China - Rivers, Canals, Lakes

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The high cost of construction prevents railways from being built extensively, and rail transport conditions are often congested. Freight volume carried by highways is limited, and highways are not suitable for moving bulk goods. China’s water transport potential is great, but it is still far from being fully developed. 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Railways and roads, though increasingly important to modern China’s transport network, cannot entirely supplant waterways. The high cost of construction prevents railways from being built extensively, and rail transport conditions are often congested. Freight volume carried by highways is limited, and highways are not suitable for moving bulk goods. China’s water transport potential is great, but it is still far from being fully developed. Nonetheless, China has more than 75,000 miles (some 125,000 km) of navigable inland waterways,"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="China - Rivers, Canals, Lakes | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="China - Rivers, Canals, Lakes: Since ancient times, inland water transport has played a major role in moving goods and commodities from production sources to consumption destinations. Railways and roads, though increasingly important to modern China’s transport network, cannot entirely supplant waterways. The high cost of construction prevents railways from being built extensively, and rail transport conditions are often congested. Freight volume carried by highways is limited, and highways are not suitable for moving bulk goods. China’s water transport potential is great, but it is still far from being fully developed. 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<div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">China</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/China">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref70957"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China#ref70957">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relief">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70959" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region">The eastern region</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70960">The Northeast Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70961">The Changbai Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70962">The North China Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70963"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70963">The Loess Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70964">The Shandong Hills</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70965">The Qin Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin">The Sichuan Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70967">The southeastern mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70968">Plains of the middle and lower Yangtze</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70969">The Nan Mountains</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70970" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70970">The southwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70971">The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70972">The Plateau of Tibet</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70973" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70973">The northwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70974">The Tarim Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin">The Junggar Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70976">The Tien Shan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70977"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70977">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70979">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70980">The air masses</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Temperature">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70983">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70984">Flora</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life">Animal life</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70989"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70989">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70990">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref258957">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Sino-Tibetan">Sino-Tibetan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic">Altaic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258960">Other languages</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258961">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70986"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70986">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70987">Rural areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas">Urban areas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref258962">Demographic trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref70991">Population growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution">Population distribution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70993">Internal migration</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70994"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70994">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref71004">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-role-of-the-government">The role of the government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policies">Economic policies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70999">Farming and livestock</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref71000">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70995">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals">Minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref70997">Hydroelectric potential</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref258949">Energy production</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71002"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing#ref71002">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258950">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258951">Labor and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref71008">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways">Railways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71010"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways#ref71010">Road networks</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways">Waterways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71012">Port facilities and shipping</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71013">Aviation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications">Posts and telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71015"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref71015">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref258952">Parallel structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref71016">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref258954">Role of the CCP</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration">Administration</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71019">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71018">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71022"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education#ref71022">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258942">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258943">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts#ref258945">Performing arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258947">Daily life, sports, and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258948">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214398"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71610"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71610">Prehistory in China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71611">Archaeology in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71612">Early humans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71613" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71613">Neolithic Period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71614">Climate and environment</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71615">Food production</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites">Major cultures and sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71617">Incipient Neolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71618">6th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71619">5th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce">4th and 3rd millennia <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce#ref71621">Regional cultures of the Late Neolithic</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization">Religious beliefs and social organization</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71623">The first historical dynasty: the Shang</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71624">The advent of bronze casting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty">The Shang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71626">Royal burials</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71627">The chariot</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71628">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion">Late Shang divination and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71630">State and society</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71631">The Zhou and Qin dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71632" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71632">The history of the Zhou (1046–256 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Zhou-and-Shang">Zhou and Shang</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Zhou-feudal-system">The Zhou feudal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71635" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes">Social, political, and cultural changes</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71636"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71636">The decline of feudalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71637"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71637">Urbanization and assimilation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy">The rise of monarchy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71639"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71639">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71640">Cultural change</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71641" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce">The Qin empire (221–207 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71642">The Qin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71643">Struggle for power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71644">The empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty">The Han dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71646" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71646">Dynastic authority and the succession of emperors</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71647">Xi (Western) Han</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71648"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han">Prelude to the Han</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71649"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han#ref71649">The imperial succession</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi">From Wudi to Yuandi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71651"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi#ref71651">From Chengdi to Wang Mang</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71652"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han">Dong (Eastern) Han</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71653" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71653">The administration of the Han empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71654">The structure of government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71655">The civil service</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government">Provincial government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government#ref71657">The armed forces</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71658"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-practice-of-government">The practice of government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71659"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-other-peoples">Relations with other peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71660"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-developments">Cultural developments</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71661"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties">The Six Dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71662" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71662">Political developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71663"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71663">The division of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71664"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71664">Sanguo (Three Kingdoms; 220–280 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71665"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71665">The Xi (Western) Jin (265–316/317 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71666"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71666">The era of foreign invasions and rule</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71667"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71667">The Dong (Eastern) Jin (317–420) and later dynasties in the south (420–589)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71668"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439">The Shiliuguo (Sixteen Kingdoms) in the north (303–439)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71669" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71669">Intellectual and religious trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71670"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71670">Confucianism and philosophical Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71671"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71672"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism#ref71672">Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71673"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty">The Sui dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71674"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71674">Wendi’s institutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71675"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71675">Integration of the south</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71676"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi">Foreign affairs under Yangdi</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71677"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71677">The Tang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71678" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71678">Early Tang (618–626)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71679"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state">Administration of the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71680"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71680">Fiscal and legal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71681" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71681">The period of Tang power (626–755)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71682"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-era-of-good-government">The “era of good government”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71683"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Rise-of-the-empress-Wuhou">Rise of the empress Wuhou</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71684"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress">Prosperity and progress</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71685">Military reorganization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71686" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71686">Late Tang (755–907)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71687"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-separatism">Provincial separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority">The struggle for central authority</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71689" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71689">Cultural developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71690"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71690">The influence of Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts">Trends in the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71692" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71692">Social change</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71693"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71693">Decline of the aristocracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements">Population movements</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements#ref71695">Growth of the economy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms">The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71697">The Wudai (Five Dynasties)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71698">The Shiguo (Ten Kingdoms)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen">The “barbarians”: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71700"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71700">The Tangut</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71701"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71701">The Khitan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71702"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71702">The Juchen</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71703"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty">The Song dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71704" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71704">Bei (Northern) Song (960–1127)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71705"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71705">Unification</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71706"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71707"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation#ref71707">Reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71708"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall">Decline and fall</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71709" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall#ref71709">Nan (Southern) Song (1127–1279)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71710"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Survival-and-consolidation">Survival and consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71711"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen">Relations with the Juchen</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71712"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen#ref71712">The court’s relations with the bureaucracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71713"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-chief-councillors">The chief councillors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71714"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style">The bureaucratic style</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style#ref71715">The clerical staff</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism">The rise of neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71717"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism#ref71717">Internal solidarity during the decline of the Nan Song</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Song-culture">Song culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71719"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty">The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71720" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71720">The Mongol conquest of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71721"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71721">Invasion of the Jin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71722"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state">Invasion of the Song state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71723" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71723">China under the Mongols</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71724"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71724">Mongol government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71725"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71725">Early Mongol rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71726"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Changes-under-Kublai-Khan-and-his-successors">Changes under Kublai Khan and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71727"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy">Economy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71728"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71728">Religious and intellectual life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71729"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71729">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71730"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71731"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71731">Foreign religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71732"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71732">Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71733"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71734"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature#ref71734">The arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71735"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Yuan-China-and-the-West">Yuan China and the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71736"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule">The end of Mongol rule</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71737"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71737">The Ming dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71738" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71738">Political history</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71739"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71739">The dynasty’s founder</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71740"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-dynastic-succession">The dynastic succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71741" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration">Government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71742"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71742">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71743"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71743">Central government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Later-innovations">Later innovations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71746" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments">Economic policy and developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71747">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71748"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71748">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71749"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71749">Taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71750"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71751" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71751">Culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71752"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71752">Philosophy and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71753"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71753">Fine arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71754"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship">Literature and scholarship</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71755"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71755">The early Qing dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71757"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71757">The rise of the Manchu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71758" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire">The Qing empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71759"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71759">Political institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71760"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71760">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71761"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-development">Economic development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71762" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society">Qing society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71763"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society#ref71763">Social organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71764"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society">State and society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71765">Trends in the early Qing</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71766">Late Qing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71767" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71767">Western challenge, 1839–60</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath">The first Opium War and its aftermath</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath#ref71769">The anti-foreign movement and the second Opium War (Arrow War)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71770" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising">Popular uprising</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71771">The Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71772">The Nian Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions">Muslim rebellions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71774"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71774">Effects of the rebellions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71775" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71775">The Self-Strengthening Movement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71776"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s">Foreign relations in the 1860s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71777">Industrialization for “self-strengthening”</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71778" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71778">Changes in outlying areas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71779"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71779">East Turkistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71780"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal">Tibet and Nepal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71781"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71781">Myanmar (Burma)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71782"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71782">Vietnam</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71783"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands">Japan and the Ryukyu Islands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71784"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71784">Korea and the Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71785" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71785">Reform and upheaval</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71786"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898">The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71787"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898#ref71787">The Boxer Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71788" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty">Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71789">Sun Yat-sen and the United League</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71790">Constitutional movements after 1905</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12">The Chinese Revolution (1911–12)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71792">The early republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71793" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71793">The development of the republic (1912–20)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71794">Early power struggles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I">China in World War I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71796">Japanese gains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71797">Yuan’s attempts to become emperor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71798">Conflict over entry into the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government">Formation of a rival southern government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71800">Wartime changes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71801">Intellectual movements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71802">An intellectual revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests">Riots and protests</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71804">The interwar years (1920–37)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71805">Beginnings of a national revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71806">The Nationalist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71807">The Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation">Communist-Nationalist cooperation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71809">Reactions to warlords and foreigners</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71810">Militarism in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71811">The foreign presence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT">Reorganization of the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71813">Struggles within the two-party coalition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71814"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71814">Clashes with foreigners</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71815">KMT opposition to radicals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition">The Northern Expedition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition#ref71817">Expulsion of communists from the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937">The Nationalist government from 1928 to 1937</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937#ref71819">Japanese aggression</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists">War between Nationalists and communists</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71821">The United Front against Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref214399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref214399">The late republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71822" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71822">The war against Japan (1937–45)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71823">The Sino-Japanese War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71824">Phase one</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation">Phase two: stalemate and stagnation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71826">Renewed communist-Nationalist conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71827">The international alliance against Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China">U.S. aid to China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71829">Conflicts within the international alliance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71830">Phase three: approaching crisis (1944–45)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration">Nationalist deterioration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71832">Communist growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71833">Efforts to prevent civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71834" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49">Civil war (1945–49)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71835"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71835">A race for territory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71836">Attempts to end the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting">Resumption of fighting</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting#ref71838">The tide begins to shift</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution">A land revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71840">The decisive year, 1948</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71841"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71841">Communist victory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Establishment-of-the-Peoples-Republic">Establishment of the People’s Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71844"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reconstruction-and-consolidation-1949-52">Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71845" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57">The transition to socialism, 1953–57</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71846">Rural collectivization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71847">Urban socialist changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments#ref71849">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/New-directions-in-national-policy-1958-61">New directions in national policy, 1958–61</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Readjustment-and-reaction-1961-65">Readjustment and reaction, 1961–65</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76">The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76#ref71853">Attacks on cultural figures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members">Attacks on party members</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71855">Seizure of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71856">The end of the radical period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-changes">Social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Struggle-for-the-premiership">Struggle for the premiership</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution">Consequences of the Cultural Revolution</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71860">China after the death of Mao</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71861" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71861">Domestic developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref258955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref258955">Readjustment and recovery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71862"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes">Economic policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes#ref71863">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Educational-and-cultural-policy-changes">Educational and cultural policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref353938"><a 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Martin, Zürcher, Erik, Feuerwerker, Albert, Dull, Jack L., Silbergeld, Jerome, Rawski, Evelyn S., White, Lynn, Liu, James T.C., Hsu, Cho-yun, McKnight, Brian E., Lewis, John Wilson, Chan, Hoklam, Keightley, David N., Lieberthal, Kenneth G., Hucker, Charles O., Chen, Cheng-Siang, Twitchett, Denis C., Elman, Benjamin, Franke, Herbert, DeWoskin, Kenneth J." data-authors-initial="Young, E.P., Suzuki, C., Wilbur, C.M., Zürcher, E., Feuerwerker, A., Dull, J.L., Silbergeld, J., Rawski, E.S., White, L., Liu, J.T., Hsu, C., McKnight, B.E., Lewis, J.W., Chan, H., Keightley, D.N., Lieberthal, K.G., Hucker, C.O., Chen, C., Twitchett, D.C., Elman, B., Franke, H., DeWoskin, K.J." data-title="China" data-published-date="21 Feb. 2025" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="China" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">https://www.britannica.com/place/China</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/111803"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/geography/countries/30-cool-facts-about-china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Geographic Kids - 30 cool facts about China!</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - China</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/China/345666" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/China/272682" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 d-none mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10 px-sm-5 px-md-10 js-header-ai-ask-button"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Chung-hua, Chung-hua Jen-min Kung-ho-kuo, Chung-kuo, People’s Republic of China, Zhongguo, Zhonghua, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Ernest-P-Young/3290" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Ernest P. Young</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of History, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Author of <i>The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Ernest P. Young</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Chusei-Suzuki/2902" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Chusei Suzuki</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Former professor of Asian History, Aichi University, Toyohashi, Japan. Author of <i>A Study of Mid-Ch&ayn;ing History.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Chusei Suzuki</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-21T00:00:00CST" >Feb 21, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm 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class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/cb7171a5bb3bc3d64c9247454d753d06" rel="nofollow">Stock market today: Global markets trade mixed as China shares surge</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 21, 2025, 4:30 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/85e70a0e4e053ea01b77b0e4d55c8fea" rel="nofollow">Facing pressure from Trump, Costa Rica and Honduras join Panama as stopovers for foreign deportees</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 21, 2025, 2:08 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/787f7f144676ed050c43e67572faa257" rel="nofollow">The Latest: Judge declines to halt Trump administration's federal workers layoffs</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 20, 2025, 8:42 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/b1404b671b10ff378887acd28c2d2140" rel="nofollow">Walmart rolled through 2024, but uncertainty about consumers and tariffs seep into year ahead</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 20, 2025, 1:20 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref71011"> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="937" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/7498-050-BAC80A7E/Cargo-barges-Suzhou-Grand-Canal-China-Jiangsu.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/111803/937"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/7498-050-BAC80A7E/Cargo-barges-Suzhou-Grand-Canal-China-Jiangsu.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/7498-050-BAC80A7E/Cargo-barges-Suzhou-Grand-Canal-China-Jiangsu.jpg?w=300" alt="Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China: Grand Canal" data-width="742" data-height="975" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/7498-050-BAC80A7E/Cargo-barges-Suzhou-Grand-Canal-China-Jiangsu.jpg" data-href="/media/1/111803/937">Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China: Grand Canal</a><span>Cargo barges on the Grand Canal at Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Since ancient times, inland water transport has played a major role in moving goods and commodities from production sources to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="consumption" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consumption" data-type="MW">consumption</a> destinations. Railways and roads, though increasingly important to modern China’s transport network, cannot entirely supplant waterways. The high cost of construction prevents railways from being built extensively, and rail transport conditions are often congested. Freight volume carried by highways is limited, and highways are not suitable for moving bulk goods. China’s water transport potential is great, but it is still far from being fully developed. Nonetheless, China has more than 75,000 miles (some 125,000 km) of navigable inland waterways, the most extensive system of any <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> in the world. The distribution of waterways is chiefly within central and South China, except for a few navigable streams in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchuria" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Northeast</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One of the first goals of the communist government after it took power in 1949 was to establish a national network of waterways. It also initiated a program to build and refurbish port facilities and to dredge river channels. By 1961 some 15 principal waterways had been opened to navigation, focused on the Yangtze, Pearl (Zhu), Huai, and Han rivers, the Huang He (Yellow River), and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Grand-Canal-China" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Grand Canal</a>. Water transport development has subsequently received considerable <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="emphasis" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/emphasis" data-type="EB">emphasis</a>. Dredging and other improvements to inland waterways have been important to economic reconstruction, while capital and maintenance costs for water transport have been much lower than those for railway transport.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589624"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yangtze-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yangtze</a>, the most important artery in China’s waterway network, is also one of the most economically significant rivers in the world. Together with its tributaries, it accounts for almost half of the country’s waterway mileage, while the volume of the freight it carries represents about one-third of the total volume carried by river transport. Work <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="undertaken" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/undertaken" data-type="EB">undertaken</a> in the mid-1950s to improve the middle course of the Yangtze allowed it to become navigable throughout the year from its mouth to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yibin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Yibin</a> in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sichuan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sichuan</a>. When the Yangtze is high in summer, it is navigable from its mouth to as far as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chongqing" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chongqing</a> for ships of up to 5,000 tons. Many cable-hauling stations had been established at rapids on the upper course of the Yangtze and of its major tributaries, such as the Wu River. Boats sailing against the current are hauled over the rapids with strong steel cables attached to fixed winches, thus augmenting their loading capacity, increasing speed, and saving time. Such improvements have permitted regular passenger and cargo services to be operated on the Yangtze.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589625"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Xi-River-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Xi River</a> is second in importance only to the Yangtze, being the major water transport artery of South China. Ships of 1,000 tons can sail up the Xi to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Wuzhou" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Wuzhou</a>, while smaller craft can sail up its middle and upper courses as well as up the Bei and Dong rivers and the tributaries of all these streams. The Yangtze and the Xi are not icebound in winter. The <span id="ref589626"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sungari-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sungari (Songhua) River</a>, flowing across the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Northeast-Plain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Manchurian Plain</a>, is navigable for half of its course; it is icebound from November through March and crowded with traffic the other months of the year. The Amur (Heilong), Sungari, and Ussuri (Wusuli) rivers with their tributaries form a network of waterways totaling about 12,500 miles (20,100 km) in length. In the past the <span id="ref589627"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Huang He</a> was little navigated, especially on its middle and lower courses, but mechanized junks now operate along the middle course in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Henan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Henan</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589628"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Grand-Canal-China" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Grand Canal</a>, the only major Chinese waterway running from north to south, passes through the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="basins" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/basins" data-type="EB">basins</a> of the Hai, Huang, Huai, Yangtze, and Qiantang rivers in its 1,100-mile (1,800-km) course from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Beijing" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Beijing</a> to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hangzhou" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hangzhou</a>. One of the greatest engineering projects in China, equal in fame to the Great Wall, it is the world’s longest artificial waterway; some of its sections follow the natural course of a river, while other parts are hand-dug. Work on the canal began as early as the 4th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> and was completed by the end of the 13th century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>. It forms a north-south communications and transport link between the most densely populated areas in China. From the latter part of the 19th century, however, because of political corruption, mismanagement, and flooding from the Huang He, the canal gradually became silted up, and the higher section in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shandong-province-China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shandong</a> became blocked. Since 1958, efforts have been made to reopen the Grand Canal to navigation, this time also by larger modern craft. The canal is important in the north-south transport of bulk cargoes, thus <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="facilitating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/facilitating" data-type="MW">facilitating</a> the nationwide distribution of coal and foodstuffs.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref71012"> <h2 class="h3">Port facilities and shipping</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="12731" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/25117-004-C137CD1C/Chinese-Dalian-passenger-steamer-harbour-Liaoning.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/111803/12731"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/25117-004-C137CD1C/Chinese-Dalian-passenger-steamer-harbour-Liaoning.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/25117-004-C137CD1C/Chinese-Dalian-passenger-steamer-harbour-Liaoning.jpg?w=300" alt="Dalian, Liaoning province, China: harbor" data-width="430" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/25117-004-C137CD1C/Chinese-Dalian-passenger-steamer-harbour-Liaoning.jpg" data-href="/media/1/111803/12731">Dalian, Liaoning province, China: harbor</a><span>Chinese-built passenger steamer in the harbor at Dalian, Liaoning province, China.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">China’s 8,700-mile- (14,000-km-) long coastline is indented by some 100 large and small bays and has some 20 deepwater harbors, most of which are ice-free throughout the year. Coastal shipping is divided into two principal navigation zones, the northern and southern marine districts. The northern district extends north from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Xiamen" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Amoy</a> to the North Korean border, with Shanghai as its administrative center. The southern district extends south from Amoy to the Vietnamese border, with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangzhou" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Guangzhou</a> as the administrative center. Most of the oceangoing routes begin from the ports of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Dalian" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Dalian</a>, Qinghuangdao, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tanggu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tanggu</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Qingdao" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Qingdao</a> (Tsingtao), <span id="ref589629"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shanghai" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shanghai</a>, Huangpu, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Zhanjiang" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Zhanjiang</a>, or <span id="ref589630"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hong-Kong" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hong Kong</a>. Shanghai, the leading port of China from the early 19th century, was eclipsed by Hong Kong when the latter was reincorporated into the country in 1997.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="238226" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/194257-050-5FD80C37/stacks-shipping-containers-Hong-Kong-delivery.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/111803/238226"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/194257-050-5FD80C37/stacks-shipping-containers-Hong-Kong-delivery.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/194257-050-5FD80C37/stacks-shipping-containers-Hong-Kong-delivery.jpg?w=300" alt="shipping" data-width="1600" data-height="1023" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/194257-050-5FD80C37/stacks-shipping-containers-Hong-Kong-delivery.jpg" data-href="/media/1/111803/238226">shipping</a><span>Terminal with stacks of containers waiting for shipping or delivery, Hong Kong.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1961 China established a state-run marine shipping company and subsequently signed shipping agreements with many countries, laying the foundation for developing the country’s ocean transport. That organization developed into the present-day China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company (COSCO), one of the world’s largest shipping corporations. The Chinese government also invested heavily in water transport <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="infrastructure" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/infrastructure" data-type="MW">infrastructure</a>, constructing new ports and rebuilding and enlarging older facilities. A major effort has also been made to increase mechanization and containerization at major international ports. In addition, China has become one of the world’s premier shipbuilding countries, satisfying domestic demand and exporting ships and oil-drilling platforms worldwide.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref71013"> <h2 class="h3">Aviation</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Air travel is particularly suited to China, with its vast territory and varied terrain. Chinese civil <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/aviation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">aviation</a> has two major categories: air transport, which mainly handles passengers, cargoes, and mail, traveling on both scheduled and nonscheduled routes; and special-purpose aviation, which mainly serves industrial and agricultural production, national defense, and scientific and technological research. The aims of civil aviation in China have been primarily to extend air routes; to strengthen the link between Beijing and other important cities, as well as remote border and interior areas; to develop special-purpose flights serving the needs of agriculture, forestry, and geologic prospecting; and to increase the number of large transport airplanes.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the 1950s international aviation depended mainly on <span id="ref589631"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Soviet</a> support, and all principal international air routes originally passed through Moscow using Soviet planes. As Sino-Soviet relations deteriorated in the late 1950s, China began to open direct air routes to other places as well. Thus, in addition to the original routes between China and the Soviet Union, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Korea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North Korea</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mongolia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Mongolia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Vietnam</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Myanmar" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Burma</a> (now Myanmar), air routes were opened to several of China’s neighboring countries, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United States</a>, western <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>, Europe, and Africa. After 1980 the number of air routes grew markedly; the addition of Hong Kong’s international air traffic in 1997 <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituted" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituted" data-type="MW">constituted</a> another significant increase.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Chinese civil air efforts were carried out solely by the state-run <span id="ref921141"></span>General Administration of Civil Aviation of China (CAAC) from 1949 until the mid-1980s. In an effort to improve <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="efficiency" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/efficiency" data-type="MW">efficiency</a> and service, regional airlines were then introduced in competition with the airlines operated by the CAAC. In the early 21st century the CAAC’s airline-operating responsibilities were being shifted to semiprivate companies.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Beijing’s first modern civilian airport was built in 1958. It has since been expanded multiple times and is now known as <span id="ref1274458"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beijing-Capital-International-Airport" class="md-crosslink ">Capital International Airport</a>. Major airport construction projects since 1990 include new facilities at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Macau-administrative-region-China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Macau</a> (1995), Hong Kong (1998), Shanghai (2000), and Guangzhou (2004). <span id="ref1274459"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beijing-Daxing-International-Airport" class="md-crosslink ">Daxing International Airport</a>, located south of Beijing’s city center, opened in 2019 and was intended to share traffic with Capital International, which had become one of the busiest airports in the world. The Chinese Air Force controls a large number of airfields; retired Air Force personnel have been the major source of civilian pilots. Airplanes, including various types of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/military-aircraft" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">military aircraft</a>, have long been made by China. Civil airliners for long-distance flights, however, are still mostly purchased abroad.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":21,"pagesTotal":128,"pageId":111803,"pageLength":1434,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.36"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.36' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":21,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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