiianization" title="Hawaiianization">Hawaiianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanicization" title="Hispanicization">Hispanicisation</a> or Castilianisation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianisation" title="Indianisation">Indianisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaming_of_cities_in_India" title="Renaming of cities in India">placenames</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">Indigenisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Awakening" title="Indonesian National Awakening">Indonesation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelization" title="Israelization">Israelisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italianization" title="Italianization">Italianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanization" title="Japanization">Japanisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanification" title="Japanification">Japanification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanisation" title="Javanisation">Javanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kazakhization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kazakhization (page does not exist)">Kazakhisation</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Казахизация">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanization" title="Koreanization">Koreanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdification" title="Kurdification">Kurdification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvianization" title="Latvianization">Latvianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanization" title="Lithuanization">Lithuanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magyarization" title="Magyarization">Magyarisation</a> or Hungarisation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonianisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonianisation">Macedonianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayisation" title="Malayisation">Malayisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolization" title="Mongolization">Mongolisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_nationalism" title="Montenegrin nationalism">Montenegrinisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegianization" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegianization">Norwegianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistanism" title="Pakistanism">Pakistanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtunization" title="Pashtunization">Pashtunisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashtun_colonization_of_northern_Afghanistan" title="Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan">Northern Afghanistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">societies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanianization" title="Romanianization">Romanianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanisation</a> or Latinisation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latinisation_of_names" title="Latinisation of names">names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Finland" title="Russification of Finland">Finland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffronisation" title="Saffronisation">Saffronisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation" title="Sanskritisation">Sanskritisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbianisation" title="Serbianisation">Serbianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalisation" title="Sinhalisation">Sinhalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinicization_of_Tibet" title="Sinicization of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavicisation" title="Slavicisation">Slavicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovakization" title="Slovakization">Slovakisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahilization" title="Swahilization">Swahilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedification" title="Swedification">Swedification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talibanization" title="Talibanization">Talibanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilization" title="Tamilization">Tamilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaification" title="Thaification">Thaification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surname_Law_(Turkey)" title="Surname Law (Turkey)">surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_name_changes_in_Turkey" title="Place name changes in Turkey">placenames</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenization" title="Turkmenization">Turkmenisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainization" title="Ukrainization">Ukrainisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekisation" title="Uzbekisation">Uzbekisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamization_(cultural_assimilation)" title="Vietnamization (cultural assimilation)">Vietnamisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Westernisation">Westernisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolofization" title="Wolofization">Wolofisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">Zairianisation</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Assimilation by religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduisation">Hinduisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaization" title="Judaization">Judaisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Assimilation by writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization" title="Cyrillization">Cyrillisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Romanisation of the writings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latinisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Latinisation in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opposite trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De-arabisation" class="mw-redirect" title="De-arabisation">De-arabisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">De-communisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-stalinisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">De-nazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derussification" title="Derussification">De-russification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latinisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Latinisation in the Soviet Union">Latinisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derussification_in_Ukraine" title="Derussification in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-sinicisation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_culture" title="Dominant culture">Dominant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_religious_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced religious conversion">Forced religious conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_colonialism" title="Internal colonialism">Internal colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Jewish assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">Language shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">Melting pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Monoculturalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russification_policy_in_the_territories_occupied_or_annexed_by_Russia_in_the_18–21st_centuries296" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russification" title="Template:Russification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russification" title="Template talk:Russification"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russification"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russification_policy_in_the_territories_occupied_or_annexed_by_Russia_in_the_18–21st_centuries296" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russification</a> policy in the territories occupied or annexed by Russia in the 18–21st centuries</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By annexed territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Belarus" title="Russification of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Romania_(Bessarabia/Moldova)">Bessarabia/Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Finland" title="Russification of Finland">Finland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_Manifesto" title="February Manifesto">February Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russification_program" title="Great Russification program">Great Russification program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Lithuania_and_Poland">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Russia" title="Yellow Russia">Manchuria and Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Poles_during_the_Partitions" title="Russification of Poles during the Partitions">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Ukraine" title="Russification of Ukraine">Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De-Tatarization_of_Crimea" title="De-Tatarization of Crimea">Crimea</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizers of Russification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Muravyov-Vilensky" title="Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky">Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Valuyev" title="Pyotr Valuyev">Pyotr Valuyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II" title="Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Bobrikov" title="Nikolay Bobrikov">Nikolay Bobrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko" title="Alexander Lukashenko">Alexander Lukashenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anti-Russification activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konstanty_Kalinowski" title="Konstanty Kalinowski">Kastus Kalinouski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Mechelin" title="Leo Mechelin">Leo Mechelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Pol%C3%B3n" title="Eduard Polón">Eduard Polón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pehr_Evind_Svinhufvud" title="Pehr Evind Svinhufvud">Pehr Evind Svinhufvud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleksa_Hirnyk" title="Oleksa Hirnyk">Oleksa Hirnyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasyl_Makukh" title="Vasyl Makukh">Vasyl Makukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Razin" title="Albert Razin">Albert Razin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atner_Khuzangai" title="Atner Khuzangai">Atner Khuzangai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romas_Kalanta" title="Romas Kalanta">Romas Kalanta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_orthography_reform_of_1933" title="Belarusian orthography reform of 1933">Belarusian orthography reform of 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abductions_in_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ems_Ukaz" title="Ems Ukaz">Ems Ukaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban" title="Lithuanian press ban">Lithuanian press ban</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Russia">Russification in modern Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surzhyk" title="Surzhyk">Surzhyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trasianka" title="Trasianka">Trasianka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_orthography_of_1933" title="Ukrainian orthography of 1933">Ukrainian orthography of 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valuev_Circular" title="Valuev Circular">Valuev Circular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Russification" title="Category:Russification">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Russian_nationalism236" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_nationalism" title="Template:Russian nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_nationalism" title="Template talk:Russian nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Russian_nationalism236" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Expansionism,imperialism_andRussification117" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Russia" title="Territorial evolution of Russia">Expansionism</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">imperialism</a> and<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)">1500–1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Siberia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Khanate_of_Sibir" title="Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir">Khanate of Sibir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Crimean_Khanate_by_the_Russian_Empire" title="Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire">Crimea, 1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus" title="Russian conquest of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russian_military_occupations" title="Category:Russian military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Crimea, 2014</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Ukrainian_language_suppression" title="Chronology of Ukrainian language suppression">Ukrainian language suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Westernizer" title="Westernizer">westernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pochvennichestvo" title="Pochvennichestvo">Pochvennichestvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mladorossy" title="Mladorossy">Mladorossy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Russophilia" title="Galician Russophilia">Galician Russophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smenovekhovtsy" title="Smenovekhovtsy">Smenovekhovtsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_of_Russian_Solidarists" title="National Alliance of Russian Solidarists">Solidarists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">1993 constitutional crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Russia)" title="National Salvation Front (Russia)">National Salvation Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_march" title="Russian march">Russian marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Manezhnaya_Square_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 Manezhnaya Square riots">2010 Manezhnaya Square riots</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8_(2010)" class="extiw" title="ru:Беспорядки на Манежной площади (2010)">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Biryulyovo_riots" title="2013 Biryulyovo riots">2013 Biryulyovo riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/All-Russian_nation" title="All-Russian nation">All-Russian nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collector_of_Russian_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Collector of Russian lands">Collector of Russian lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_all_the_Russias" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor of all the Russias">Emperor of all the Russias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Russian_identity" title="Little Russian identity">Little Russian identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Russia" title="Ethnic nationalism in Russia">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayrope" title="Gayrope">Gayrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Rus">Holy Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Orthodoxy" title="Nuclear Orthodoxy">Nuclear Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Of_all_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Of all Rus'">Of all Rus'</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Всея Руси">ru</a>; <a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%96" class="extiw" title="uk:Всія Русі">uk</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy_or_death!" title="Orthodoxy or death!">Orthodoxy or death!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_for_Russians" title="Russia for Russians">Russia for Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_civilization" title="Russian civilization">Russian civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Idea" title="Russian Idea">Russian Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Russian irredentism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian-occupied_territories" title="Russian-occupied territories">Russian-occupied territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymnash" title="Krymnash">Krymnash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_soul" title="Russian soul">Russian soul</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Russian_world" title="Russian world">Russian world</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russophilia" title="Russophilia">Russophilia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United,_Great,_and_Indivisible_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United, Great, and Indivisible Russia (page does not exist)">United and Indivisible Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F,_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Россия единая, великая и неделимая">ru</a>; <a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%94%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0,_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="uk:Росія єдина, велика і неподільна">uk</a>]</span></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Russia" title="Far-right politics in Russia">Far-right politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bolshevism" title="National Bolshevism">National Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism_in_Russia" title="Neo-Nazism in Russia">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruscism" title="Ruscism">Ruscism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_patriotism" title="Soviet patriotism">Soviet patriotism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomwaffen_Division_Russland" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomwaffen Division Russland">Atomwaffen Division Russland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hundreds#Modern_version" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_of_Angry_Patriots" title="Club of Angry Patriots">Club of Angry Patriots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angry_patriots" title="Angry patriots">Angry patriots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donetsk_Republic_(movement)" title="Donetsk Republic (movement)">Donetsk Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence_of_Time" title="Essence of Time">Essence of Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_National_Union" title="Ethnic National Union">Ethnic National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasia Movement">Eurasia Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia_Party" title="Eurasia Party">Eurasia Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Youth_Union" title="Eurasian Youth Union">Eurasian Youth Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Donbas" title="Free Donbas">Free Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russia_(political_party)" title="Great Russia (political party)">Great Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Russia" title="Liberal Democratic Party of Russia">Liberal Democratic Party of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_People%27s_Party" title="Lithuanian People's Party">Lithuanian People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narodny_Sobor" title="Narodny Sobor">Narodny Sobor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialism_/_White_Power" title="National Socialism / White Power">National Socialism / White Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obnovlenie" title="Obnovlenie">Obnovlenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Other_Russia_of_E._V._Limonov" title="The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov">The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Resistance_Association" title="Popular Resistance Association">Popular Resistance Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Bloc_(Russia)" title="Right Bloc (Russia)">Right Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodina_(political_party)" title="Rodina (political party)">Rodina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_All-People%27s_Union" title="Russian All-People's Union">Russian All-People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Imperial_Movement" title="Russian Imperial Movement">Russian Imperial Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Front" title="Russian National Front">Russian National Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russians_(organization)" title="Russians (organization)">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russkiy_Mir_Foundation" title="Russkiy Mir Foundation">Russkiy Mir Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Party_Oathkeepers" title="Serbian Party Oathkeepers">Serbian Party Oathkeepers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Orthodox_Banner-Bearers" title="Union of Orthodox Banner-Bearers">Union of Orthodox Banner-Bearers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_Guard_of_United_Russia" title="Young Guard of United Russia">Young Guard of United Russia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artpodgotovka" title="Artpodgotovka">Artpodgotovka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_Terrorist_Organization" title="Combat Terrorist Organization">Combat Terrorist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Russian_Communities" title="Congress of Russian Communities">Congress of Russian Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Format18" title="Format18">Format18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union">Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_State" title="Male State">Male State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_Against_Illegal_Immigration" title="Movement Against Illegal Immigration">Movement Against Illegal Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_and_Freedom_Committee" title="Nation and Freedom Committee">Nation and Freedom Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bolshevik_Party" title="National Bolshevik Party">National Bolshevik Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Russian_Liberation_Movement" title="National Russian Liberation Movement">National Russian Liberation Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Society" title="National Socialist Society">National Socialist Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Brotherhood" title="Northern Brotherhood">Northern Brotherhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamyat" title="Pamyat">Pamyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_National_Party_(Russia)" title="People's National Party (Russia)">People's National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_All-National_Union" title="Russian All-National Union">Russian All-National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Socialist_Party" title="Russian National Socialist Party">Russian National Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Union" title="Russian National Union">Russian National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Unity" title="Russian National Unity">Russian National Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Unity_(2000)" title="Russian National Unity (2000)">New Russian National Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Savior_(paramilitary_organization)" title="The Savior (paramilitary organization)">The Savior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Union_(Russia)" title="Slavic Union (Russia)">Slavic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Russian_People_(2005)" title="Union of the Russian People (2005)">Union of the Russian People</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After 1991</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Alksnis" title="Viktor Alksnis">Viktor Alksnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Baburin" title="Sergey Baburin">Sergey Baburin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Barkashov" title="Alexander Barkashov">Alexander Barkashov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Potkin" title="Alexander Potkin">Alexander Belov-Potkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Demushkin" title="Dmitry Demushkin">Dmitry Demushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Aleksandr Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Galkovsky" title="Dmitry Galkovsky">Dmitry Galkovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Ivanov-Sukharevsky" title="Aleksandr Ivanov-Sukharevsky">Aleksandr Ivanov-Sukharevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Kasimovsky" title="Konstantin Kasimovsky">Konstantin Kasimovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yegor_Kholmogorov" title="Yegor Kholmogorov">Yegor Kholmogorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Krylov" title="Konstantin Krylov">Konstantin Krylov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kvachkov" title="Vladimir Kvachkov">Vladimir Kvachkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lebed" title="Alexander Lebed">Alexander Lebed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Limonov" title="Eduard Limonov">Eduard Limonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Maltsev" title="Vyacheslav Maltsev">Vyacheslav Maltsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxim_Martsinkevich" title="Maxim Martsinkevich">Maxim Martsinkevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakhar_Prilepin" title="Zakhar Prilepin">Zakhar Prilepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Rogozin" title="Dmitry Rogozin">Dmitry Rogozin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Shafarevich" title="Igor Shafarevich">Igor Shafarevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Dmitriyevich_Vasilyev" title="Dmitri Dmitriyevich Vasilyev">Dmitri Vasilyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Vladimir Zhirinovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Zyuganov" title="Gennady Zyuganov">Gennady Zyuganov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before 1991</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilyin" title="Ivan Ilyin">Ivan Ilyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Krasnov" title="Pyotr Krasnov">Pyotr Krasnov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Rodzaevsky" title="Konstantin Rodzaevsky">Konstantin Rodzaevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Skobelev" title="Mikhail Skobelev">Mikhail Skobelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Solonevich" title="Ivan Solonevich">Ivan Solonevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Shulgin" title="Vasily Shulgin">Vasily Shulgin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fashist" title="Fashist">Fashist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Fourth_Political_Theory" title="The Fourth Political Theory">The Fourth Political Theory</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Geopolitics" title="Foundations of Geopolitics">Foundations of Geopolitics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_chronology_(Fomenko)" title="New chronology (Fomenko)">History: Fiction or Science?</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Will_of_a_Russian_Fascist" title="The Last Will of a Russian Fascist">The Last Will of a Russian Fascist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nash_Put%27_(newspaper)" title="Nash Put' (newspaper)">Nash Put'</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Historical_Unity_of_Russians_and_Ukrainians" title="On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians">On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rebuilding_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rebuilding Russia (page does not exist)">Rebuilding Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8E%3F" class="extiw" title="ru:Как нам обустроить Россию?">ru</a>]</span>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_Russia_Should_Do_with_Ukraine" title="What Russia Should Do with Ukraine">What Russia Should Do with Ukraine</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opposition and criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_chauvinism" title="Great Russian chauvinism">Great Russian chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iazychie" title="Iazychie">Iazychie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashism" title="Nashism">Nashism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruscism" title="Ruscism">Ruscism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_of_peoples" title="Prison of peoples">Prison of peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pobedobesie" title="Pobedobesie">Pobedobesie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatnik" title="Vatnik">Vatnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volos_Declaration" title="Volos Declaration">Volos Declaration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Russian_nationalism" title="Category:Russian nationalism">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> 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