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1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Logo_disambig.svg/40px-Logo_disambig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="375"></a></span> </div> <div class="bandeau-cell" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <p>Pour les articles homonymes, voir <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Lumières">Lumières</a>.</p> </div> </div> <p>Le <b>siècle des Lumières</b> est un mouvement philosophique, littéraire et culturel bourgeois que connaît l'Europe au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle (de 1715 à 1789) et qui se propose de promouvoir le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rationalisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rationalisme">rationalisme</a>, l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Individualisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Individualisme">individualisme</a> et le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ralisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Libéralisme">libéralisme</a>, contre l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Obscurantisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Obscurantisme">obscurantisme</a> et la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Superstition?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Superstition">superstition</a> de l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89glise_(organisation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Église (organisation)">Église catholique</a> et contre l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arbitraire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arbitraire">arbitraire</a> de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Royaut%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Royauté">royauté</a> et de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Noblesse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Noblesse">noblesse</a>, avec pour modèle la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Empirisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Empirisme">philosophie empirique</a>, l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Libre-%C3%A9change?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Libre-échange">économie libérale</a> et la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Monarchie_constitutionnelle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Monarchie constitutionnelle">monarchie constitutionnelle</a> anglaise.</p> <div class="bandeau-container metadata bandeau-article bandeau-niveau-modere"> <figure class="mw-halign-right noviewer" typeof="mw:File"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:%C3%80_recycler?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus."><img alt="Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/12px-Info_Simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/18px-Info_Simple.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/24px-Info_Simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></a> <figcaption> Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus. </figcaption> </figure> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Circle-icons-recycle.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Circle-icons-recycle.svg/45px-Circle-icons-recycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Circle-icons-recycle.svg/68px-Circle-icons-recycle.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Circle-icons-recycle.svg/90px-Circle-icons-recycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></a></span> </div> <div class="bandeau-cell" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <p><strong class="bandeau-titre">Cet article doit être <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aide:Recyclage?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aide:Recyclage">recyclé</a></strong> <small>(<time class="nowrap" datetime="2023-11" data-sort-value="2023-11">novembre 2023</time>).</small></p> </div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r222901683">.mw-parser-output .infobox hr{height:2px;background-color:#E1E1E1}.mw-parser-output .infobox_v3 .row1col{padding:4px;text-align:center;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-emphasized,#000000)}</style> <div class="infobox_v3 infobox infobox--frwiki noarchive large"> <div class="entete" style="background-color:#C0E0FF"> <div> Siècle des Lumières </div> </div> <div> <div class="images" style="padding:2px 0"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/260px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/390px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/520px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1973"></a></span> </div> <div class="legend"> Le frontispice de l’<i>Encyclopédie</i> de Diderot et d’Alembert, gravure de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt-Louis_Pr%C3%A9vost?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Benoît-Louis Prévost">Benoît-Louis Prévost</a>. </div> </div> <table> <caption style="text-align:center;background-color:#C0E0FF"> Dates </caption> <tbody> <tr class=""> <th scope="row">Début</th> <td class=""> <div> 1715 </div></td> </tr> <tr class=""> <th scope="row">Fin</th> <td class=""> <div> 1789 </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <table> <caption style="text-align:center;background-color:#C0E0FF"> Époques </caption> <tbody> <tr class=""> <th scope="row">Précédente</th> <td class=""> <div><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XVIIe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XVIIe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a> - <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Classicisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Classicisme">Classicisme</a> </div></td> </tr> <tr class=""> <th scope="row">Suivante</th> <td class=""> <div><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XIXe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XIXe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="19ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XIX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a> - <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Romantisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Romantisme">Romantisme en Europe</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Romantisme_fran%C3%A7ais?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Romantisme français">Romantisme en France</a> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p class="navbar noprint bordered navigation-not-searchable" style="border-top:1px solid#C0E0FF"><span class="plainlinks" style="text-align:left"><a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DSi%25C3%25A8cle_des_Lumi%25C3%25A8res%26veaction%3Dedit%26section%3D0">modifier</a> - <a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DSi%25C3%25A8cle_des_Lumi%25C3%25A8res%26action%3Dedit%26section%3D0">modifier le code</a> - <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12539" class="extiw" title="d:Q12539">modifier Wikidata</a></span><span style="text-align:right"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:Infobox_P%C3%A9riode_historique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Documentation du modèle"><img alt="Documentation du modèle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/12px-Info_Simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/18px-Info_Simple.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/24px-Info_Simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></a></span></span></p> </div> <p>Financés pour la plupart par des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fermiers_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9raux?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermiers généraux">fermiers généraux</a> (comme <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Claude-Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Claude-Adrien Helvétius">Helvetius</a>) ou par des spéculations (comme la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Traite_n%C3%A9gri%C3%A8re_occidentale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Traite négrière occidentale">traite négrière</a>), des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intellectuel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Intellectuel">intellectuels</a> qui se réunissent dans des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Salon_litt%C3%A9raire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Salon littéraire">salons</a> (comme celui du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Paul_Thiry_d%27Holbach?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paul Thiry d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a>), dans des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Franc-ma%C3%A7onnerie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Franc-maçonnerie">loges</a> (comme celle des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neuf_S%C5%93urs?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Neuf Sœurs">Neuf Sœurs</a>), et autour du projet de traduction de l'<i>Encyclopédie</i> d'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ephra%C3%AFm_Chambers?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ephraïm Chambers">Ephraïm Chambers</a>, ce qui les fera appeler les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die_ou_Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_des_sciences,_des_arts_et_des_m%C3%A9tiers?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers">Encyclopédistes</a>, publient un grand nombre d'essais, de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nouvelles_%C3%A0_la_main?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nouvelles à la main">gazettes</a>, de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pamphlet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pamphlet">pamphlets</a>, de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Roman_(litt%C3%A9rature)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Roman (littérature)">romans</a> par lettres, de pièces de théâtre. Ils ont des correspondances avec les cours protestantes d'Europe pour former la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_des_Lettres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="République des Lettres">République des Lettres</a>.</p> <p>La <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Glorieuse_R%C3%A9volution?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Glorieuse Révolution">glorieuse Révolution</a> anglaise de 1688 peut en constituer le premier jalon<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, mais pour l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Historiographie_fran%C3%A7aise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Historiographie française">historiographie française</a>, la période charnière qui correspond à la fin du règne de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis_XIV?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> (1643-1715) est comme sa gestation<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>2<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> et le siècle des Lumières commence conventionnellement, en 1715, à la mort de ce roi<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>3<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-4"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>4<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-5"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>5<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-6"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>6<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-7"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>7<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-8"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>8<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, plus précisément avec la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9gence_(1715-1723)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Régence (1715-1723)">Régence</a> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Philippe_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans_(1674-1723)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Philippe d'Orléans (1674-1723)">Philippe, duc d'Orléans</a>, et se termine avec la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Révolution française">Révolution française</a>. Certains historiens, en fonction de leur objet d'étude, privilégient une chronologie plus ou moins large (1670-1820)<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>9<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Le terme de « <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_(philosophie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières (philosophie)">Lumières</a> », pour les Juifs <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Haskala?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Haskala">Maskilim</a></i>, a été par la suite consacré par l'usage pour rassembler sous cette appellation la diversité des manifestations de cet ensemble d’objets, de courants, de pensées ou de sensibilités et d’acteurs historiques.</p> <p>Pour les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arts_plastiques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arts plastiques">arts plastiques</a>, le siècle des Lumières couvre la transition entre les périodes <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Classicisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Classicisme">classique</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rococo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rococo">rococo</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/N%C3%A9oclassicisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Néoclassicisme">néoclassique</a>, et pour la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Musique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Musique">musique</a>, celle de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Musique_baroque?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Musique baroque">musique baroque</a> à la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Musique_de_la_p%C3%A9riode_classique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Musique de la période classique">musique de la période classique</a>. L’expression provient d’emblée de son utilisation massive par les contemporains. Puis, le développement et l’affirmation de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Histoire_culturelle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Histoire culturelle">histoire culturelle</a> et sociale depuis les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_1970?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Années 1970">années 1970</a>, ont favorisé l’usage d’une notion féconde qui permet de mener des recherches de façon transversale et internationale tout en multipliant les objets d'étude et en dépassant les cadres nationaux<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-10"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>10<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Sommaire</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Significations_usuelles"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Significations usuelles</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Traits_dominants"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Traits dominants</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Combats_des_Lumi%C3%A8res"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Combats des Lumières</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sciences_et_savants_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99%C3%A2ge_des_Lumi%C3%A8res"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Sciences et savants à l’âge des Lumières</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#%C2%AB_Des_espaces_publics_critiques_%C2%BB"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext"><span>« Des espaces publics critiques »</span></span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Salons"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Salons</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Acad%C3%A9mies_et_soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9s_litt%C3%A9raires"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Académies et sociétés littéraires</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Franc-ma%C3%A7onnerie_et_Lumi%C3%A8res"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Franc-maçonnerie et Lumières</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#G%C3%A9ographie_des_Lumi%C3%A8res"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Géographie des Lumières</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_Lumi%C3%A8res_en_Prusse"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Les Lumières en Prusse</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_Lumi%C3%A8res_au_Portugal"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Les Lumières au Portugal</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_lumi%C3%A8res_en_Espagne"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Les lumières en Espagne</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_Lumi%C3%A8res_en_Pologne"><span class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Les Lumières en Pologne</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_Lumi%C3%A8res_en_%C3%89cosse"><span class="tocnumber">6.5</span> <span class="toctext">Les Lumières en Écosse</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Naissance_des_%C3%89tats-Unis_:_qu%C3%AAte_du_bonheur_et_droit_%C3%A0_la_libert%C3%A9"><span class="tocnumber">6.6</span> <span class="toctext">Naissance des États-Unis : quête du bonheur et droit à la liberté</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Civilisation_mat%C3%A9rielle"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Civilisation matérielle</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Ferveurs_nouvelles"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Ferveurs nouvelles</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Chronologie"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Chronologie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Principales_figures"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Principales figures</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Critiques"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Critiques</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Notes_et_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rences"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Notes et références</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Voir_aussi"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Voir aussi</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">13.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Bibliographie_s%C3%A9lective"><span class="tocnumber">13.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliographie sélective</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Articles_connexes"><span class="tocnumber">13.3</span> <span class="toctext">Articles connexes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Liens_externes"><span class="tocnumber">13.4</span> <span class="toctext">Liens externes</span></a></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Significations_usuelles">Significations usuelles</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/220px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4390" data-file-height="5852"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/220px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/330px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/440px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a>, <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marie-Anne_Pierrette_Paulze?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze">son épouse</a></i>, 1788, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/New_York?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="New York">New York</a>. </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/170px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1670" data-file-height="2608"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 265px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/170px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="265" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/255px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg/340px-Voltaire_Philosophy_of_Newton_frontispiece.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Frontispice des <i>Éléments de la philosophie de Newton</i>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voltaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, 1738. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Le « siècle des Lumières »<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>11<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> se veut éclairé par la lumière métaphorique des connaissances — et non par l’illumination divine, <span class="citation">« émanation de l’absolu »</span><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>12<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, utilisé exclusivement au singulier — acquises par l’expérience et l’enseignement du passé. Elle suggère aussi une vision manichéenne du monde, où l’<span class="citation">« homme éclairé »</span> s’oppose à la masse de ceux restés dans les ténèbres. La formule a donc une dimension tant sociale que spatiale. Sous la plume des philosophes, les « Lumières » désignent par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9tonymie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Métonymie">métonymie</a> les élites européennes ouvertes aux nouveautés, une <span class="citation">« <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_des_Lettres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="République des Lettres">République des Lettres</a> éclairées »</span>.</p> <p>On trouve dès les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_1670?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Années 1670">années 1670</a>, la mention de <span class="citation">« siècle éclairé »</span> dans certains écrits historiques ou philosophiques relatant les expériences et les progrès scientifiques du temps<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>13<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. L’inflexion <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anticl%C3%A9ricalisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anticléricalisme">anticléricale</a> et combative que prend la philosophie des Lumières dans les années 1750 devait marquer l’expression<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-14"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>14<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Dans la France prérévolutionnaire, la formule est consacrée par les représentants des Lumières puis par les révolutionnaires eux-mêmes<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-15"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>15<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. L’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Historiographie_fran%C3%A7aise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Historiographie française">historiographie française</a> a retenu l’expression : <span class="citation">« Le siècle des Lumières : siècle un, profondément, mais combien divers. La raison éclaire tous les hommes, elle est la lumière, ou plus précisément, ne s’agissant pas d’un rayon, mais d’un faisceau, les Lumières »</span><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>16<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. L'image de la lumière renvoie à une coutume consistant à placer une bougie allumée à sa fenêtre pour annoncer un événement. Le voisin « illuminait » à son tour. De fenêtres en fenêtres les lumières éclairaient la nuit. Les philosophes séduits par cette pratique faisant de la transmission de l'information, de la connaissance, une chaîne de lumière et s'emparent de l'idée : ils transformeront la nuit de l'ignorance en clarté, guidés par la lumière de leur raison. Diderot écrit dans <i>Addition aux pensées</i> : <span class="citation">« Si je renonce à ma raison, je n'ai plus de guide […]. Égaré dans une forêt immense pendant la nuit, je n'ai qu'une petite lumière pour me conduire. »</span></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Traits_dominants">Traits dominants</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>Le siècle des Lumières est marqué par une vision renouvelée et élargie du monde, héritée de questionnements, parfois angoissés, du dernier quart du <abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle. Sept traits marquants d’une pensée moderne s’y affirment et peuvent être retenus<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>17<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> :</p> <ul> <li>la primauté de l’esprit scientifique sur la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Providence_(religion)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Providence (religion)">Providence</a> dont la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lois_du_mouvement_de_Newton?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lois du mouvement de Newton">révolution</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9canique_newtonienne?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mécanique newtonienne">newtonienne</a> est l’illustration la plus marquante ;</li> <li>La diffusion et la compréhension du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Discours_de_la_m%C3%A9thode?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Discours de la méthode">Discours de la méthode</a> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>;</li> <li>la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Science_politique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Science politique">réflexion politique</a> marquée par la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Contractualisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Contractualisme">théorie contractuelle</a>, influencée par les travaux de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_Locke?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> ;</li> <li>les progrès de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Esprit_critique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Esprit critique">esprit critique</a> à l’œuvre, par exemple, dans le <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dictionnaire_historique_et_critique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dictionnaire historique et critique">Dictionnaire historique et critique</a></i> (1697) de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre_Bayle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a> et la critique <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_Locke?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John Locke">lockienne</a> des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_des_Formes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Théorie des Formes">idées innées</a> ;</li> <li>une première désacralisation de la monarchie dont les <i>Dialogues</i> du baron <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis-Armand_de_Lom_d%27Arce?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce">Louis de La Hontan</a> (1710) sont l’une des manifestations ;</li> <li>l’affirmation de l’idée de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tol%C3%A9rance?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tolérance">tolérance</a> dans une Europe marquée par les divisions religieuses dont l’œuvre de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a>, <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nathan_le_Sage?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nathan le Sage">Nathan le Sage</a></i> est une illustration ;</li> <li>le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/D%C3%A9isme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Déisme">déisme</a>.</li> </ul> <p>Ces champs de réflexion précurseurs, qui allaient former le socle de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_(philosophie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières (philosophie)">Philosophie des Lumières</a>, traversent le siècle et influencent de nombreux domaines, à l’instar de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89conomie_politique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Économie politique">économie politique</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-18"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>18<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. L’idée de progrès vient couronner tous ses traits dominants et les synthétiser dans les ouvrages de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nicolas_de_Condorcet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nicolas de Condorcet">Nicolas de Condorcet</a> – <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Esquisse_d%27un_tableau_historique_des_progr%C3%A8s_de_l%27esprit_humain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain">Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humain</a></i> – ou de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis-S%C3%A9bastien_Mercier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis-Sébastien Mercier">Louis-Sébastien Mercier</a> – <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/L%27An_2440,_r%C3%AAve_s%27il_en_fut_jamais?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="L'An 2440, rêve s'il en fut jamais">L'An 2440, rêve s'il en fut jamais</a></i>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Combats_des_Lumières"><span id="Combats_des_Lumi.C3.A8res"></span>Combats des Lumières</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>Les partisans des Lumières sont les acteurs de nombreux combats nés de <span class="citation">« l’usage public de sa raison dans tous les domaines »</span><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-19"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>19<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Les « <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Causes_c%C3%A9l%C3%A8bres_de_tous_les_peuples?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Causes célèbres de tous les peuples">Causes Célèbres</a> » ont permis une mise en perspective des lois et des coutumes d’Europe, ont ainsi opéré une révolution <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sociologie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sociologie">sociologique</a> et ouvert la brèche à l’anthropologie politique. Le dépaysement est central dans cette démarche et le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lettres_persanes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lettres persanes">Persan et ses avatars</a> – l’espion chinois<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-20"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>20<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lettres_juives?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lettres juives">juif</a> ou turc<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-21"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>21<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> – peut apparaître comme un symbole de cet effort de tolérance<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-22"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>22<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Les philosophes ne se contentent pas d’écrire. Ils se mettent aussi personnellement en cause, au risque d’être arrêtés, emprisonnés. <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Denis_Diderot?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean_Le_Rond_d%27Alembert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean Le Rond d'Alembert">D'Alembert</a> consacrent plus de vingt ans de leur vie à la publication de l’<i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die_ou_Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_des_sciences,_des_arts_et_des_m%C3%A9tiers?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers">Encyclopédie</a></i>, énorme dictionnaire de 28 volumes dont 11 volumes d’illustrations consacré à toutes les formes de la connaissance et des sciences. Tous les écrivains et les savants du siècle participent à la rédaction des articles de l’<i>Encyclopédie</i>, dont la publication s’étend de 1751 à 1772. Accusé de propager des idées dangereuses, Diderot est emprisonné pendant plusieurs mois. Cependant la vraie volonté de Diderot et de tous les écrivains de l'Encyclopédie était de se battre contre ce qu'ils appelaient l'Obscurantisme religieux. On oppose ainsi les Lumières à l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Obscurantisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Obscurantisme">obscurantisme</a>, ou le manque de culture, de savoir. La lumière permet de lutter contre l'obscurantisme c'est-à-dire la bêtise et l'ignorance qui rendent intolérants. C'est un âpre combat : Voltaire connaît l'exil et la prison. Montesquieu doit faire imprimer les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lettres_persanes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lettres persanes">lettres persanes</a> en Hollande pour déjouer la censure. Ce combat est cependant jugé indispensable. Kant ordonne : <span class="citation">« ose savoir »</span>. On promeut l'idée selon laquelle seule la connaissance permet de juger d'une situation en adulte sans obéir aveuglément aux tutelles que sont le roi, la religion, ou l'armée. Les travaux du juriste <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a>, lui-même influencé par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Montesquieu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, trouvent leur retentissement dans les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Affaire_Calas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Affaire Calas">affaires Calas</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Affaire_Sirven?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Affaire Sirven">Sirven</a>, où sont affirmées la nécessaire abolition de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Question_(torture)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Question (torture)">question</a> et les limites du pouvoir exécutif. Le procès du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Jean_Lefebvre_de_La_Barre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="François-Jean Lefebvre de La Barre">chevalier de la Barre</a> inspire à nombre de penseurs une réflexion sur la liberté de conscience. Leur but est avant tout de <span class="citation">« sortir les Hommes des ténèbres de leur temps »</span> et <span class="citation">« d’Éclairer toute chose à la lumière de la raison »</span>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Sciences_et_savants_à_l’âge_des_Lumières"><span id="Sciences_et_savants_.C3.A0_l.E2.80.99.C3.A2ge_des_Lumi.C3.A8res"></span>Sciences et savants à l’âge des Lumières</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sciences_en_Europe_au_si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sciences en Europe au siècle des Lumières">Sciences en Europe au siècle des Lumières</a>. </div> </div> <div style="float:right;width:60%;margin-left:1em;text-align: right"> <blockquote> <p>« Il est largement admis que la « science moderne » est née dans l'Europe du <abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, introduisant une nouvelle compréhension du monde naturel<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-23"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>23<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. » Peter Barrett. »</p> </blockquote> </div> <div class="clear" style="clear:both;"></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG/220px-Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6070" data-file-height="3483"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 126px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG/220px-Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG" data-width="220" data-height="126" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG/330px-Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG/440px-Colbert_Presenting_the_Members_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences_to_Louis_XIV_in_1667.PNG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Présentation des membres de l’Académie Royale des Sciences par Colbert à Louis XIV en 1667. </figcaption> </figure> <p>La France possède de nombreux philosophes et écrivains des Lumières, notamment <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Montesquieu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voltaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Denis_Diderot?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre-Augustin_Caron_de_Beaumarchais?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean_Le_Rond_d%27Alembert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean Le Rond d'Alembert">D'Alembert</a>.</p> <p>L'époque des Lumières fut aussi celle de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Bernoulli</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Leonhard_Euler?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre-Simon_de_Laplace?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre-Simon de Laplace">Laplace</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gaspard_Monge?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gaspard Monge">Monge</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nicolas_de_Condorcet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nicolas de Condorcet">Condorcet</a>, D'Alembert et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a> en mathématiques, en physique générale et en astronomie. La compréhension du phénomène physique de l'électricité est amorcée en particulier par les travaux de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Henry_Cavendish?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Henry Cavendish">Cavendish</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Charles-Augustin_Coulomb?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Charles-Augustin Coulomb">Coulomb</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis_S%C3%A9bastien_Jacquet_de_Malzet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis Sébastien Jacquet de Malzet">Louis Sébastien Jacquet de Malzet</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alessandro_Volta?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a>.</p> <p><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a> pose les fondements de la chimie moderne.</p> <p>Des savants <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Naturaliste?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Naturaliste">naturalistes</a> comme <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carl von Linné">Linné</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">Réaumur</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc_de_Buffon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon">Buffon</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antoine-Laurent_de_Jussieu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu">Jussieu</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck">Lamarck</a> incarnent l'esprit des Lumières dans le domaine des sciences relevant de l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Histoire_naturelle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Histoire naturelle">histoire naturelle</a> dans toute son étendue.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="«_Des_espaces_publics_critiques_»"><span id=".C2.AB_Des_espaces_publics_critiques_.C2.BB"></span><span class="citation">« Des espaces publics critiques »</span></h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg/260px-Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="521"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 162px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg/260px-Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg" data-width="260" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg/390px-Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg/520px-Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Gravure représentant l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences_(France)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Académie des sciences (France)">Académie Des sciences</a>, 1698. </figcaption> </figure> <p>À la faveur de ces évolutions apparaissent des espaces nouveaux où se diffusent les Lumières<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-24"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>24<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, entretenues par relations privées et quelquefois par le mécénat d’État. L’Europe des Lumières a ainsi ses lieux privilégiés : cénacles des grandes villes thermales, cours des capitales européennes, chambres de lectures, théâtres, opéras, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cabinet_de_curiosit%C3%A9s?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cabinet de curiosités">cabinets de curiosités</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Salon_litt%C3%A9raire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Salon littéraire">salons littéraires</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Salon_de_peinture_et_de_sculpture?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Salon de peinture et de sculpture">salons artistiques</a>, voire salons de physique à l’instar de celui animé par l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean_Antoine_Nollet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean Antoine Nollet">abbé Nollet</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Académie">Académies</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Loge_ma%C3%A7onnique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Loge maçonnique">loges maçonniques</a>, cafés mondains, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Club_politique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Club politique">clubs politiques</a> à l’anglaise. Dans ces cadres nouveaux ou renouvelés, les gens de lettres prennent le pouvoir de la critique et font vivre débats esthétiques, querelles littéraires, réflexions politiques<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-25"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>25<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg/220px-Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="776"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 145px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg/220px-Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="145" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg/330px-Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg/440px-Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anicet_Charles_Gabriel_Lemonnier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier">Gabriel Lemmonnier</a>, <i>Dans le Salon de Madame Geoffrin en 1755</i>, 1812, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Château de Malmaison">Château de Malmaison</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rueil?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rueil">Rueil</a>. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Ces lieux où se croisent les anciennes et les nouvelles élites, les artistes sans fortune et leurs mécènes, les agents de l’État et les aventuriers, sont le creuset d’une communauté cosmopolite et hétérogène, faite d’entre soi et d’exclusion. Ils participent à l’affirmation d’une <span class="citation">« sphère publique bourgeoise »</span><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-26"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>26<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, faite d’affrontements et de spectacles, où se déroulent, et plus particulièrement dans la seconde moitié du <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, les grandes affaires et les <span class="citation">« causes célèbres »</span> (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9moire_judiciaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mémoire judiciaire">Mémoire judiciaire</a>) <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prérévolution française">prérévolutionnaires</a>. Dans ces nouveaux espaces de liberté se manifeste un véritable engouement pour les affaires européennes et se développe l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anglomanie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anglomanie">anglomanie</a>.</p> <p>Dans le cadre français, les Lumières voient basculer dans les années 1750 leur centre de gravité de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Versailles?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Versailles">Versailles</a> à Paris qui apparaît comme la nouvelle capitale intellectuelle et artistique, comme une capitale des Lumières. Ce brassage implique une redéfinition sociale de l’écrivain.</p> <p>Le phénomène se développe également en province, où magistrats et érudits locaux, gagnés par les Lumières, forment une classe sociale dirigeante aux nouvelles préoccupations<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-27"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>27<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <div class="clear" style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Salons">Salons</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Articles détaillés : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Salons_litt%C3%A9raires?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Salons littéraires">Salons littéraires</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Femmes_et_salons_litt%C3%A9raires?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Femmes et salons littéraires">Femmes et salons littéraires</a>. </div> </div> <p>Le phénomène des salons commence à la fin du <abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, dans un contexte prospère. On s'adonne à l'art de la conversation, il s'agit là d'un phénomène parisien et plutôt français. Les salons sont tenus essentiellement par des femmes, souvent issues de la bourgeoisie et ayant des connaissances (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Madame_du_Deffand?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Madame du Deffand">Madame du Deffand</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anne-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_de_Marguenat_de_Courcelles?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anne-Thérèse de Marguenat de Courcelles">Madame Lambert</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Claudine_Gu%C3%A9rin_de_Tencin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Claudine Guérin de Tencin">Claudine Guérin de Tencin</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marie-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Geoffrin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin">Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin</a>, etc.). Pour que son salon connaisse le succès, la maîtresse du lieu doit s'attacher les services d'un philosophe qui lance les débats. Tenir un salon est l'une des activités les plus recherchées par les femmes, la qualité des invités témoigne de leur pouvoir d'attraction et la réputation du salon repose sur les invités.</p> <p>Les salons sont des lieux de diffusion de la culture. La liberté d'expression apparaît, ainsi que la notion d'égalité. Ils permettent aux encyclopédistes de faire passer leurs idées. Helvétius et Holbach exposent leurs idées matérialistes.</p> <p>C'est un lieu de culture qui demeure mondain, en effet, le divertissement en est le but premier. On y expose ses idées mais il n'y a pas de combat pour la vérité. Ce qui compte, c'est la bonne compagnie, les récits amusants, il ne faut pas que les débats soient trop sérieux, le risque serait de passer pour quelqu'un d'ennuyeux<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-28"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>28<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Les vrais et grands philosophes se méfient de ces endroits de diffusion, mais pas de production d'idées. <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> dénonçait la futilité des discussions qui s’y tenaient et parlait de <span class="citation">« Morale du bilboquet »</span> pour toute personne qui s’en tenait à l’écart<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-29"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>29<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Les salons sont des lieux de regroupement pour les philosophes, les mathématiciens, etc.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Académies_et_sociétés_littéraires"><span id="Acad.C3.A9mies_et_soci.C3.A9t.C3.A9s_litt.C3.A9raires"></span>Académies et sociétés littéraires</h3> </div> <p>Quoique l’histoire des académies en France au siècle des Lumières remonte à la fondation à Caen de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_physique_de_Caen?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Académie de physique de Caen">Académie de physique de Caen</a>, en 1662, c’est l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences_(France)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Académie des sciences (France)">Académie des sciences</a> fondée en 1666, étroitement liée à l’État français et agissant comme l’extension d’un gouvernement en sérieux manque de scientifiques, qui a contribué à promouvoir et à organiser de nouvelles disciplines, en formant de nouveaux scientifiques et en contribuant à l’amélioration du statut des scientifiques sociaux qu’elle considérait comme « les plus utiles de tous les citoyens ». Les Académies démontrent à la fois l’intérêt croissant pour la science ainsi que sa laïcisation accrue, comme en témoigne le petit nombre d’ecclésiastiques qui y appartenaient (13 %)<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-30"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>30<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>En dépit de l’origine bourgeoise de la majorité des académiciens, cette institution était uniquement réservée aux élites scientifiques, qui se voyaient en « interprètes de la science pour le peuple ». C’est par exemple dans cet esprit que l'Académie entreprit de réfuter le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Magn%C3%A9tisme_animal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Magnétisme animal">magnétisme animal</a>, pseudo-science qui inspire alors un enthousiasme populaire<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-31"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>31<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>L’argument le plus fort en faveur de l’appartenance des académies à la sphère publique vient des concours qu’elles ont parrainés dans toute la France. Comme l’a fait valoir Jeremy L. Caradonna dans un récent article paru dans les <i>Annales</i>, « Prendre part au siècle des Lumières : le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle », ces concours étaient peut-être la plus publique de toutes les institutions du siècle des Lumières. L’Académie française a remis au goût du jour une pratique médiévale en relançant les concours publics au milieu du <abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle. Vers 1725, le sujet des essais, de la poésie ou la peinture qui tournait jusque-là autour de la religion et/ou la monarchie, s’est radicalement élargi et diversifié pour inclure la propagande royale, les batailles philosophiques et les réflexions critiques sur les institutions sociales et politiques de l’Ancien Régime. Caradonna montre que les sujets controversés n’étaient pas toujours évités en citant les théories de Newton et de Descartes, la traite négrière, l’éducation des femmes, et de la justice en France comme exemples<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-32"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>32<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. L’ouverture à tous des concours et l’anonymat obligatoire des soumissions garantissaient l’impartialité du jugement eu égard au sexe et au rang social des candidats. En dépit de l’appartenance de la « vaste majorité » des participants aux couches les plus riches de la société (« les arts libéraux, le clergé, la magistrature et la profession médicale »), il existe des cas de membres de la classe populaire à avoir soumis des essais et même à les avoir remportés<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-33"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>33<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Un nombre important de femmes a également participé – et remporté – des concours. Sur un total de 2 300 concours dotés de prix proposés en France, les femmes en ont remporté 49, la majorité à des concours de poésie. Ce chiffre est certes faible par rapport aux normes modernes, mais très important à une époque où la plupart des femmes ne recevaient pas de formation scolaire avancée sauf, justement, dans un genre comme la poésie<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-34"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>34<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>En Angleterre, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Royal_Society?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> de Londres a également joué un rôle important dans la sphère publique et la propagation des idées des Lumières en agissant comme centre d’échange pour la correspondance et les échanges intellectuels<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-35"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>35<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> et jouant, en particulier, un rôle important dans la propagation à travers l’Europe de la philosophie expérimentale de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Robert_Boyle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> qui, comme l’ont fait valoir Steven Shapin et Simon Schaffer, était « l’un des fondateurs du monde expérimental dans lequel vivent et fonctionnent aujourd’hui les scientifiques ». La méthode de Boyle basée sur la connaissance et sur l’expérimentation ayant besoin de témoins pour assurer sa légitimité empirique, la Royal Society a joué un rôle avec ses salles d’assemblée qui constituaient des endroits idéaux pour des manifestations relativement publiques nécessaire à cet « acte collectif » de témoignage<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-36"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>36<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Tous les témoins n’étaient pourtant pas jugés crédibles : « Les professeurs d’Oxford étaient considérés plus fiables que les paysans de l’Oxfordshire ». Deux facteurs étaient pris en compte : la connaissance d’un témoin dans la région et la « constitution morale » du témoin. En d’autres termes, seule la société civile était prise en considération pour le public de Boyle.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Franc-maçonnerie_et_Lumières"><span id="Franc-ma.C3.A7onnerie_et_Lumi.C3.A8res"></span>Franc-maçonnerie et Lumières</h3> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Loge_des_Mopses.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Loge_des_Mopses.png/170px-Loge_des_Mopses.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="3224"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 258px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Loge_des_Mopses.png/170px-Loge_des_Mopses.png" data-width="170" data-height="258" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Loge_des_Mopses.png/255px-Loge_des_Mopses.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Loge_des_Mopses.png/340px-Loge_des_Mopses.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Réception dans la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Femmes_en_franc-ma%C3%A7onnerie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Femmes en franc-maçonnerie">Loge des Mopses</a>, gravure de 1745. </figcaption> </figure> <p>La fondation officielle de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Franc-ma%C3%A7onnerie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Franc-maçonnerie">franc-maçonnerie</a> remonte à 1717, lorsque <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_Theophilus_Desaguliers?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John Theophilus Desaguliers">Jean Théophile Désaguliers</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/James_Anderson_(franc-ma%C3%A7on)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="James Anderson (franc-maçon)">James Anderson</a> et quelques autres francs-maçons créèrent la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Premi%C3%A8re_Grande_Loge_d%27Angleterre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Première Grande Loge d'Angleterre">Grande Loge de Londres</a>. Désaguliers fut inspiré par son ami <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Isaac_Newton?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> qu'il avait rencontré à la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Royal_Society?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>. On considère généralement que cet événement marque le début de la maçonnerie spéculative.</p> <p>La franc-maçonnerie arrive officiellement sur le continent européen en 1734, avec l’ouverture d’une loge à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/La_Haye?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="La Haye">La Haye</a>. La première loge pleinement fonctionnelle paraît cependant avoir existé depuis 1721 à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rotterdam?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>. De même, des traces de la réunion d’une loge à Paris en 1725 ou 1726 ont été retrouvées<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-37"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>37<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Comme l’écrit Daniel Roche, en 1789, la franc-maçonnerie était particulièrement répandue en France qui ne comptait alors peut-être pas moins de 100 000 francs-maçons, ce qui en ferait la plus populaire de toutes les associations des Lumières<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-38"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>38<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. La franc-maçonnerie ne semble cependant pas avoir été confinée à l’Europe occidentale ; Margaret Jacob a retrouvé l’existence de loges en Saxe en 1729 et en Russie en 1731<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-39"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>39<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>En dépit de ces preuves d’existence, la contribution ou même le rôle de la franc-maçonnerie comme facteur principal dans les Lumières a néanmoins fait récemment l’objet de débats parmi les historiens. Certes des figures majeures des Lumières, comme <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Montesquieu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voltaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alexander_Pope?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Horace_Walpole?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Horace Walpole">Horace</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Robert_Walpole?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Robert Walpole">Robert Walpole</a>, Mozart, Goethe, Frédéric le Grand, Benjamin Franklin et George Washington étaient francs-maçons<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-40"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>40<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, mais des historiens comme Robert Palmer Roswell ont conclu que même en France, les francs-maçons, qui n’ont pas agi en groupe, étaient politiquement <span class="citation">« inoffensifs voire ridicules »</span><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-41"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>41<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. les historiens américains ont effectivement noté que Franklin et Washington étaient bien actifs dans la franc-maçonnerie, mais ils ont minimisé l’importance, à l’époque de la révolution américaine, de ce mouvement apolitique qui comprenait aussi bien des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Patriot_(r%C3%A9volution_am%C3%A9ricaine)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Patriot (révolution américaine)">Patriots</a> que des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Loyalistes_(r%C3%A9volution_am%C3%A9ricaine)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Loyalistes (révolution américaine)">Loyalistes</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-42"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>42<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>En ce qui concerne l’influence de la franc-maçonnerie sur le continent européen, l’historien allemand Reinhart Koselleck a affirmé que <span class="citation">« Sur le continent, il y avait deux structures sociales qui ont laissé une empreinte décisive sur les Lumières : la République des Lettres et les loges maçonniques »</span><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-43"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>43<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, tandis que Thomas Munck, professeur à l’université de Glasgow, a fait valoir que <span class="citation">« bien que les francs-maçons aient favorisé les contacts internationaux et intersociaux essentiellement non-religieux et ce, largement en accord avec les valeurs des Lumières, on ne peut guère les décrire comme un important réseau radical ou réformiste en propre »</span><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-44"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>44<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Les loges maçonniques anglaises et écossaises originaires des guildes de compagnons du <abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-45"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>45<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, se sont élargies à divers degrés, au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, dans un vaste ensemble d’associations interconnectées d’hommes, et parfois de femmes. Margaret Jacob affirme que celles-ci disposaient de leur propre mythologie et de codes de conduite spéciaux comprenant une même compréhension des notions de liberté et d’égalité héritées de la sociabilité des guildes : « liberté, fraternité et égalité »<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-46"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>46<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> La remarquable similitude de ces valeurs, généralement communes à la Grande-Bretagne et au continent, avec le slogan de la Révolution française de « Liberté, égalité, fraternité » a donné naissance à de nombreuses théories du complot. L’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Augustin_Barruel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Augustin Barruel">abbé Barruel</a> a notamment fait remonter les origines des Jacobins et, partant, de la Révolution, aux francs-maçons français dans son <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire du jacobinisme</i> (Londres, Ph. le Boussonnier ; Hambourg, P. Fauche 1797-98).</p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg/170px-Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1718" data-file-height="2688"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 266px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg/170px-Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="266" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg/255px-Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg/340px-Les_trois_ordres_6986.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> <i>L’union des trois ordres</i> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nicolas_Perseval?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nicolas Perseval">Nicolas Perseval</a> dépeignant la réconciliation des trois ordres à l'entrée d'un temple maçonnique (v. 1789). </figcaption> </figure> <p>Il est probable que les loges maçonniques ont eu un effet, hormis les théories du complot, sur la société dans son ensemble. Giuseppe Giarrizzo a souligné le rapport étroit entre francs-maçons et Lumières<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-47"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>47<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Jacob fait valoir que les loges maçonniques ont « reconstitué la vie politique et instauré une forme constitutionnelle d’autonomie gouvernementale, avec ses constitutions, ses lois, ses élections et ses représentants ». En d’autres termes, les micro-sociétés mises en place dans les loges ont constitué un modèle normatif pour la société dans son ensemble. Ceci était particulièrement vrai sur le continent : lorsque les premières loges ont commencé à apparaître dans les années 1730, leur incarnation des valeurs britanniques a souvent été perçue comme une menace par les autorités gouvernementales locales. Par exemple, la loge parisienne qui s’est réunie au milieu des années 1720 se composait d’exilés jacobites anglais<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-48"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>48<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Les francs-maçons de toute l’Europe du <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle faisaient, en outre, référence aux Lumières en général. Le rite d’initiation des loges françaises citait ainsi explicitement les Lumières. Les loges britanniques se fixaient comme objectif d’« initier ceux qui ne sont pas éclairés », ce qui ne représente pas nécessairement un lien entre les loges et l’irréligion, mais ne les excluent pas non plus à l’occasion de l’hérésie. Beaucoup de loges rendaient en fait hommage au « Grand Architecte », le terme de la phraséologie maçonnique pour désigner le créateur divin d’un univers scientifiquement ordonné<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-49"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>49<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Daniel Roche conteste néanmoins les revendications égalitaristes de la franc-maçonnerie : « l’égalité réelle des loges était élitiste », n’attirant que les personnes de milieux sociaux similaires<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-50"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>50<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Cette absence de véritable égalité a été rendue explicite par la constitution de la loge de Lausanne en Suisse (1741) :</p> <blockquote> <p>« L’ordre des francs-maçons est une société de confraternité et d’égalité représentée, à cette fin, sous l’emblème d’un niveau … un frère rend à un autre frère l’honneur et la déférence qui lui sont dus à juste titre à mesure de son rang dans la société civile<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-51"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>51<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. »</p> </blockquote> <p>L’élitisme a profité à certains membres de la société. La présence, par exemple, de femmes nobles dans les « loges d’adoption » françaises qui se sont formées dans les années 1780 est due en grande partie aux liens étroits entre ces loges et la société aristocratique<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-52"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>52<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-53"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>53<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Géographie_des_Lumières"><span id="G.C3.A9ographie_des_Lumi.C3.A8res"></span>Géographie des Lumières</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone"> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Fairytale_warning.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fairytale_warning.png/17px-Fairytale_warning.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="17" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 17px;height: 17px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fairytale_warning.png/17px-Fairytale_warning.png" data-alt="" data-width="17" data-height="17" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fairytale_warning.png/26px-Fairytale_warning.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fairytale_warning.png/34px-Fairytale_warning.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="bandeau-cell"> Cette section est vide, insuffisamment détaillée ou incomplète. <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:EditPage/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:EditPage/Siècle des Lumières">Votre aide</a> est la bienvenue ! <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aide:Comment_modifier_une_page?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aide:Comment modifier une page">Comment faire ?</a> </div> </div> <p>Les Lumières se sont pensées comme un mouvement européen<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-54"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>54<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, international et si le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Français">français</a> qui a détrôné le latin comme langue <span class="citation">« universelle »</span><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-55"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>55<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> semble s’imposer comme le langage par excellence de la nouvelle <span class="citation">« <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_des_Lettres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="République des Lettres">République des Lettres</a> »</span>, l’homme des Lumières est avant tout un <span class="citation">« cosmopolite »</span>, un <span class="citation">« citoyen du monde »</span><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-56"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>56<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> quand il n’est pas un apatride.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_Lumières_en_Prusse"><span id="Les_Lumi.C3.A8res_en_Prusse"></span>Les Lumières en Prusse</h3> </div> <p>Dans <i>Was ist Aufklärung?</i> (<i>Qu'est-ce que les Lumières ?</i>) en 1784, le philosophe <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Emmanuel Kant">Emmanuel Kant</a> dit que le progrès des Lumières consiste à limiter toujours davantage le despotisme du gouvernement. <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_II_(roi_de_Prusse)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Frédéric II (roi de Prusse)">Frédéric II</a>, roi de Prusse, pourtant despote lui-même, sut garantir dans son royaume la liberté de conscience et utilisa malicieusement les Lumières de Kant comme instrument de propagande et comme moyen de gouvernement en s'assurant l'alliance des meilleurs esprits de toute l'Europe en leur donnant la liberté de publier et de leur dire <span class="citation">« Raisonnez tant que vous voudrez, mais obéissez ! »</span>, pendant qu'ailleurs ils devaient tout autant obéir, mais sans pouvoir raisonner<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-57"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>57<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_Lumières_au_Portugal"><span id="Les_Lumi.C3.A8res_au_Portugal"></span>Les Lumières au Portugal</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_portugaises?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières portugaises">Lumières portugaises</a>. </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_lumières_en_Espagne"><span id="Les_lumi.C3.A8res_en_Espagne"></span>Les lumières en Espagne</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Espagne_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Espagne des Lumières">Espagne des Lumières</a>. </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_Lumières_en_Pologne"><span id="Les_Lumi.C3.A8res_en_Pologne"></span>Les Lumières en Pologne</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_polonaises?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières polonaises">Lumières polonaises</a>. </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_Lumières_en_Écosse"><span id="Les_Lumi.C3.A8res_en_.C3.89cosse"></span>Les Lumières en Écosse</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_%C3%A9cossaises?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières écossaises">Lumières écossaises</a>. </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Naissance_des_États-Unis_:_quête_du_bonheur_et_droit_à_la_liberté"><span id="Naissance_des_.C3.89tats-Unis_:_qu.C3.AAte_du_bonheur_et_droit_.C3.A0_la_libert.C3.A9"></span>Naissance des États-Unis : quête du bonheur et droit à la liberté</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Guerre_d%27ind%C3%A9pendance_des_%C3%89tats-Unis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis">Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis</a>. </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Civilisation_matérielle"><span id="Civilisation_mat.C3.A9rielle"></span>Civilisation matérielle</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <p><span class="need_ref" title="Ce passage semble contredire des informations fournies par d’autres sources." style="cursor:help;">Le <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">xviii</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle est aussi celui des lumières au sens propre : les portes et les fenêtres s'agrandissent, les éclairages s'améliorent, et la chimie des colorants fait de grands progrès : les classes moyennes se vêtent de couleurs vives et franches, comme auparavant la seule aristocratie<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-58"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>58<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</span><sup class="need_ref_tag" style="padding-left:2px;"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:V%C3%A9rifiabilit%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipédia:Vérifiabilité">[Information douteuse]</a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Ferveurs_nouvelles">Ferveurs nouvelles</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <p><span class="need_ref" title="Ce passage est confus." style="cursor:help;">Politiques, autant d'adversaires directs ou indirects des Ferveurs nouvelles. À leur influence s'ajoute, pour empêcher le progrès de la dévotion en <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/France?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="France">France</a>, la mode, cette mode qui, jusqu'au règne de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis_XIV_de_France?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV de France">Louis XIV</a>, sert à l'impiété de recommandation parmi les gens du monde<sup id="cite_ref-Pintard_59-0" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Pintard-59"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>59<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</span><sup class="need_ref_tag" style="padding-left:2px;"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Style_encyclop%C3%A9dique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Clair" title="Wikipédia:Style encyclopédique">[pas clair]</a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Chronologie">Chronologie</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <div class="timeline-wrapper"> <map name="timeline_32csetdhgwoc8tsmopfyn8otcbgjym8"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="598,134,756,154" title="Révolution française" alt="Révolution française"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1789?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="598,123,656,143" title="1789" alt="1789"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/D%C3%A9claration_d%27ind%C3%A9pendance_des_%C3%89tats%2DUnis_d%27Am%C3%A9rique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="545,98,825,119" title="Déclaration d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique" alt="Déclaration d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1776?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="545,87,603,108" title="1776" alt="1776"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die_ou_dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_des_sciences%2C_des_arts_et_des_m%C3%A9tiers?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="442,63,650,84" title="Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers" alt="Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1751?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="442,52,500,73" title="1751" alt="1751"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Benjamin_Constant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="508,476,694,496" title="Benjamin Constant" alt="Benjamin Constant"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="409,440,595,461" title="Thomas Jefferson" alt="Thomas Jefferson"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre%2DAugustin_Caron_de_Beaumarchais?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="364,405,522,426" title="Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais" alt="Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="331,370,500,390" title="Emmanuel Kant" alt="Emmanuel Kant"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Adam_Smith?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="327,334,480,355" title="Adam Smith" alt="Adam Smith"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="302,299,455,320" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert" alt="Jean le Rond d'Alembert"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Denis_Diderot?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="286,264,455,285" title="Denis Diderot" alt="Denis Diderot"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean%2DJacques_Rousseau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="282,229,496,249" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" alt="Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="257,193,449,214" title="Benjamin Franklin" alt="Benjamin Franklin"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voltaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="208,158,349,179" title="Voltaire" alt="Voltaire"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Montesquieu_(philosophe)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="187,123,346,143" title="Montesquieu (philosophe)" alt="Montesquieu (philosophe)"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Glorieuse_R%C3%A9volution?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="183,98,330,119" title="Glorieuse Révolution" alt="Glorieuse Révolution"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1688?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="183,87,241,108" title="1688" alt="1688"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_Westphalie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="19,63,172,84" title="Traité de Westphalie" alt="Traité de Westphalie"><area shape="rect" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1648?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" coords="19,52,77,73" title="1648" alt="1648"></map><img usemap="#timeline_32csetdhgwoc8tsmopfyn8otcbgjym8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/fr/timeline/32csetdhgwoc8tsmopfyn8otcbgjym8.png"> </div> <p><br></p> <p><br></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Principales_figures">Principales figures</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 978px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Kant5.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait d'Emmanuel Kant, Auteur inconnu"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait d'Emmanuel Kant, Auteur inconnu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kant5.jpg/91px-Kant5.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="2000"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 91px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kant5.jpg/91px-Kant5.jpg" data-alt="Portrait d'Emmanuel Kant, Auteur inconnu" data-width="91" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kant5.jpg/137px-Kant5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kant5.jpg/183px-Kant5.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait d'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Emmanuel Kant">Emmanuel Kant</a>, Auteur inconnu </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:David_Hume.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de David Hume (1711-1776), par Allan Ramsay en 1766."> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de David Hume (1711-1776), par Allan Ramsay en 1766." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/99px-David_Hume.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="1000"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 99px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/99px-David_Hume.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de David Hume (1711-1776), par Allan Ramsay en 1766." data-width="99" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/148px-David_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/198px-David_Hume.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/David_Hume?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (1711-1776), par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(peintre)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Allan Ramsay (peintre)">Allan Ramsay</a> en 1766. </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1753)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1753)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/81px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="1134"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 81px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/81px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1753)" data-width="81" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/121px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/162px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc_de_Buffon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc</a>, comte de Buffon (1753) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod,_Madame_Necker.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Suzanne Curchod (1739-1794)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Suzanne Curchod (1739-1794)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/93px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1700"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 93px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/93px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Suzanne Curchod (1739-1794)" data-width="93" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/140px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/186px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Suzanne_Curchod?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Suzanne Curchod">Suzanne Curchod</a> (1739-1794) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(painted_portrait).jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau par Maurice Quentin de la Tour, au XVIIIe siècle, musée Antoine Lecuyer"> <noscript> <img alt="Jean-Jacques Rousseau par Maurice Quentin de la Tour, au XVIIIe siècle, musée Antoine Lecuyer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/86px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1448" data-file-height="2016"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 86px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/86px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" data-alt="Jean-Jacques Rousseau par Maurice Quentin de la Tour, au XVIIIe siècle, musée Antoine Lecuyer" data-width="86" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/129px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/172px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> par Maurice Quentin de la Tour, au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, musée Antoine Lecuyer </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Denis_Diderot_111.PNG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Denis Diderot (1713-1784), par Louis-Michel van Loo"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Denis Diderot (1713-1784), par Louis-Michel van Loo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/97px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1652" data-file-height="2052"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 97px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/97px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG" data-alt="Portrait de Denis Diderot (1713-1784), par Louis-Michel van Loo" data-width="97" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/145px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG/193px-Denis_Diderot_111.PNG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Denis_Diderot?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a> (1713-1784), par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis-Michel_van_Loo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis-Michel van Loo">Louis-Michel van Loo</a> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:MarieduDeffand-transparent.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Madame du Deffand, par Eugène Asse (XVIIIe siècle)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Madame du Deffand, par Eugène Asse (XVIIIe siècle)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/MarieduDeffand-transparent.png/103px-MarieduDeffand-transparent.png" decoding="async" width="103" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="534"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 103px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/MarieduDeffand-transparent.png/103px-MarieduDeffand-transparent.png" data-alt="Portrait de Madame du Deffand, par Eugène Asse (XVIIIe siècle)" data-width="103" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/MarieduDeffand-transparent.png/154px-MarieduDeffand-transparent.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/MarieduDeffand-transparent.png/205px-MarieduDeffand-transparent.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Madame_du_Deffand?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Madame du Deffand">Madame du Deffand</a>, par Eugène Asse (<abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Marie Olympe de Gouges par Alexander Kucharsky."> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Marie Olympe de Gouges par Alexander Kucharsky." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg/98px-Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="447"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 98px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg/98px-Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Marie Olympe de Gouges par Alexander Kucharsky." data-width="98" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg/146px-Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg/195px-Marie-Olympe-de-Gouges.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de Marie <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a> par Alexander Kucharsky. </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/97px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="480"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 97px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/97px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg" data-alt="Portrait de Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)" data-width="97" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/146px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/195px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alessandro_Volta?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (1745-1827) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Inconnu,_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail,_d%C3%A9tail_(ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil)_-001.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749)."> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg/102px-Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="543"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 102px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg/102px-Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749)." data-width="102" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg/152px-Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg/203px-Inconnu%2C_portrait_de_madame_Du_Ch%C3%A2telet_%C3%A0_sa_table_de_travail%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Breteuil%29_-001.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a> (1706-1749). </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Montesquieu_1.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Montesquieu (1689-1755)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Montesquieu (1689-1755)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/98px-Montesquieu_1.png" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="1447"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 98px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/98px-Montesquieu_1.png" data-alt="Portrait de Montesquieu (1689-1755)" data-width="98" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/146px-Montesquieu_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/195px-Montesquieu_1.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Montesquieu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> (1689-1755) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg/97px-Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="1600"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 97px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg/97px-Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)" data-width="97" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg/145px-Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg/194px-Thomas_Jefferson_by_Mather_Brown.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (1743-1826) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) par Quentin de La Tour"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) par Quentin de La Tour" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg/95px-Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3004" data-file-height="3800"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 95px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg/95px-Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg" data-alt="Portrait de Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) par Quentin de La Tour" data-width="95" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg/142px-Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg/190px-Jean_d%27Alembert.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean_Le_Rond_d%27Alembert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean Le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a> (1717-1783) par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Quentin_de_La_Tour?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Quentin de La Tour">Quentin de La Tour</a> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:AdamSmith.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Adam Smith (1723-1790)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Adam Smith (1723-1790)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/80px-AdamSmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2173"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 80px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/80px-AdamSmith.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Adam Smith (1723-1790)" data-width="80" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/120px-AdamSmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/161px-AdamSmith.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Adam_Smith?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> (1723-1790) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Mario_Pagano.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Mario Pagano (1748-1799)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Mario Pagano (1748-1799)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mario_Pagano.jpg/120px-Mario_Pagano.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mario_Pagano.jpg/120px-Mario_Pagano.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Mario Pagano (1748-1799)" data-width="120" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mario_Pagano.jpg/180px-Mario_Pagano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Mario_Pagano.jpg/240px-Mario_Pagano.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Mario Pagano</a> (1748-1799) </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour,_Portrait_de_Voltaire,_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_(ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney).jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait de Voltaire (1694-1778)"> <noscript> <img alt="Portrait de Voltaire (1694-1778)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg/95px-D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="598"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 95px;height: 120px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg/95px-D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg" data-alt="Portrait de Voltaire (1694-1778)" data-width="95" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg/143px-D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg/191px-D%27apr%C3%A8s_Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour%2C_Portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_du_visage_%28ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferney%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span> </div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voltaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> (1694-1778) </div></li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Critiques">Critiques</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Critique_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Critique des Lumières">Critique des Lumières</a>. </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Notes_et_références"><span id="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Notes et références</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <div class="references-small decimal" style=""> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-1">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> John Marshall, <i>John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2006.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Paul_Hazard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paul Hazard">Paul Hazard</a>, <i>La crise de la conscience européenne (1680-1715)</i>, 1935</span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Les ministres et les ministères du siècle des Lumières, 1715-1789: Étude et dictionnaire. Arnaud de Maurepas, Antoine Boulant. Christian, 1996 </span></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-4">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.fr/books?id%3DhgYKtBJjyp4C">Le <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, 1715-1815</a>. Elisabeth Belmas. Editions Bréal, 1994.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-5">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.fr/books?id%3DhdmA9RWY7SEC"><i>Culture et politique dans la France des Lumières : (1715-1792)</i></a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Monique_Cottret?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Monique Cottret">Monique Cottret</a>. Armand Colin, 2002.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-6">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.fr/books?id%3Dmx6WDgAAQBAJ">La France des lumières (1715-1789)</a>, Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire. Belin, Humensis, <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/2701188911?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/2701188911"><span class="nowrap">2701188911</span></a>)</small>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-7">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.fr/books?id%3DPEYBq52mX1EC">Les consuls de France au siècle des lumières (1715-1792)</a>, Anne Mézin. Peter Lang, 1998.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-8">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.fr/books?id%3DrIgKCwAAQBAJ">Lumières et révolutions (1715-1815)</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olivier_Coquard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Olivier Coquard">Olivier Coquard</a>. Presses Universitaires de France, 2014.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-9">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jacques_Godechot?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jacques Godechot">Jacques Godechot</a>, <i>Les Révolutions</i>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-10">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Ainsi, des institutions comme la <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.isecs.org/isecs_sieds/_pages_french/toc_f.htm">Société internationale d’études du <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a>, ou des publications, comme la revue <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dix-Huiti%C3%A8me_Si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dix-Huitième Siècle">Dix-Huitième Siècle</a></i> ou des entreprises éditoriales comme le <i>Dictionnaire européen des Lumières</i> (sous la direction de Michel Delon, PUF, 2007) ont familiarisé le public avec cette expression.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-11">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Sur l’usage que fit le siècle de la formule, voir l’article de Jacques Roger, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.persee.fr/showPage.do?urn%3Dcaief_0571-5865_1968_num_20_1_906"><span class="citation">« La lumière et les lumières »</span></a> (<i>Cahiers de l’Association internationale des études françaises</i>, 1968, 20, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">167-177</span>) une archéologie de l’expression.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-12">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacques Roger, article cité <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 170.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-13">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"> Les philosophes « des Lumières » ont pour objectif d’éclairer leur siècle, d’amener une lumière nouvelle sur les questions restées sans réponse. <span class="citation">« […] nous voilà dans un siècle qui va devenir de jour en jour plus éclairé, de sorte que tous les siècles précédents ne seront que ténèbres en comparaison […] »</span> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre_Bayle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>, 1684</span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-14">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">« […] la Raison et la Loi fondée sur la Raison, doivent être les uniques reines des mortels, et […] lorsqu’une religion établie commence à pâlir et à s’éteindre devant les lumières d’un siècle éclairé […] c’est cette Raison qu’il faut alors presque diviniser. »</span> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nicolas_Antoine_Boulanger?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nicolas Antoine Boulanger">Nicolas Antoine Boulanger</a>, Préface aux <i>Recherches sur l’origine du Despotisme Oriental</i>, 1761</span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-15">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="citation">« Jamais siècle n’a été appelé plus souvent que le nôtre le siècle des lumières. »</span> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a>, <i>Le Banquet des politiques</i>, 1776. On trouve souvent les formules <span class="citation">« siècle des lumières et de la philosophie »</span> ou <span class="citation">« siècle des lumières et de la liberté »</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-16">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Albert_Soboul?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Albert Soboul">Albert Soboul</a>, <i>La Civilisation et la Révolution française</i>, Paris, Arthaud, 1978, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 19.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-17">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Paul Hazard, <i>La Crise de la conscience européenne (1680-1715)</i>, Fayard, 1967 ; Geoffrey Parker et Lesley M. Smith, <i>General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century</i>, Routledge, 1978 ; André Zysberg, <i>La Monarchie des Lumières (1715-1786)</i>, Nouvelle histoire de la France moderne, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="tome">t.</abbr> V</span>, Points Seuil, 2002, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="chapitre(s)">chap.</abbr> XII</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-18">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Ainsi la critique du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Colbertisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Colbertisme">colbertisme</a> dans le <i>Détail de la France</i> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre_Le_Pesant_de_Boisguilbert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre Le Pesant de Boisguilbert">Pierre Le Pesant de Boisguilbert</a>, imprimé clandestinement en 1695</span></li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-19">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Emmanuel Kant, <i>Qu’est-ce que les Lumières</i>, 1784.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-20">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ange_Goudar?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ange Goudar">Ange Goudar</a>, <i>L’Espion chinois ou, l’envoyé secret de la cour de Pékin, pour examiner l’État actuel de l’Europe</i>, Cologne, 1775.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-21">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marana?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Paul Marana">Jean-Paul Marana</a>, <i>L'Espion turc</i>, Cologne [i.e. Rouen], E. Kinkius, 1700.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-22">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Hubert Baysson, <i>L’Idée d’étranger chez les philosophes des Lumières</i>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89ditions_L%27Harmattan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Éditions L'Harmattan">Éditions L'Harmattan</a>, 2002.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-23">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Peter Barrett, <i>Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding</i>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Continuum_International_Publishing_Group?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Continuum International Publishing Group">Continuum International Publishing Group</a>, 2004 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/0-567-08969-X?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/0-567-08969-X"><span class="nowrap">0-567-08969-X</span></a>)</small> <small>[<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.fr/books?id%3DfwxViwX6KuMC%26pg%3DPA14%26dq%3D%26hl%3Den%26redir_esc%3Dy%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse">lire en ligne</a>]</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 14</span></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-24">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Christopher Alan Bayly, <i>La Naissance du monde moderne, (1780-1914)</i>, Paris, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89ditions_de_l%E2%80%99Atelier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Éditions de l’Atelier">Éditions de l’Atelier</a>, 2007, 606 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/9782708238602?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/9782708238602"><span class="nowrap">9782708238602</span></a>)</small>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-25">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Sur le sujet, on consultera utilement, Étienne François, « Les formes de sociabilité en France du milieu du <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> au milieu du <abbr class="abbr" title="19ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XIX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle », <i>Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine</i>, 34, juillet-septembre 1987, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">453-472</span> ; Catherine Larrère, <span class="citation">« Sociabilité »</span>, dans Michel Delon (sous la direction de), <i>Dictionnaire européen des Lumières</i>, Paris, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Presses_universitaires_de_France?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Presses universitaires de France">Presses universitaires de France</a>, 1997, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">998-1001</span> ; Keith Michael Baker, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.persee.fr/showPage.do?urn%3Dahess_0395-2649_1987_num_42_1_283368"><span class="citation">« Politique et opinion publique sous l’Ancien Régime ? »</span></a>, <i>Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales</i>, 1987, 42, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">41-71</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-26">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Sur ce point, l’historiographie s’est nourrie des réflexions de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-27">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Daniel_Roche?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Daniel Roche">Daniel Roche</a>, <i>Le Siècle des lumières en province : Académies et Académiciens provinciaux : 1680-1789</i>, Paris - La Haye, 1978.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-28">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Heyden-Rynsch, Verena Von Der, <i>Salons européens</i>, Paris, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Éditions Gallimard">Éditions Gallimard</a>, 1993.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-29">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Dans le <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Les_Confessions_(Rousseau)_-_Livre_V" class="extiw" title="s:Les Confessions (Rousseau) - Livre V">Livre V</a> des <i>Confessions</i>, il écrit : <span class="citation">« Quand j’étais à Motiers, j’allais faire des lacets chez mes voisines ; si je retournais dans le monde, j’aurais toujours dans ma poche un bilboquet, et j’en jouerais toute la journée pour me dispenser de parler quand je n’aurais rien à dire. Si chacun en faisait autant, les hommes deviendraient moins méchants, leur commerce deviendrait plus sûr, et je pense, plus agréable. Enfin, que les plaisants rient s’ils veulent, mais je soutiens que la seule morale à la portée du présent siècle est la morale du bilboquet. »</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-30">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Daniel Roche, <i>France in the Enlightenment</i>, 1998, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 420.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-31">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Roche, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 515, 516.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-32">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jeremy L. Caradonna, « Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle », <i>Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 64 (mai-juin 2009), <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 3, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">633-662</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-33">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Caradonna, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">634-36</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-34">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Caradonna, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="pages">pp.</abbr> 653-54</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-35">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Steven Shapin, <i>A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, Chicago et Londres, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, 1994.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-36">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, <i>Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life</i> (Princeton: <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Princeton_University_Press?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1985), 5, 56, 57. Ce même désir de témoins multiples a mené aux tentatives de reproduction des expériences dans d’autres emplacements et une iconographie complexe et une technologie littéraire a été développée pour fournir la preuve visuelle et écrite des expérimentations. Voir <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">59-65</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-37">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="pages">pp.</abbr> 75</span> & 89.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-38">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Roche, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 436.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-39">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 90.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-40">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Steven C. Bullock, "Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry", <i>Eighteenth-Century Life</i>, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="tome">t.</abbr> 20</span>, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, février 1996, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 81.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-41">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Robert R. Palmer, <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">The Age of the Democratic Revolution : The struggle</span></i>, 1970, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 53.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-42">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution", <i>The Historian</i> <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 55, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 2, 1993, <abbr class="abbr" title="page(s)">p.</abbr> 315 sq.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-43">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Reinhart Koselleck, <i>Critique and Crisis</i>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/MIT_Press?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cambridge_(Massachusetts)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cambridge (Massachusetts)">Cambridge Massachusetts</a>, 1988, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 62 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-0-262-61157-2?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-0-262-61157-2"><span class="nowrap">978-0-262-61157-2</span></a>)</small>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-44">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Thomas Munck, 1994, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 70.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-45">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 35.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-46">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 49.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-47">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><i>Massoneria e illuminismo nell'Europa del Settecento</i>, Venise, Marsilio, 1994, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 49.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-48">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="pages">pp.</abbr> 20</span>, 73 & 89.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-49">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">145–147</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-50">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Roche, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 437.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-51">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Cité par Jacob, p. 147.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-52">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Jacob, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 139. Voir également Janet M. Burke, <span class="lang-en" lang="en">"Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites", History of European Ideas</span> 10 <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 3, 1989, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">283-94</span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-53">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Voir <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/C%C3%A9cile_R%C3%A9vauger?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cécile Révauger">Cécile Révauger</a>, <i>Franc-maçonnerie et politique au siècle des Lumières : Europe-Amériques</i>, Pessac, PUB, 2006, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 7, 379 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/9782867814082?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/9782867814082"><span class="nowrap">9782867814082</span></a>)</small> et Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe, New York, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oxford_University_Press?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1991.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-54">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="1996">« <cite style="font-style:normal">Les conditions de la vie intellectuelle et culturelle en Suisse romande au temps des Lumières</cite> », <i>Annales Benjamin Constant 18-19</i>,‎ <time>1996</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0263-7383">0263-7383</a></span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Les+conditions+de+la+vie+intellectuelle+et+culturelle+en+Suisse+romande+au+temps+des+Lumi%C3%A8res&rft.jtitle=Annales+Benjamin+Constant+18-19&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=0263-7383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASi%C3%A8cle+des+Lumi%C3%A8res"></span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-55">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">En témoigne l’intitulé du sujet proposé par l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_royale_des_sciences_de_Prusse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Académie royale des sciences de Prusse">Académie de Berlin</a> en 1783 dont devait naître l’ouvrage d’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Antoine_de_Rivarol?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Antoine de Rivarol">Antoine de Rivarol</a>, <i><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/De_l%2527Universalit%25C3%25A9_de_la_langue_fran%25C3%25A7aise" class="extiw" title="s:De l'Universalité de la langue française">Discours sur l’Universalité de la langue française</a></i></span></li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-56">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Formule empruntée à l’ouvrage de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis-Charles_Fougeret_de_Monbron?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis-Charles Fougeret de Monbron">Louis-Charles Fougeret de Monbron</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6214823z">Le cosmopolite ou Le citoyen du monde</a></i>, Londres, 1753.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-57">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Michel_Muglioni2017"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jean_Michel_Muglioni2017">Jean Michel Muglioni, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Analyse critique de <i>Qu'est-ce que les Lumières</i> de Kant</cite> », <i>Collection « Classiques & Cie PHILO »</i>,‎ <time>2017</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 24<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Analyse+critique+de+%27%27Qu%27est-ce+que+les+Lumi%C3%A8res%27%27+de+Kant&rft.jtitle=Collection+%C2%AB+Classiques+%26+Cie+PHILO+%C2%BB&rft.au=Jean+Michel+Muglioni&rft.date=2017&rft.pages=24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASi%C3%A8cle+des+Lumi%C3%A8res"></span></span></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-58">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Pastoureau2019"><span class="ouvrage" id="Michel_Pastoureau2019"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Michel_Pastoureau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Michel Pastoureau">Michel <span class="nom_auteur">Pastoureau</span></a>, <cite class="italique">Jaune. Histoire d'une couleur</cite>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89ditions_du_Seuil?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Éditions du Seuil">Éditions du Seuil</a>, <time>2019</time>, 240 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-2-02-142057-9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-2-02-142057-9"><span class="nowrap">978-2-02-142057-9</span></a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/2-02-142057-4?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/2-02-142057-4"><span class="nowrap">2-02-142057-4</span></a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 181<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jaune.+Histoire+d%27une+couleur&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+du+Seuil&rft.aulast=Pastoureau&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=181&rft.tpages=240&rft.isbn=978-2-02-142057-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASi%C3%A8cle+des+Lumi%C3%A8res"></span></span></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Pintard-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Pintard_59-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Pintard2000"><span class="ouvrage" id="René_Pintard2000"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pintard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="René Pintard">René Pintard</a>, <cite class="italique">Le Libertinage érudit dans la première moitié du <abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</cite>, Paris, Slatkine, <time>2000</time>, <span class="petites_capitales" style="font-variant: small-caps;">xliii</span>, 765, 23 cm <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-2-05101-818-0?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-2-05101-818-0"><span class="nowrap">978-2-05101-818-0</span></a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://worldcat.org/fr/title/632495546">632495546</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DIeL29wMqdbgC%26pg%3DPAPA14">lire en ligne</a>)</small>, <abbr class="abbr" title="page">p.</abbr> 14<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Libertinage+%C3%A9rudit+dans+la+premi%C3%A8re+moiti%C3%A9+du+XVIIe%26nbsp%3Bsi%C3%A8cle&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Slatkine&rft.aulast=Pintard&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft.date=2000&rft.pages=14&rft.tpages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22petites_capitales%22+style%3D%22font-variant%3A+small-caps%3B%22%3Exliii%3C%2Fspan%3E%2C+765&rft.isbn=978-2-05101-818-0&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F632495546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASi%C3%A8cle+des+Lumi%C3%A8res"></span></span></span>.</span></li> </ol> </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2> </div> <section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r194021218">.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>.titre{text-align:center;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul>li{list-style:none;margin:0.2em 0;text-indent:0;padding-left:24px;min-height:20px;text-align:left;display:block}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul>li>a{font-style:italic}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .autres-projets{float:none}}</style> <div class="autres-projets boite-grise boite-a-droite noprint js-interprojets"> <p class="titre">Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :</p> <ul class="noarchive plainlinks"> <li class="wikisource"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Portail:Les_Lumi%25C3%25A8res" class="extiw" title="s:Portail:Les Lumières">Portail:Les Lumières</a>, <span class="nowrap">sur <span class="project">Wikisource</span></span></li> </ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3> </div> <ul> <li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Ole Peter Grell et Roy Porter, <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">Toleration in Enlightenment Europe</span></i>, Cambridge University Press, 2000.</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Daniel_Roche?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Daniel Roche">Daniel Roche</a>, <i>La France des Lumières</i>, Paris, Fayard, 1993 <span title="Document utilisé pour la rédaction de l’article"><span typeof="mw:File"><span> <noscript> <img alt="Document utilisé pour la rédaction de l’article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Icon_flat_design_plume.svg/20px-Icon_flat_design_plume.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="158"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 10px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Icon_flat_design_plume.svg/20px-Icon_flat_design_plume.svg.png" data-alt="Document utilisé pour la rédaction de l’article" data-width="20" data-height="10" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Icon_flat_design_plume.svg/30px-Icon_flat_design_plume.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Icon_flat_design_plume.svg/40px-Icon_flat_design_plume.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></span></span></span></li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Bibliographie_sélective"><span id="Bibliographie_s.C3.A9lective"></span>Bibliographie sélective</h3> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bibliographie_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliographie des Lumières">Bibliographie des Lumières</a>. </div> </div> <ul> <li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Daniel Gordon, <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">Citizens Without Sovereignty: Equality and Sociability in French Thought</span>, 1670-1789</i></li> <li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> J. O. Lindsay, <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">The Old Regime</span> (1713-1763)</i>,</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Max_Horkheimer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a>, <i>La dialectique de la raison: Fragments Philosophiques</i>, Paris, Gallimard, 1983</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre-Yves_Beaurepaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire">Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire</a>, <i>L’Europe des Lumières</i>, Paris, PUF, 2004</li> <li>Michel Delon, <i>Dictionnaire européen des Lumières</i>, Paris, PUF, 1997 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/2-13-048824-2?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/2-13-048824-2"><span class="nowrap">2-13-048824-2</span></a>)</small></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fernand_Braudel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a>, <i>Civilisation matérielle, Économie et Capitalisme, <span class="nowrap"><abbr class="abbr" title="tome">t.</abbr> III</span>, Le temps du monde</i></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Marcel_Brion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marcel Brion">Marcel Brion</a>, Henry Daussy, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières</i>, London, Thames & Hudson, 1974</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pierre_Chaunu?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pierre Chaunu">Pierre Chaunu</a>, <i>La Civilisation de l’Europe des Lumières</i>, Paris, Flammarion, 1997</li> <li>Pierre M. Conlon, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières : bibliographie chronologique</i>, Genève, Droz, 1983</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Cornette?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Joël Cornette">Joël Cornette</a>, <i>Histoire de la France : absolutisme et Lumières (1652-1783)</i>, Paris, Hachette supérieur, 2005</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Monique_Cottret?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Monique Cottret">Monique Cottret</a>, <i>Culture et politique dans la France des Lumières : 1715-1792</i>, Paris, Colin, 2002</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/B%C3%A9atrice_Didier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Béatrice Didier">Béatrice Didier</a>, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, MA Éditions, 1987.</li> <li>Norman Hampson, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, Seuil, 1972</li> <li>Heyden-Rynsch, Verena Von Der, <i>Salons européens</i>, Paris, Gallimard, 1993</li> <li>Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Daniel_Roche?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Daniel Roche">Daniel Roche</a>, <i>L’Invention technique au siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, Albin Michel, 2000</li> <li>Jacques d’Hondt, <i>Hegel et le siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, PUF, 1974</li> <li>Christine Le Bozec, <i>La Normandie au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle : croissance, Lumières et Révolution</i>, Rennes, Éditions Ouest-France, 2002</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Robert_Mandrou?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Robert Mandrou">Robert Mandrou</a>, <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/L%27Europe_absolutiste?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="L'Europe absolutiste">L’Europe <span class="citation">« absolutiste »</span>. Raison et raison d’État (1649–1775)</a></i>, Fayard, 1977.</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Xavier_Martin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Xavier Martin">Xavier Martin</a>, <i>Nature humaine et Révolution française : du siècle des Lumières au Code Napoléon</i>, Bouère, D.M. Morin, 1994</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Philippe_Minard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Philippe Minard">Philippe Minard</a>, <i>La Fortune du colbertisme : état et industrie dans la France des Lumières</i>, Paris, Fayard, 1998</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Henri_Plard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Henri Plard">Henri Plard</a>, <i>Morale et vertu au siècle des Lumières</i>, Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 1986</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bernard_Plongeron?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bernard Plongeron">Bernard Plongeron</a>, <i>Théologie et politique au siècle des Lumières (1770-1820)</i> Genève, Droz, 1973</li> <li>Gilbert Py, <i>L’Idée d’Europe au Siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, Vuibert, 2004</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis_R%C3%A9au?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis Réau">Louis Réau</a>, <i>L’Europe française au siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, A. Michel, 1951, 1938</li> <li>Catherine Salles, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières : 1715-1789</i>, Paris, Larousse, 1987</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Albert_Soboul?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Albert Soboul">Albert Soboul</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Guy_Lemarchand_(historien)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Guy Lemarchand (historien)">Guy Lemarchand</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Mich%C3%A8le_Fogel&action=edit&redlink=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Michèle Fogel (page inexistante)">Michèle Fogel</a>, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, PUF, 1977-1997</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Michel_Vovelle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Michel Vovelle">Michel Vovelle</a>, <i>Le Siècle des Lumières</i>, Paris, 1977-1999.</li> <li>Revue <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nouvelle_%C3%89cole?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nouvelle École">Nouvelle École</a></i> n°65, <i>Les Lumières</i>, 2016</li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Articles_connexes">Articles connexes</h3> </div> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_(philosophie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières (philosophie)">Philosophie des Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Histoire_de_France_au_XVIIIe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Histoire de France au XVIIIe siècle">Histoire de France au <abbr class="abbr" title="18ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVIII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27enfance_en_Europe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Histoire de l'enfance en Europe">Histoire de l'enfance en Europe</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Espagne_des_Lumi%C3%A8res?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Espagne des Lumières">Espagne des Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_%C3%A9cossaises?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lumières écossaises">Lumières écossaises</a></li> <li><i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die_ou_Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_des_sciences,_des_arts_et_des_m%C3%A9tiers?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers">Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers</a></i></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Philosophie_de_la_Renaissance?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Philosophie de la Renaissance">Philosophie de la Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tol%C3%A9rance?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tolérance">Tolérance</a> des Lumières</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rationalisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rationalisme">Rationalisme</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Despotisme_%C3%A9clair%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Despotisme éclairé">Despotisme éclairé</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Haskala?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Haskala">Haskala</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anticl%C3%A9ricalisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anticléricalisme">Anticléricalisme</a></li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Liens_externes">Liens externes</h3> </div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"></p> <ul> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><span class="liste-horizontale noarchive"><span class="wd_identifiers">Ressource relative à la recherche<span class="noprint wikidata-linkback skin-invert"><span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12539?uselang%3Dfr%23identifiers" title="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata"> <noscript> <img alt="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 10px;height: 10px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" data-alt="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata" data-width="10" 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role="contentinfo"><a class="last-modified-bar" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Si%C3%A8cle_des_Lumi%C3%A8res&action=history&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"><span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="RSVartanian" data-user-gender="male" data-timestamp="1735553910"> <span>Dernière modification le 30 décembre 2024, à 11:18</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div></a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id="mw-data-after-content"> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Langues</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verligting" title="Verligting – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verligting" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%25C3%25A4rung" title="Aufklärung – alémanique" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Aufklärung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="alémanique" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%258B%25A8%25E1%2589%25A5%25E1%2588%25AD%25E1%2588%2583%25E1%258A%2593%25E1%2589%25B5_%25E1%258A%25AD%25E1%258D%258D%25E1%2588%2588_%25E1%258B%2598%25E1%2588%2598%25E1%258A%2595" title="የብርሃናት ክፍለ ዘመን – amharique" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የብርሃናት ክፍለ ዘመን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="amharique" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%25C3%25B3n" title="Ilustración – aragonais" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B1_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AA%25D9%2586%25D9%2588%25D9%258A%25D8%25B1" title="عصر التنوير – arabe" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر التنوير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B1_%25D8%25AA%25D9%2586%25D9%2588%25D9%258A%25D8%25B1" title="عصر تنوير – arabe marocain" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="عصر تنوير" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="arabe marocain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B1_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AA%25D9%2586%25D9%2588%25D9%258A%25D8%25B1" title="عصر التنوير – arabe égyptien" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عصر التنوير" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="arabe égyptien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%25C3%25B3n" title="Ilustración – asturien" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarif%25C3%25A7ilik_d%25C3%25B6vr%25C3%25BC" title="Maarifçilik dövrü – azerbaïdjanais" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maarifçilik dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaïdjanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25A2%25DB%258C%25D8%25AF%25DB%258C%25D9%2586%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7_%25DA%2586%25D8%25A7%25D8%25BA%25DB%258C" title="آیدینلانما چاغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آیدینلانما چاغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="bon article"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D3%2599%25D2%2593%25D1%2580%25D0%25B8%25D1%2584%25D3%2599%25D1%2582%25D1%2581%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BA_%25D0%25B4%25D3%2599%25D2%25AF%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5" title="Мәғрифәтселек дәүере – bachkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәғрифәтселек дәүере" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="bachkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%25C3%25A4rung_(neuzeitlich)" title="Aufklärung (neuzeitlich) – bavarois" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Aufklärung (neuzeitlich)" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="bavarois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C5%25A0v%25C4%2597it%25C4%2597ma_om%25C5%25BEios" title="Švėitėma omžios – samogitien" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Švėitėma omžios" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="samogitien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2590%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25BD%25D1%2596%25D1%2586%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B0" title="Асветніцтва – biélorusse" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Асветніцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="biélorusse" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25AD%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D1%2585%25D0%25B0_%25D0%2590%25D1%2581%25D1%258C%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25BD%25D1%2596%25D1%2586%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B0" title="Эпоха Асьветніцтва – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эпоха Асьветніцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2589%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B5" title="Просвещение – bulgare" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Просвещение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgare" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A6%2586%25E0%25A6%25B2%25E0%25A7%258B%25E0%25A6%2595%25E0%25A6%25BF%25E0%25A6%25A4_%25E0%25A6%25AF%25E0%25A7%2581%25E0%25A6%2597" title="আলোকিত যুগ – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আলোকিত যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25BD%25A2%25E0%25BD%25B2%25E0%25BD%2582%25E0%25BD%25A6%25E0%25BC%258B%25E0%25BD%25A6%25E0%25BD%2591%25E0%25BC%258B%25E0%25BD%2591%25E0%25BD%25B4%25E0%25BD%25A6%25E0%25BC%258B%25E0%25BD%25A2%25E0%25BD%2596%25E0%25BD%25A6%25E0%25BC%258D" title="རིགས་སད་དུས་རབས། – tibétain" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རིགས་སད་དུས་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="tibétain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantved_ar_Skl%25C3%25AArijenn" title="Kantved ar Sklêrijenn – breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kantved ar Sklêrijenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvjetiteljstvo" title="Prosvjetiteljstvo – bosniaque" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prosvjetiteljstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%25C2%25B7lustraci%25C3%25B3" title="Il·lustració – catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Il·lustració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%25C4%2593-m%25C3%25B9ng_S%25C3%25AC-d%25C3%25A2i" title="Kiē-mùng Sì-dâi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Kiē-mùng Sì-dâi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD_%25D0%25BC%25D1%2583%25D1%2580" title="Серлонан мур – tchétchène" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Серлонан мур" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="tchétchène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B3%25DB%2595%25D8%25B1%25D8%25AF%25DB%2595%25D9%2585%25DB%258C_%25DA%2595%25DB%2586%25D8%25B4%25D9%2586%25DA%25AF%25DB%2595%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C" title="سەردەمی ڕۆشنگەری – sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەردەمی ڕۆشنگەری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarif_devri" title="Maarif devri – tatar de Crimée" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Maarif devri" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="tatar de Crimée" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osv%25C3%25ADcenstv%25C3%25AD" title="Osvícenství – tchèque" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Osvícenství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tchèque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C3%2587%25D1%2583%25D1%2582%25D0%25BB%25C4%2583%25D1%2585_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8" title="Çутлăх самани – tchouvache" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çутлăх самани" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="tchouvache" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Oleuedigaeth" title="Yr Oleuedigaeth – gallois" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Oleuedigaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="gallois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="article recommandé"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oplysningstiden" title="Oplysningstiden – danois" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oplysningstiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkl%25C3%25A4rung" title="Aufklärung – allemand" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aufklärung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="allemand" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25CE%2594%25CE%25B9%25CE%25B1%25CF%2586%25CF%2589%25CF%2584%25CE%25B9%25CF%2583%25CE%25BC%25CF%258C%25CF%2582" title="Διαφωτισμός – grec" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διαφωτισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment – anglais" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Age of Enlightenment" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klerismo" title="Klerismo – espéranto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Klerismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="espéranto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%25C3%25B3n" title="Ilustración – espagnol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espagnol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgustusajastu" title="Valgustusajastu – estonien" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Valgustusajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argien_Garaia" title="Argien Garaia – basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Argien Garaia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%25C3%25B3n" title="Ilustración – estrémègne" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="estrémègne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B5%25D8%25B1_%25D8%25B1%25D9%2588%25D8%25B4%25D9%2586%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C" title="عصر روشنگری – persan" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر روشنگری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valistus" title="Valistus – finnois" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Valistus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finnois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgustusaig" title="Valgustusaig – võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Valgustusaig" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppl%25C3%25BDsingart%25C3%25AD%25C3%25B0in" title="Upplýsingartíðin – féroïen" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Upplýsingartíðin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="féroïen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apklaarang" title="Apklaarang – frison septentrional" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Apklaarang" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="frison septentrional" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferljochting_(streaming)" title="Ferljochting (streaming) – frison occidental" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ferljochting (streaming)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="frison occidental" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Eagna%25C3%25ADocht" title="An Eagnaíocht – irlandais" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Eagnaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soillseachadh" title="Soillseachadh – gaélique écossais" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Soillseachadh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="gaélique écossais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustraci%25C3%25B3n" title="Ilustración – galicien" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ilustración" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galicien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A4%25D8%25B4%25D9%2586%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C%25CB%2587_%25D8%25B2%25D9%2585%25D8%25AA" title="رؤشنگریˇ زمت – gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="رؤشنگریˇ زمت" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C3%2581ra_Mba%2527ekua%25C3%25A1va" title="Ára Mba'ekuaáva – guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ára Mba'ekuaáva" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamanin_Haskakawa" title="Zamanin Haskakawa – haoussa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Zamanin Haskakawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="haoussa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%25A2%25D7%2599%25D7%2593%25D7%259F_%25D7%2594%25D7%25A0%25D7%2590%25D7%2595%25D7%25A8%25D7%2595%25D7%25AA" title="עידן הנאורות – hébreu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עידן הנאורות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hébreu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AF%25E0%25A5%2582%25E0%25A4%25B0%25E0%25A5%258B%25E0%25A4%25AA%25E0%25A5%2580%25E0%25A4%25AF_%25E0%25A4%259C%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%259E%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25A8%25E0%25A5%258B%25E0%25A4%25A6%25E0%25A4%25AF" title="यूरोपीय ज्ञानोदय – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यूरोपीय ज्ञानोदय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment – hindi fidjien" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Age of Enlightenment" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="hindi fidjien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="article de qualité"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvjetiteljstvo" title="Prosvjetiteljstvo – croate" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prosvjetiteljstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felvil%25C3%25A1gosod%25C3%25A1s" title="Felvilágosodás – hongrois" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Felvilágosodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hongrois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D4%25BC%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25BD%25D5%25A1%25D5%25BE%25D5%25B8%25D6%2580%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25A9%25D5%25B5%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B6_%25D5%25A4%25D5%25A1%25D6%2580%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B7%25D6%2580%25D5%25BB%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B6" title="Լուսավորության դարաշրջան – arménien" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լուսավորության դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="arménien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismo" title="Illuminismo – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Illuminismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Pencerahan" title="Abad Pencerahan – indonésien" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Pencerahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panawen_ti_Pannakapalpalawag" title="Panawen ti Pannakapalpalawag – ilocano" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Panawen ti Pannakapalpalawag" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="ilocano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racion-epoko" title="Racion-epoko – ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Racion-epoko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppl%25C3%25BDsingin" title="Upplýsingin – islandais" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Upplýsingin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismo" title="Illuminismo – italien" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Illuminismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%2595%2593%25E8%2592%2599%25E6%2599%2582%25E4%25BB%25A3" title="啓蒙時代 – japonais" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="啓蒙時代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iej_a_Inlaitnment" title="Iej a Inlaitnment – créole jamaïcain" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Iej a Inlaitnment" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="créole jamaïcain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2583%2592%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%259C%25E1%2583%259B%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%259C%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%2597%25E1%2583%259A%25E1%2583%2594%25E1%2583%2591%25E1%2583%259A%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%2591%25E1%2583%2590" title="განმანათლებლობა – géorgien" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="განმანათლებლობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="géorgien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%25CA%258And%25CA%258As%25CA%258A%25CA%258A_kpa%25C9%25A3%25C9%2596%25CA%258A_(Si%25C3%25A8cle_des_lumi%25C3%25A8res)" title="Mʊndʊsʊʊ kpaɣɖʊ (Siècle des lumières) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Mʊndʊsʊʊ kpaɣɖʊ (Siècle des lumières)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2590%25D2%2593%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D1%2583%25D1%2588%25D1%258B%25D0%25BB%25D1%258B%25D2%259B_%25D0%25B4%25D3%2599%25D1%2583%25D1%2596%25D1%2580%25D1%2596" title="Ағартушылық дәуірі – kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ағартушылық дәуірі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EA%25B3%2584%25EB%25AA%25BD%25EC%258B%259C%25EB%258C%2580" title="계몽시대 – coréen" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="계몽시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coréen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oos_an_Golowyans" title="Oos an Golowyans – cornique" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Oos an Golowyans" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="cornique" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismus" title="Illuminismus – latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Illuminismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilustrasion" title="Ilustrasion – ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Ilustrasion" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%25C3%25A4italter_vun_de_Lumi%25C3%25A8res" title="Zäitalter vun de Lumières – luxembourgeois" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Zäitalter vun de Lumières" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxembourgeois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumina" title="Lumina – lingua franca nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lumina" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="lingua franca nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C3%2596pkl%25C3%25A4reng" title="Öpkläreng – limbourgeois" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Öpkläreng" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limbourgeois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iluminism" title="Iluminism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Iluminism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inluminism" title="Inluminism – lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Inluminism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25BA%258D%25E0%25BA%25B8%25E0%25BA%2581%25E0%25BB%2581%25E0%25BA%25AA%25E0%25BA%2587%25E0%25BA%25AA%25E0%25BA%25B0%25E0%25BA%25AB%25E0%25BA%25A7%25E0%25BB%2588%25E0%25BA%25B2%25E0%25BA%2587" title="ຍຸກແສງສະຫວ່າງ – lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຍຸກແສງສະຫວ່າງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C5%25A0vie%25C4%258Diamasis_am%25C5%25BEius" title="Šviečiamasis amžius – lituanien" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šviečiamasis amžius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituanien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apgaism%25C4%25ABbas_laikmets" title="Apgaismības laikmets – letton" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Apgaismības laikmets" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D1%2582%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD%25D1%258C_%25D1%258D%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D1%2585%25D0%25B0%25D1%2581%25D1%258C" title="Тонафтомань эпохась – mokcha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Тонафтомань эпохась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="mokcha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taonjaton%2527_ny_Fahazavana" title="Taonjaton' ny Fahazavana – malgache" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Taonjaton' ny Fahazavana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgache" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaik_Pancarahan" title="Abaik Pancarahan – minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Abaik Pancarahan" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE" title="Просветителство – macédonien" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Просветителство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macédonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B4%259C%25E0%25B5%258D%25E0%25B4%259E%25E0%25B4%25BE%25E0%25B4%25A8%25E0%25B5%258B%25E0%25B4%25A6%25E0%25B4%25AF%25E0%25B4%2595%25E0%25B4%25BE%25E0%25B4%25B2%25E0%25B4%2582" title="ജ്ഞാനോദയകാലം – malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജ്ഞാനോദയകാലം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D1%258D%25D0%25B3%25D1%258D%25D1%258D%25D1%2580%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B9%25D0%25BD_%25D2%25AF%25D0%25B5" title="Гэгээрлийн үе – mongol" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гэгээрлийн үе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Pencerahan" title="Zaman Pencerahan – malais" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Pencerahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiluminismo" title="Eiluminismo – mirandais" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiluminismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="mirandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2580%2589%25E1%2580%25AC%25E1%2580%258F%25E1%2580%25BA%25E1%2580%25A1%25E1%2580%259C%25E1%2580%2584%25E1%2580%25BA%25E1%2580%25B8%25E1%2580%2595%25E1%2580%25BD%25E1%2580%2584%25E1%2580%25B7%25E1%2580%25BA%25E1%2580%2581%25E1%2580%25B1%25E1%2580%2590%25E1%2580%25BA" title="ဉာဏ်အလင်းပွင့်ခေတ် – birman" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဉာဏ်အလင်းပွင့်ခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opkl%25C3%25A4rung" title="Opklärung – bas-allemand" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Opklärung" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="bas-allemand" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlechting" title="Verlechting – bas-saxon néerlandais" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Verlechting" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="bas-saxon néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%2586%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A4%259C%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%259E%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25A8%25E0%25A4%25AF%25E0%25A4%25BE_%25E0%25A4%25AF%25E0%25A5%2581%25E0%25A4%2597" title="आत्मज्ञानया युग – newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आत्मज्ञानया युग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verlichting_(stroming)" title="Verlichting (stroming) – néerlandais" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verlichting (stroming)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opplysingstida" title="Opplysingstida – norvégien nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Opplysingstida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvégien nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opplysningstiden" title="Opplysningstiden – norvégien bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Opplysningstiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvégien bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%25C3%25A8gle_de_las_Luses" title="Sègle de las Luses – occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sègle de las Luses" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A8%2597%25E0%25A8%25BF%25E0%25A8%2586%25E0%25A8%25A8_%25E0%25A8%25A6%25E0%25A8%25BE_%25E0%25A8%25AF%25E0%25A9%2581%25E0%25A8%2597" title="ਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਯੁਗ – pendjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਯੁਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="pendjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%25C5%259Bwiecenie_(epoka)" title="Oświecenie (epoka) – polonais" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oświecenie (epoka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25DA%2586%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25DD%25A8_%25D9%2588%25DB%258C%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7" title="چانݨ ویلا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چانݨ ویلا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AF_%25D8%25B1%25D9%2588%25D8%25B4%25D9%2586%25DA%25AB%25D8%25B1%25DB%258D_%25D8%25AF%25D9%2588%25D8%25B1%25D9%2587" title="د روشنګرۍ دوره – pachto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روشنګرۍ دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="pachto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iluminismo" title="Iluminismo – portugais" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Iluminismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminissem" title="Illuminissem – romanche" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Illuminissem" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="romanche" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iluminism" title="Iluminism – roumain" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Iluminism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="roumain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25AD%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D1%2585%25D0%25B0_%25D0%259F%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2589%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Эпоха Просвещения – russe" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпоха Просвещения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D1%2596%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D1%258C%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE" title="Просвітительство – ruthène" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Просвітительство" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="ruthène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismu" title="Illuminismu – sarde" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Illuminismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="sarde" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminismu" title="Illuminismu – sicilien" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Illuminismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="sicilien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_o_Enlichtenment" title="Age o Enlichtenment – écossais" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Age o Enlichtenment" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="écossais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="article de qualité"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosvjetiteljstvo" title="Prosvjetiteljstvo – serbo-croate" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prosvjetiteljstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Age of Enlightenment" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osvietenstvo" title="Osvietenstvo – slovaque" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Osvietenstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razsvetljenstvo" title="Razsvetljenstvo – slovène" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Razsvetljenstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiliga_baraarujinta_Reer_Galbeed" title="Xiliga baraarujinta Reer Galbeed – somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Xiliga baraarujinta Reer Galbeed" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_e_Iluminizmit" title="Epoka e Iluminizmit – albanais" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epoka e Iluminizmit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="article de qualité"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D1%2599%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE" title="Просветитељство – serbe" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Просветитељство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upplysningstiden" title="Upplysningstiden – suédois" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Upplysningstiden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suédois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zama_za_Mwangaza" title="Zama za Mwangaza – swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Zama za Mwangaza" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AE%2585%25E0%25AE%25B1%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25B5%25E0%25AF%258A%25E0%25AE%25B3%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AF%258D_%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AE%25BE%25E0%25AE%25B2%25E0%25AE%25AE%25E0%25AF%258D" title="அறிவொளிக் காலம் – tamoul" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவொளிக் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamoul" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B8%25A2%25E0%25B8%25B8%25E0%25B8%2584%25E0%25B9%2580%25E0%25B8%25A3%25E0%25B8%25B7%25E0%25B8%25AD%25E0%25B8%2587%25E0%25B8%259B%25E0%25B8%25B1%25E0%25B8%258D%25E0%25B8%258D%25E0%25B8%25B2" title="ยุคเรืองปัญญา – thaï" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคเรืองปัญญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thaï" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%25C5%2588-bilim_e%25C3%25BD%25C3%25BDamy" title="Aň-bilim eýýamy – turkmène" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Aň-bilim eýýamy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="turkmène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_ng_Kaliwanagan" title="Panahon ng Kaliwanagan – tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panahon ng Kaliwanagan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayd%25C4%25B1nlanma_%25C3%2587a%25C4%259F%25C4%25B1" title="Aydınlanma Çağı – turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aydınlanma Çağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259C%25D3%2599%25D0%25B3%25D1%258A%25D1%2580%25D0%25B8%25D1%2584%25D3%2599%25D1%2582%25D1%2587%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BA_%25D1%2587%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D1%258B" title="Мәгърифәтчелек чоры – tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Мәгърифәтчелек чоры" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25B2%25D1%2596%25D1%2582%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D1%2586%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE" title="Просвітництво – ukrainien" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Просвітництво" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B9%25DB%2581%25D8%25AF_%25D8%25B1%25D9%2588%25D8%25B4%25D9%2586_%25D8%25AE%25DB%258C%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25DB%258C" title="عہد روشن خیالی – ourdou" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عہد روشن خیالی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="ourdou" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%25CA%25BCrifatchilik" title="Maʼrifatchilik – ouzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Maʼrifatchilik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="ouzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%25C5%2582uminismo" title="Iłuminismo – vénitien" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Iłuminismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="vénitien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%25E1%25BB%259Di_k%25E1%25BB%25B3_Khai_S%25C3%25A1ng" title="Thời kỳ Khai Sáng – vietnamien" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thời kỳ Khai Sáng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_han_Panlalamrag" title="Panahon han Panlalamrag – waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Panahon han Panlalamrag" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%2590%25AF%25E8%2592%2599%25E6%2597%25B6%25E4%25BB%25A3" title="启蒙时代 – wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="启蒙时代" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2583%2592%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%259C%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%2597%25E1%2583%25A3%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%25A0%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%2591%25E1%2583%2590" title="გონათუარობა – mingrélien" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გონათუარობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="mingrélien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%2590%25D7%2595%25D7%2599%25D7%25A4%25D7%25A7%25D7%259C%25D7%25A2%25D7%25A8%25D7%2595%25D7%25A0%25D7%2592" title="אויפקלערונג – yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אויפקלערונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%2595%259F%25E8%2592%2599%25E6%2599%2582%25E4%25BB%25A3" title="啟蒙時代 – chinois" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="啟蒙時代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%2595%259F%25E8%2592%2599" title="啟蒙 – chinois littéraire" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="啟蒙" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="chinois littéraire" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%25C3%25A9-b%25C3%25B4ng_S%25C3%25AE-t%25C4%2581i" title="Khé-bông Sî-tāi – minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khé-bông Sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%2595%259F%25E8%2592%2599%25E6%2599%2582%25E6%259C%259F" title="啟蒙時期 – cantonais" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="啟蒙時期" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-fr.svg" alt="Wikipédia" width="119" height="18" style="width: 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