China - Ancient Sites, Dynasties, Artifacts

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Their contributions to the Bronze Age civilization of the Shang, which may be taken as unmistakably Chinese in both cultural as well as geographical terms, need to be assessed in each case. 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<div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">China</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/China">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref70957"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China#ref70957">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relief">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70959" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region">The eastern region</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70960">The Northeast Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70961">The Changbai Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70962">The North China Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70963"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70963">The Loess Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70964">The Shandong Hills</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70965">The Qin Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin">The Sichuan Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70967">The southeastern mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70968">Plains of the middle and lower Yangtze</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70969">The Nan Mountains</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70970" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70970">The southwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70971">The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70972">The Plateau of Tibet</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70973" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70973">The northwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70974">The Tarim Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin">The Junggar Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70976">The Tien Shan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70977"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70977">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70979">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70980">The air masses</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Temperature">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70983">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70984">Flora</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life">Animal life</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70989"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70989">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70990">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref258957">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Sino-Tibetan">Sino-Tibetan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic">Altaic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258960">Other languages</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258961">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70986"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70986">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70987">Rural areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas">Urban areas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref258962">Demographic trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref70991">Population growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution">Population distribution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70993">Internal migration</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70994"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70994">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref71004">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-role-of-the-government">The role of the government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policies">Economic policies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70999">Farming and livestock</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref71000">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70995">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals">Minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref70997">Hydroelectric potential</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref258949">Energy production</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71002"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing#ref71002">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258950">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258951">Labor and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref71008">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways">Railways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71010"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways#ref71010">Road networks</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways">Waterways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71012">Port facilities and shipping</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71013">Aviation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications">Posts and telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71015"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref71015">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref258952">Parallel structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref71016">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref258954">Role of the CCP</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration">Administration</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71019">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71018">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71022"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education#ref71022">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258942">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258943">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts#ref258945">Performing arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258947">Daily life, sports, and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258948">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214398"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71610"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71610">Prehistory in China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71611">Archaeology in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71612">Early humans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71613" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71613">Neolithic Period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71614">Climate and environment</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71615">Food production</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites">Major cultures and sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71617">Incipient Neolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71618">6th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71619">5th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce">4th and 3rd millennia <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce#ref71621">Regional cultures of the Late Neolithic</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization">Religious beliefs and social organization</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71623">The first historical dynasty: the Shang</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71624">The advent of bronze casting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty">The Shang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71626">Royal burials</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71627">The chariot</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71628">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion">Late Shang divination and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71630">State and society</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71631">The Zhou and Qin dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71632" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71632">The history of the Zhou (1046–256 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Zhou-and-Shang">Zhou and Shang</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Zhou-feudal-system">The Zhou feudal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71635" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes">Social, political, and cultural changes</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71636"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71636">The decline of feudalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71637"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71637">Urbanization and assimilation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy">The rise of monarchy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71639"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71639">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71640">Cultural change</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71641" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce">The Qin empire (221–207 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71642">The Qin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71643">Struggle for power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71644">The empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty">The Han dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71646" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71646">Dynastic authority and the succession of emperors</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71647">Xi (Western) Han</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71648"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han">Prelude to the Han</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71649"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han#ref71649">The imperial succession</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi">From Wudi to Yuandi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71651"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi#ref71651">From Chengdi to Wang Mang</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71652"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han">Dong (Eastern) Han</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71653" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71653">The administration of the Han empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71654">The structure of government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71655">The civil service</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government">Provincial government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government#ref71657">The armed forces</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71658"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-practice-of-government">The practice of government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71659"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-other-peoples">Relations with other peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71660"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-developments">Cultural developments</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71661"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties">The Six Dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71662" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71662">Political developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71663"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71663">The division of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71664"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71664">Sanguo (Three Kingdoms; 220–280 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71665"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71665">The Xi (Western) Jin (265–316/317 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71666"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71666">The era of foreign invasions and rule</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71667"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71667">The Dong (Eastern) Jin (317–420) and later dynasties in the south (420–589)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71668"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439">The Shiliuguo (Sixteen Kingdoms) in the north (303–439)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71669" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71669">Intellectual and religious trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71670"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71670">Confucianism and philosophical Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71671"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71672"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism#ref71672">Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71673"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty">The Sui dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71674"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71674">Wendi’s institutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71675"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71675">Integration of the south</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71676"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi">Foreign affairs under Yangdi</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71677"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71677">The Tang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71678" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71678">Early Tang (618–626)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71679"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state">Administration of the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71680"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71680">Fiscal and legal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71681" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71681">The period of Tang power (626–755)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71682"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-era-of-good-government">The “era of good government”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71683"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Rise-of-the-empress-Wuhou">Rise of the empress Wuhou</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71684"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress">Prosperity and progress</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71685">Military reorganization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71686" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71686">Late Tang (755–907)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71687"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-separatism">Provincial separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority">The struggle for central authority</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71689" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71689">Cultural developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71690"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71690">The influence of Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts">Trends in the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71692" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71692">Social change</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71693"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71693">Decline of the aristocracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements">Population movements</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements#ref71695">Growth of the economy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms">The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71697">The Wudai (Five Dynasties)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71698">The Shiguo (Ten Kingdoms)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen">The “barbarians”: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71700"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71700">The Tangut</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71701"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71701">The Khitan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71702"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71702">The Juchen</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71703"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty">The Song dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71704" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71704">Bei (Northern) Song (960–1127)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71705"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71705">Unification</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71706"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71707"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation#ref71707">Reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71708"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall">Decline and fall</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71709" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall#ref71709">Nan (Southern) Song (1127–1279)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71710"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Survival-and-consolidation">Survival and consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71711"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen">Relations with the Juchen</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71712"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen#ref71712">The court’s relations with the bureaucracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71713"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-chief-councillors">The chief councillors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71714"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style">The bureaucratic style</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style#ref71715">The clerical staff</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism">The rise of neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71717"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism#ref71717">Internal solidarity during the decline of the Nan Song</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Song-culture">Song culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71719"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty">The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71720" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71720">The Mongol conquest of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71721"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71721">Invasion of the Jin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71722"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state">Invasion of the Song state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71723" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71723">China under the Mongols</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71724"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71724">Mongol government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71725"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71725">Early Mongol rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71726"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Changes-under-Kublai-Khan-and-his-successors">Changes under Kublai Khan and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71727"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy">Economy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71728"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71728">Religious and intellectual life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71729"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71729">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71730"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71731"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71731">Foreign religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71732"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71732">Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71733"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71734"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature#ref71734">The arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71735"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Yuan-China-and-the-West">Yuan China and the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71736"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule">The end of Mongol rule</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71737"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71737">The Ming dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71738" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71738">Political history</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71739"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71739">The dynasty’s founder</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71740"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-dynastic-succession">The dynastic succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71741" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration">Government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71742"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71742">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71743"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71743">Central government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Later-innovations">Later innovations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71746" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments">Economic policy and developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71747">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71748"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71748">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71749"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71749">Taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71750"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71751" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71751">Culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71752"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71752">Philosophy and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71753"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71753">Fine arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71754"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship">Literature and scholarship</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71755"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71755">The early Qing dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71757"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71757">The rise of the Manchu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71758" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire">The Qing empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71759"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71759">Political institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71760"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71760">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71761"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-development">Economic development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71762" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society">Qing society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71763"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society#ref71763">Social organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71764"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society">State and society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71765">Trends in the early Qing</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71766">Late Qing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71767" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71767">Western challenge, 1839–60</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath">The first Opium War and its aftermath</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath#ref71769">The anti-foreign movement and the second Opium War (Arrow War)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71770" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising">Popular uprising</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71771">The Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71772">The Nian Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions">Muslim rebellions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71774"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71774">Effects of the rebellions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71775" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71775">The Self-Strengthening Movement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71776"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s">Foreign relations in the 1860s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71777">Industrialization for “self-strengthening”</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71778" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71778">Changes in outlying areas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71779"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71779">East Turkistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71780"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal">Tibet and Nepal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71781"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71781">Myanmar (Burma)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71782"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71782">Vietnam</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71783"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands">Japan and the Ryukyu Islands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71784"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71784">Korea and the Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71785" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71785">Reform and upheaval</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71786"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898">The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71787"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898#ref71787">The Boxer Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71788" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty">Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71789">Sun Yat-sen and the United League</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71790">Constitutional movements after 1905</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12">The Chinese Revolution (1911–12)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71792">The early republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71793" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71793">The development of the republic (1912–20)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71794">Early power struggles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I">China in World War I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71796">Japanese gains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71797">Yuan’s attempts to become emperor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71798">Conflict over entry into the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government">Formation of a rival southern government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71800">Wartime changes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71801">Intellectual movements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71802">An intellectual revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests">Riots and protests</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71804">The interwar years (1920–37)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71805">Beginnings of a national revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71806">The Nationalist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71807">The Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation">Communist-Nationalist cooperation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71809">Reactions to warlords and foreigners</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71810">Militarism in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71811">The foreign presence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT">Reorganization of the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71813">Struggles within the two-party coalition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71814"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71814">Clashes with foreigners</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71815">KMT opposition to radicals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition">The Northern Expedition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition#ref71817">Expulsion of communists from the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937">The Nationalist government from 1928 to 1937</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937#ref71819">Japanese aggression</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists">War between Nationalists and communists</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71821">The United Front against Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref214399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref214399">The late republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71822" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71822">The war against Japan (1937–45)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71823">The Sino-Japanese War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71824">Phase one</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation">Phase two: stalemate and stagnation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71826">Renewed communist-Nationalist conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71827">The international alliance against Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China">U.S. aid to China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71829">Conflicts within the international alliance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71830">Phase three: approaching crisis (1944–45)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration">Nationalist deterioration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71832">Communist growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71833">Efforts to prevent civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71834" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49">Civil war (1945–49)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71835"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71835">A race for territory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71836">Attempts to end the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting">Resumption of fighting</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting#ref71838">The tide begins to shift</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution">A land revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71840">The decisive year, 1948</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71841"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71841">Communist victory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Establishment-of-the-Peoples-Republic">Establishment of the People’s Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71844"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reconstruction-and-consolidation-1949-52">Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71845" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57">The transition to socialism, 1953–57</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71846">Rural collectivization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71847">Urban socialist changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments#ref71849">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/New-directions-in-national-policy-1958-61">New directions in national policy, 1958–61</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Readjustment-and-reaction-1961-65">Readjustment and reaction, 1961–65</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76">The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76#ref71853">Attacks on cultural figures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members">Attacks on party members</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71855">Seizure of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71856">The end of the radical period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-changes">Social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Struggle-for-the-premiership">Struggle for the premiership</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution">Consequences of the Cultural Revolution</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71860">China after the death of Mao</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71861" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71861">Domestic developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref258955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref258955">Readjustment and recovery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71862"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes">Economic policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes#ref71863">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Educational-and-cultural-policy-changes">Educational and cultural policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref353938"><a 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Martin, McKnight, Brian E., Twitchett, Denis C., Feuerwerker, Albert, Young, Ernest P., Dull, Jack L., White, Lynn, Lieberthal, Kenneth G., Liu, James T.C., Hucker, Charles O., Elman, Benjamin, Zürcher, Erik, Franke, Herbert, Keightley, David N., DeWoskin, Kenneth J., Chan, Hoklam, Chen, Cheng-Siang, Suzuki, Chusei" data-authors-initial="Hsu, C., Silbergeld, J., Lewis, J.W., Rawski, E.S., Wilbur, C.M., McKnight, B.E., Twitchett, D.C., Feuerwerker, A., Young, E.P., Dull, J.L., White, L., Lieberthal, K.G., Liu, J.T., Hucker, C.O., Elman, B., Zürcher, E., Franke, H., Keightley, D.N., DeWoskin, K.J., Chan, H., Chen, C., Suzuki, C." data-title="China" data-published-date="19 Feb. 2025" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="China" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">https://www.britannica.com/place/China</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/111803"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/geography/countries/30-cool-facts-about-china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Geographic Kids - 30 cool facts about China!</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - China</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/China/345666" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/China/272682" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Chung-hua, Chung-hua Jen-min Kung-ho-kuo, Chung-kuo, People’s Republic of China, Zhongguo, Zhonghua, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Cho-yun-Hsu/1393" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Cho-yun Hsu</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">University Professor Emeritus of History and Sociology, University of Pittsburgh. Author of <i>History of Western Chou Civilization.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Cho-yun Hsu</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Jerome-Silbergeld/2727" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Jerome Silbergeld</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">P.Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Professor of Art History, and Director, P.Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Center for East Asian Art, Princeton University, New Jersey. Author of <em>Chinese Painting Style</em> and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Jerome Silbergeld</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-19T00:00:00CST" >Feb 19, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/68a3ba3a26a5f0e67b74a1910d379ba9" rel="nofollow">US displaced China as Germany's biggest single trading partner last year</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 19, 2025, 6:17 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/5d60888d8ea6f1e9c7dc19e8c89833e8" rel="nofollow">Stock market today: Asia stocks mixed as Chinese technology stocks slip</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 19, 2025, 5:36 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/53a08a284799497a6eaf79e95a047b0e" rel="nofollow">Correction: Retail Sales story</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 18, 2025, 3:21 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/dc48f4eb66b6ec2bf32f93a9d82aabac" rel="nofollow">Stock market today: Wall Street eyes gains before the opening bell, Chinese tech companies surge</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 18, 2025, 8:37 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/4c0f7a2f62fb5ae4bfb9d8bc6bb3695b" rel="nofollow">Chinese navy helicopter flies within 10 feet of Philippine patrol plane over disputed shoal</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 18, 2025, 6:31 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref71616">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">There was not one Chinese Neolithic but a mosaic of regional <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="cultures" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cultures" data-type="MW">cultures</a> whose scope and significance are still being determined. Their location in the area defined today as China does not necessarily mean that all the Neolithic cultures were Chinese or even proto-Chinese. Their contributions to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Bronze-Age" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bronze Age</a> civilization of the Shang, which may be taken as unmistakably Chinese in both cultural as well as geographical terms, need to be assessed in each case. In addition, the presence of a particular <span id="ref589702"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/pottery" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ceramic</a> ware does not necessarily define a cultural horizon; transitional phases, both chronological and geographical, are not discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="5" id="ref71617"> <h2 class="h5"><span id="ref589703"></span>Incipient Neolithic</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Study of the historical reduction of the size of human teeth suggests that the first human beings to eat cooked <span id="ref589704"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/food" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">food</a> did so in southern China. The sites of Xianrendong in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jiangxi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jiangxi</a> and Zengpiyan in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangxi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Guangxi</a> have yielded <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="artifacts" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/artifacts" data-type="MW">artifacts</a> from the 10th to the 7th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> that include low-fired, <span id="ref589705"></span>cord-marked shards with some incised decoration and mostly chipped stone tools; these pots may have been used for cooking and storage. Pottery and stone tools from shell middens in southern China also suggest <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Incipient" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Incipient" data-type="MW">Incipient</a> Neolithic occupations. These early southern sites may have been related to the Neolithic Bac Son <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> in Vietnam; connections to the subsequent Neolithic cultures of northwestern and northern China have yet to be demonstrated.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="5" id="ref71618"> <h2 class="h5">6th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Two major cultures can be identified in the northwest: <span id="ref589706"></span>Laoguantai, in eastern and southern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shaanxi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shaanxi</a> and northwestern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Henan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Henan</a>, and <span id="ref589707"></span>Dadiwan I—a development of Laoguantai culture—in eastern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gansu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gansu</a> and western Shaanxi. The pots in both cultures were low-fired, sand-tempered, and mainly red in color, and bowls with three stubby feet or ring feet were common. The painted bands of this pottery may represent the start of the Painted Pottery culture.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In northern China the people of <span id="ref589708"></span>Peiligang (north-central Henan) made less use of cord marking and painted design on their pots than did those at Dadiwan I; the variety of their stone tools, including sawtooth sickles, indicates the importance of agriculture. The <span id="ref589709"></span>Cishan potters (southern Hebei) employed more cord-marked decoration and made a greater variety of forms, including <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="basins" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/basins" data-type="EB">basins</a>, cups, serving stands, and pot supports. The discovery of two pottery models of silkworm chrysalides and 70 shuttlelike objects at a 6th-millennium-<span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> site at <span id="ref589710"></span>Nanyangzhuang (southern Hebei) suggests the early production of silk, the characteristic Chinese textile.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="5" id="ref71619"> <h2 class="h5">5th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The lower stratum of the <span id="ref589711"></span>Beishouling culture is represented by finds along the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-River-Gansu-and-Shaanxi-provinces-China" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wei</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jing-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jing</a> rivers; bowls, deep-bodied jugs, and three-footed vessels, mainly red in color, were common. The lower stratum of the related <span id="ref589712"></span>Banpo culture, also in the Wei River drainage area, was characterized by cord-marked red or red-brown ware, especially round and flat-bottomed bowls and pointed-bottomed amphorae. The Banpo inhabitants lived in partially subterranean houses and were supported by a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/mixed-economy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">mixed economy</a> of millet agriculture, hunting, and gathering. The importance of fishing is confirmed by designs of stylized fish painted on a few of the bowls and by numerous hooks and net sinkers.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the east, by the start of the 5th <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="millennium" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/millennium" data-type="EB">millennium</a>, the <span id="ref589713"></span>Beixin culture in central and southern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shandong-province-China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shandong</a> and northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jiangsu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jiangsu</a> was characterized by fine clay or sand-tempered pots decorated with comb markings, incised and impressed designs, and narrow appliquéd bands. Artifacts include many three-legged, deep-bodied tripods, gobletlike serving vessels, bowls, and pot supports. <span id="ref589714"></span>Hougang (lower stratum) remains have been found in southern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hebei" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hebei</a> and central Henan. The vessels, some finished on a slow wheel, were mainly red-colored and had been fired at high heat. They include jars, tripods, and round-bottomed, flat-bottomed, and ring-footed bowls. No pointed amphorae have been found, and there were few painted designs. A characteristic red band under the rim of most gray-ware bowls was produced during the firing process.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Archaeologists have generally classified the lower strata of Beishouling, Banpo, and Hougang cultures under the rubric of Painted Pottery (or, after a later site, <span id="ref589715"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yangshao-culture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yangshao</a>) culture, but two cautions should be noted. First, a distinction may have existed between a more westerly culture in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Wei</a> valley (early Beishouling and early Banpo) that was rooted in the Laoguantai culture and a more easterly one (Beixin and Hougang) that developed from the Peiligang and Cishan cultures. Second, since only 2 to 3 percent of the Banpo pots were painted, the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="designation" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/designation" data-type="MW">designation</a> Painted Pottery culture seems premature.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the region of the lower <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yangtze-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yangtze River</a> (Chang Jiang), the <span id="ref589716"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hemudu" class="md-crosslink ">Hemudu</a> site in northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Zhejiang" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Zhejiang</a> has yielded caldrons, cups, bowls, and pot supports made of porous, charcoal-tempered black pottery. The site is remarkable for its wooden and bone farming tools, the bird designs carved on bone and ivory, the superior carpentry of its pile dwellings (a response to the damp environment), a wooden weaving shuttle, and the earliest lacquerware and rice remains yet reported in the world (c. 5000–4750 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>).</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589717"></span>Qingliangang culture, which succeeded that of Hemudu in Jiangsu, northern Zhejiang, and southern Shandong, was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="characterized" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/characterized" data-type="EB">characterized</a> by ring-footed and flat-bottomed pots, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/gui-Chinese-vessel" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true"><em>gui</em></a> (wide-mouthed vessels), tripods (common north of the Yangtze), and serving stands (common south of the Yangtze). Early fine-paste redware gave way in the later period to fine-paste gray and black ware. Polished stone artifacts include axes and spades, some perforated, and jade ornaments.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Another descendant of Hemudu culture was that of <span id="ref589718"></span>Majiabang, which had close ties with the Qingliangang culture in southern Jiangsu, northern Zhejiang, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shanghai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shanghai</a>. In southeastern China a cord-marked pottery horizon, represented by the site of Fuguodun on the island of Quemoy (Kinmen), existed by at least the early 5th millennium. 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