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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value_of_preventing_a_casualty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Value of preventing a casualty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value_of_preventing_a_casualty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparisons_to_other_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparisons_to_other_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Comparisons to other methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparisons_to_other_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Policy applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimates_of_the_value_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimates_of_the_value_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Estimates of the value of life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Estimates_of_the_value_of_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Estimates of the value of life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Estimates_of_the_value_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>European Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Singapore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> 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id="toc-Concerns_with_valuing_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concerns_with_valuing_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Concerns with valuing life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concerns_with_valuing_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valor_de_la_vida" title="Valor de la vida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Valor de la vida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeur_de_la_vie" title="Valeur de la vie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Valeur de la vie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Стоимость человеческой жизни – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стоимость человеческой жизни" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A4m%C3%A4n_arvo" title="Elämän arvo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elämän arvo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4rdet_av_ett_statistiskt_liv" title="Värdet av ett statistiskt liv – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Värdet av ett statistiskt liv" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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theory">value</a> used to quantify the benefit of avoiding a fatality.<sup id="cite_ref-DPMC_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DPMC-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also referred to as the <b>cost of life</b>, <b>value of preventing a fatality</b> (<b>VPF</b>), <b>implied cost of averting a fatality</b> (<b>ICAF</b>), and <b>value of a statistical life</b> (<b>VSL</b>). In <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political sciences</a>, it is the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">marginal cost</a> of death prevention in a certain class of circumstances. In many studies the value also includes the quality of life, the expected life time remaining, as well as the earning potential of a given person especially for an after-the-fact payment in a <a href="/wiki/Wrongful_death_claim" title="Wrongful death claim">wrongful death claim</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a>. </p><p>As such, it is a statistical term, the value of reducing the <a href="/wiki/Average" title="Average">average</a> number of deaths by one. It is an important issue in a wide range of disciplines including <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worker_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker safety">worker safety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">environmental impact assessment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Process_safety" title="Process safety">process safety</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The motivation for placing a monetary value on life is to enable policy and regulatory analysts to allocate the limited supply of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">resources</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_capital" title="Public capital">infrastructure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">labor</a>, and tax revenue. Estimates for the value of a life are used to compare the life-saving and risk-reduction benefits of new policies, regulations, and projects against a variety of other factors,<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often using a <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost-benefit analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Estimates for the statistical value of life are published and used in practice by various government agencies. In <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western countries</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal democracies">liberal democracies</a>, estimates for the value of a statistical life typically range from <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$1 million</span>–<span style="white-space: nowrap">US$10 million</span>; for example, the United States <a href="/wiki/FEMA" class="mw-redirect" title="FEMA">FEMA</a> estimated the value of a statistical life at <span style="white-space: nowrap">US$7.5 million</span> in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-fema_vsl_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fema_vsl-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment_in_economics_and_methods_of_calculation">Treatment in economics and methods of calculation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Treatment in economics and methods of calculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> There is no standard concept for the value of a specific human life in <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>. However, when looking at risk/reward trade-offs that people make with regard to their health, economists often consider the value of a statistical life (VSL). The VSL is very different from the value of an actual life. It is the value placed on changes in the likelihood of death, not the price someone would pay to avoid certain death. This is best explained by way of an example. From the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a>'s website:</p><blockquote><p>Suppose each person in a sample of 100,000 people were asked how much he or she would be willing to pay for a reduction in their individual risk of dying by 1 in 100,000, or 0.001%, over the next year. Since this reduction in risk would mean that we would expect one fewer death among the sample of 100,000 people over the next year on average, this is sometimes described as "one statistical life saved.” Now suppose that the average response to this hypothetical question was $100. Then the total dollar amount that the group would be willing to pay to save one statistical life in a year would be $100 per person × 100,000 people, or $10 million. This is what is meant by the "value of a statistical life.” <sup id="cite_ref-EPA_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This again emphasizes that VSL is more of an estimate of willingness to pay for small reductions in mortality risks rather than how much a human life is worth. Using government spending to see how much is spent to save lives in order to estimate the average individual VSL is a popular method of calculation. The United States government does not have an official value of life threshold, but different values are used in different agencies. It might be that the government values lives quite highly or that calculation standard are not applied uniformly.<sup id="cite_ref-PFPB_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFPB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> as an example, the Agency uses estimates of how much people are willing to pay for small reductions in their risks of dying from adverse health conditions that may be caused by environmental pollution in their <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost-benefit analyses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economists often estimate the VSL by looking at the risks that people are voluntarily willing to take and how much they must be paid for taking them.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method is known as <a href="/wiki/Revealed_preference" title="Revealed preference">revealed preference</a>, where the actions of the individual reveal how much they value something. In this context, economists would look at how much individuals are willing to pay for something that reduces their chance of dying. Similarly, compensating differentials, which are the reduced or additional wage payments that are intended to compensate workers for conveniences or downsides of a job, can be used for VSL calculations. For example, a job that is more dangerous for a worker's health might require that the worker be compensated more. The compensating differentials method has several weaknesses. One issue is that the approach assumes that people have information, which is not always available. Another issue is that people may have higher or lower perceptions of risk they are facing that do not equate to actual statistical risk. In general, it is difficult for people to accurately understand and assess risk. It is also hard to control for other aspects of a job or different types of work when using this method.<sup id="cite_ref-PFPB_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFPB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, revealed preference may not represent population preferences as a whole because of the differences between individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Rohlfs_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rohlfs-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One method that can be used to calculate VSL is summing the total <a href="/wiki/Present_discounted_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Present discounted value">present discounted value</a> of lifetime earnings. There are a couple of problems using this method. One potential source of variability is that different <a href="/wiki/Interest_rate#Related_terms" title="Interest rate">discount rates</a> can be used in this calculation, resulting in dissimilar VSL estimates. Another potential issue when using wages to value life is that the calculation does not take into account the value of time that is not spent working, such as vacation or leisure.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, VSL estimates may be inaccurate because time spent on leisure could be valued at a higher rate than an individual's wage.<sup id="cite_ref-PFPB_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFPB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another method used to estimate VSL is <a href="/wiki/Contingent_valuation" title="Contingent valuation">contingent valuation</a>. Contingent valuation asks individuals to value an option either that they have not chosen or are unable to currently choose.<sup id="cite_ref-PFPB_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFPB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economists might estimate the VSL by simply asking people (e.g. through questionnaires) how much they would be willing to pay for a reduction in the likelihood of dying, perhaps by purchasing safety improvements.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of studies are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Choice_modelling#Stated_preference" title="Choice modelling">stated preference</a> studies. However, contingent valuation has some flaws. The first problem is known as the isolation of issues, where participants may give different values when asked to value something alone versus when they are asked to value multiple things. The order of how these issues are presented to people matters as well.<sup id="cite_ref-PFPB_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PFPB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another potential issue is the “<a href="/wiki/Embedding_effect" title="Embedding effect">embedding effect</a>” identified by Diamond and Hausman 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these methods might result in a VSL that is overstated or understated. </p><p>When calculating value of statistical life, it is important to discount and adjust it for inflation and real income growth over the years. An example of a formula needed to adjust the VSL of a specific year is given by the following: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {VSL}_{T}={VSL}_{O}*{\frac {P_{T}}{P_{O}}}*\left({\frac {I_{T}}{I_{O}}}\right)^{\epsilon }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>V</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>V</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>O</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∗</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>O</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>∗</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>O</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {VSL}_{T}={VSL}_{O}*{\frac {P_{T}}{P_{O}}}*\left({\frac {I_{T}}{I_{O}}}\right)^{\epsilon }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a47f6e9f06b27ec68dec37da861b04b94ac5c1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:31.583ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {VSL}_{T}={VSL}_{O}*{\frac {P_{T}}{P_{O}}}*\left({\frac {I_{T}}{I_{O}}}\right)^{\epsilon }}"></span> </p><p>where </p><p>VSL<sub>O</sub> = Original Base Year, VSL<sub>T</sub> = Updated Base Year, P<sub>T</sub> = Price Index in Year t, I<sub>T</sub> = Real Incomes in Year t, ε = Income Elasticity of VSL. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value_of_preventing_a_casualty">Value of preventing a casualty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Value of preventing a casualty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Value_of_Preventing_a_Casualty"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Value of Preventing a Casualty</span></span></b> (<b>VPC</b>) is a more general concept to value of preventing a fatality.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It means the value of preventing a fatality or a serious injury.<sup id="cite_ref-era_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-era-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_and_Social_Council" title="United Nations Economic and Social Council">Economic and Social Council</a>'s provisional agenda for review and analysis of the economic costs of level crossing accidents,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>"the value of preventing a casualty should be established by either Willingness-To-Pay or Human Capital/Lost Output approaches. It is essential to consider not only fatal injuries, but also serious (or even minor injuries) in this statistical life valuation exercise."</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparisons_to_other_methods">Comparisons to other methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Comparisons to other methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The value of statistical life (VSL) estimates are often used in the transport sector<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in process safety (where it may be coupled with the <a href="/wiki/ALARP" class="mw-redirect" title="ALARP">ALARP</a> concept).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">health economics</a> and in the pharmaceutical sector, however, the value of a <a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life-year" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality-adjusted life-year">quality-adjusted life-year</a> (QALY) is used more often than the VSL. Both of these measures are used in cost-benefit analyses as a method of assigning a monetary value of bettering or worsening one's life conditions. While QALY measures the quality of life ranging from 0–1, VSL monetizes the values using willingness-to-pay.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers have first attempted to monetize QALY in the 1970s, with countless studies being done to standardize values between and within countries. However, as with the QALY, VSL estimates have also had a history of vastly differing ranges of estimates within countries, notwithstanding a standardization among countries. One of the biggest movements to do so was the EuroVaQ project which used a sample of 40,000 individuals to develop the WTP of several European countries.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policy_applications">Policy applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Policy applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Value of life estimates are frequently used to estimate the benefits added due to a new policy or act passed by the government. One example is the 6-year retroactive study on the benefits and costs of the 1970 Clean Air Act<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in the period from 1970 to 1990. This study was commissioned by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Office_of_Air_and_Radiation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Office of Air and Radiation (page does not exist)">Office of Air and Radiation</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Office_of_Policy,_Planning_and_Evaluation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation (page does not exist)">Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation</a>, but was carried out by an independent board of public health experts, economists, and scientists headed by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Schmalensee" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Schmalensee">Richard Schmalensee</a> of <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On conducting the benefit-cost analysis, the team measured each dollar value of an environmental benefit by estimating a how many dollars a person is willing to pay in order to decrease or eliminate a current threat to their health, otherwise known as their "<a href="/wiki/Willingness-to-pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Willingness-to-pay">willingness-to-pay</a>" (WTP). The WTP of the U.S. population was estimated and summed for separate categories including mortality, chronic bronchitis, hypertension, IQ changes, and strokes. Thus, the individual WTPs were added to get the value of a statistical life (VSL) for each category considered in the valuation of the act's benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each valuation in figure 1 was the product of several studies which compiled both solicited WTP information from individuals and WTP estimates from risk compensation demanded in the current labor market and was averaged to find a singular VSL. Such data from the labor market was taken from the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_Fatal_Occupational_Injuries" title="Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries">Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries</a> collected by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, the valuation estimates used for mortality were divided by the typical life expectancy of each survey sample in order to get a dollar estimate per life-year lost or saved which was discounted with a 5 percent discount rate.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using these estimates, the paper concluded that the benefits, ranging from $5.6 to $49.4 trillion in 1990 dollars, of implementing the Clean Air Act from 1970 to 1990 outweighed the economic costs of $523 billion in 1990 dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimates_of_the_value_of_life">Estimates of the value of life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Estimates of the value of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is missing information</b> about value in year 2000 US dollar equivalents (currently we have a mix of different nations’ dollars from different times, which isn’t easy to compare); some way to compare per-year/QALY value with whole-life value.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Value_of_life" title="Talk:Value of life">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Equivalent parameters are used in many countries, with significant variation in the value assigned.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:International_VSL_with_data_values.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/International_VSL_with_data_values.png/220px-International_VSL_with_data_values.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/International_VSL_with_data_values.png/330px-International_VSL_with_data_values.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/International_VSL_with_data_values.png/440px-International_VSL_with_data_values.png 2x" data-file-width="1532" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption>International VSL with data values<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement"><span title="This claim has reliable sources with contradicting facts (October 2021)">disputed</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Value_of_life" title="Talk:Value of life">discuss</a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: European Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Agency_for_Railways" title="European Union Agency for Railways">ERA</a> fall back <a href="/wiki/Value_of_Preventing_a_Casualty" class="mw-redirect" title="Value of Preventing a Casualty">VPC</a> in 2016 in €<sup id="cite_ref-era_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-era-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Fatality</th> <th>Serious Injury</th> <th>Slight injury </th></tr> <tr> <td>Austria</td> <td>3,601,014</td> <td>569,387</td> <td>43,974 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Belgium</td> <td>3,582,968</td> <td>550,056</td> <td>42,488 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bulgaria</td> <td>1,728,479</td> <td>242,133</td> <td>18,703 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Croatia</td> <td>2,541,972</td> <td>355,636</td> <td>27,459 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Czech Republic</td> <td>3,028,481</td> <td>428,346</td> <td>33,055 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Denmark</td> <td>3,988,844</td> <td>622,286</td> <td>48,084 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Estonia</td> <td>2,921,585</td> <td>416,085</td> <td>32,124 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Finland</td> <td>3,248,716</td> <td>517,252</td> <td>39,987 </td></tr> <tr> <td>France</td> <td>3,122,352</td> <td>486,856</td> <td>37,628 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Germany</td> <td>3,455,179</td> <td>539,346</td> <td>41,660 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Greece</td> <td>2,326,951</td> <td>356,127</td> <td>27,527 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hungary</td> <td>2,761,351</td> <td>383,034</td> <td>29,559 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ireland</td> <td>5,085,099</td> <td>747,910</td> <td>57,709 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Italy</td> <td>3,248,106</td> <td>501,498</td> <td>38,735 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latvia</td> <td>2,338,370</td> <td>337,234</td> <td>26,049 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lithuania</td> <td>2,697,114</td> <td>389,643</td> <td>30,071 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Luxembourg</td> <td>6,491,289</td> <td>996,412</td> <td>76,843 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Netherlands</td> <td>3,550,348</td> <td>543,938</td> <td>42,020 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Norway</td> <td>3,402,766</td> <td>573,324</td> <td>44,341 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Poland</td> <td>2,412,823</td> <td>341,458</td> <td>26,356 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Portugal</td> <td>2,541,032</td> <td>385,934</td> <td>29,815 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Romania</td> <td>2,443,038</td> <td>339,588</td> <td>26,203 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slovakia</td> <td>2,846,309</td> <td>404,481</td> <td>31,222 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Slovenia</td> <td>2,425,302</td> <td>364,655</td> <td>28,182 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spain</td> <td>3,019,875</td> <td>458,207</td> <td>35,392 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sweden</td> <td>3,296,192</td> <td>520,782</td> <td>40,270 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Switzerland</td> <td>4,422,265</td> <td>759,440</td> <td>58,666 </td></tr> <tr> <td>United Kingdom</td> <td>2,873,899</td> <td>481,459</td> <td>37,222 </td></tr> <tr> <td>EU average</td> <td>3,273,910</td> <td>498,591</td> <td>38,514 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sweden">Sweden</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Sweden, the value of a statistical life has been estimated from 9 to 98 million SEK (€0.9 - 10.6 million).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>34.6 million SEK (€3.7 million) mean of studies in Sweden from 1995 and on</li> <li>23 million SEK (€2.5 million) median of studies in Sweden from 1995 and on</li> <li>22 million SEK (€2.4 million) recommended by official authorities</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Australia, the value of a statistical life has been set at: </p> <ul><li>AU$5.4 million (2023)<sup id="cite_ref-DPMC_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DPMC-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>AU$235,000 per year (2023)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using a hedonic wage approach, the VSL in India among blue-collar male workers in manufacturing industries of Ahmedabad, Gujarat has been estimated to be 44.69 million INR ($0.64 million) in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In New Zealand, the value of a statistical life has been set at: </p> <ul><li>NZ$2 million (1991) by NZTA<sup id="cite_ref-NZTA_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZTA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>NZ$3.85 million (2013) by The Treasury<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>NZ$4.14 million (2016) by NZTA<sup id="cite_ref-NZTA_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZTA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>NZ$4.53 million (June 2019) by Ministry of Transport <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>NZ$150,000 per year (2022) by Ministry of Health <sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Singapore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The value of statistical life (VSL) in Singapore was estimated in 2007 via a contingent valuation survey that elicits willingness-to-pay (WTP) for mortality risk reductions, which interviewed 801 Singaporeans and Singapore Permanent Residents aged 40 and above, entailing a value of statistical life of approximately S$850,000 to S$2.05 million (in 2007 S$, which is approximately 1.36 S$ in 2022). Mean WTP was also shown to have an inverse relationship with age, and is about 20% lower for persons aged 70 and older. Consistent with existing literature, the study also finds that mean WTP is not affected by physical health; but is affected by mental health. In addition, mean WTP is not affected by covariates such as gender, race, and personal income, but is affected by covariates such as household income, age, occupation and level of education.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For traffic accidents, the WTP-based VSL was estimated in 2008 at S$1.87 million (in 2008 S$, which is approximately 1.27 S$ in 2022). This was also compared against WTP-based VSL estimates in other countries, including 4.63 million for the US, 3.11 million for Sweden, 2.41 million for the UK, 2.38 million for New Zealand and 1.76 million for the EU (in 2008 S$).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The VSL obtained by other methods may differ significantly. For instance, if the VSL is estimated from the World Bank VSL adjusted to country-specific gross domestic product, which reflects a <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> approach, then the VSL in Singapore would be calculated to be US$8.96 million in 2014 (S$11.3 million in 2014, in 2014 S$, which is approximately 1.09 S$ in 2022).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies by <a href="/wiki/Hacettepe_University" title="Hacettepe University">Hacettepe University</a> estimated the VSL at about half a million <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">purchasing power parity</a> adjusted 2012 US dollars,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the value of a healthier and longer life (VHLL) for Turkey at about 42,000 <a href="/wiki/Turkish_lira" title="Turkish lira">lira</a> (about $27,600 in PPP-adjusted 2012 USD), and the value of a life year (VOLY) as about 10,300 TL (about $6,800 in PPP-adjusted 2012 USD), all as of 2012<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> the estimated produced economic value for a life time for Turkey was US$59,000 which was 5.4 times GDP per capita.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to different estimates life value in Russia varies from $40,000 up to $2 million. On the results of opinion poll life value (as the cost of financial compensation for the death) in the beginning of 2015 was about $71,500.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2013, the value of preventing a fatal casualty was £1.7m (2013 prices) in UK.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following estimates have been applied to the value of life. The estimates are either for <i>one year</i> of additional life or for the statistical value of a <i>single</i> life. </p> <ul><li>$50,000 per year of quality life (the "dialysis standard",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had been a de facto international standard most private and government-run health insurance plans worldwide use to determine whether to cover a new medical procedure)<sup id="cite_ref-time_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$129,000 per year of quality life (an update to the "dialysis standard")<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-time_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$7.5 million (Federal Emergency Management Agency, Jul. 2020)<sup id="cite_ref-fema_vsl_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fema_vsl-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$9.1 million (Environmental Protection Agency, 2010)<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$9.2 million (Department of Transportation, 2014)<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$9.6 million (Department of Transportation, Aug. 2016)<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$12.5 million (Department of Transportation, 2022)<sup id="cite_ref-:6_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>$13.2 million (Department of Transportation, 2023)<sup id="cite_ref-:6_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Income_elasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Income elasticity">income elasticity</a> of the value of statistical life has been estimated at 0.5 to 0.6.<sup id="cite_ref-ViscusiAldy_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ViscusiAldy-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing markets have smaller statistical value of life.<sup id="cite_ref-ViscusiAldy_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ViscusiAldy-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statistical value of life also decreases with age.<sup id="cite_ref-ViscusiAldy_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ViscusiAldy-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, children were valued little monetarily, but changes in cultural norms have resulted in a substantial increase as evinced by trends in damage compensation from wrongful death lawsuits.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Knowing the value of life is helpful when performing a cost-benefit analysis, especially in regard to public policy. In order to decide whether or not a policy is worth undertaking, it is important to accurately measure costs and benefits. Public programs that deal with things like safety (i.e. highways, disease control, housing) require accurate valuations in order to budget spending.<sup id="cite_ref-Citation_dorothy_rice_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Citation_dorothy_rice-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since resources are finite, <a href="/wiki/Trade-off" title="Trade-off">trade-offs</a> are inevitable, even regarding potential life-or-death decisions. The assignment of a value to individual life is one possible approach to attempting to make <a href="/wiki/Rational_decision" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational decision">rational decisions</a> about these trade-offs. </p><p> When deciding on the appropriate level of health care spending, a typical method is to equate the marginal cost of the health care to the marginal benefits received.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Hall_Charles_Jones_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Hall_Charles_Jones-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to obtain a marginal benefit amount, some estimation of the dollar value of life is required. One notable example was found by Stanford professor Stefanos Zenios, whose team calculated the <a href="/wiki/Cost-effectiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost-effectiveness">cost-effectiveness</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">kidney dialysis</a>. His team found that the VSL implied by then current dialysis practice averages about US$129,000 per quality-adjusted life year (<a href="/wiki/QALY" class="mw-redirect" title="QALY">QALY</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Zenios_Stanford_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zenios_Stanford-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This calculation has important implications for health care as Zenios explained: </p><blockquote><p> "That means that if Medicare paid an additional $129,000 to treat a group of patients, on average, group members would get one more quality-adjusted life year."<sup id="cite_ref-Time_Magazine_Dialysis_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time_Magazine_Dialysis-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a> activities such as in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">workplace safety</a>, and insurance, it is often useful to put a precise economic value on a given life. The <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a> sets penalties and regulations for companies to comply with safety standards to prevent workplace injuries and deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-OSHA_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OSHA-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be argued that these high penalties are intended to act as a deterrent so that companies have an incentive to avoid them. As such, the price of the fines would have to be roughly equivalent to the value of a human life. Although some studies of the effectiveness of fines as a deterrent have found mixed results.<sup id="cite_ref-CA_law_review_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA_law_review-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In transportation modes it is very important to consider the <a href="/wiki/External_cost" class="mw-redirect" title="External cost">external cost</a> that is paid by the society but is not calculated, for making it more <a href="/wiki/Sustainable" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable">sustainable</a>. The external cost, although consisting of impacts on <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> among others, is largely determined by impacts on <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The value of a statistical life has come under criticism from a range of sources both in economics and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These criticisms range from concerns with the specific methodology used, to value a statistical life to the very prospect of valuing life and using it in cost benefit analyses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concerns_with_aggregation">Concerns with aggregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Concerns with aggregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some economists have argued that the value of a statistical life should be "disaggregated" to better capture the differences in mortality risk reduction preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a> and others have argued that the value of a statistical life should vary by type of risks, as people are more concerned about some risks than others, and by individuals, as some people are more risk seeking than others.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is proposed to ensure the accuracy of the measurement, as using an average may force some people to pay more than they are willing to for risk reduction, and prevent policies from being enacted for people who are willing to pay more than average for mortality risk reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concerns_with_valuing_life">Concerns with valuing life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Concerns with valuing life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some philosophers and policymakers have concerns about the underlying idea of valuing a statistical life at all. While some of these concerns represent a misunderstanding of what is meant by the value of a statistical life, many express concerns with the project of valuing lives.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_S._Anderson" title="Elizabeth S. Anderson">Elizabeth Anderson</a> and other philosophers have argued that the methods for measuring the value of a statistical life are insufficiently accurate as they rely on wage studies that are conducted in non-competitive labor markets where workers have insufficient information about their working conditions to accurately determine the risk of death from taking a particular job.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further these philosophers contend that some goods (including mortality risk, as well as environmental goods) are simply incommensurate, it is impossible to compare them, and therefore impossible to monetize them and put them on a single scale, making the very practice of valuing a statistical life problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economists have responded to the more superficial concerns by advocating renaming or rebranding the value of a statistical life as a "micromort" or the amount someone would be willing to pay to reduce a one in one million risk of death, though philosophers contend that this does not resolve the underlying issues.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ALARP" class="mw-redirect" title="ALARP">ALARP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonic_damages" title="Hedonic damages">Hedonic damages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic value (ethics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life#Psychological_significance_and_value_in_life" title="Meaning of life">Psychological significance and value in life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">Value (personal and cultural)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DPMC-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DPMC_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DPMC_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oia.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/value-of-statistical-life.pdf">"Best Practice Regulation Guidance Note: Value of statistical life"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Australian Government. October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Best+Practice+Regulation+Guidance+Note%3A+Value+of+statistical+life&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Prime+Minister+and+Cabinet%2C+Australian+Government&rft.date=2023-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foia.pmc.gov.au%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2023-10%2Fvalue-of-statistical-life.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Ted R. (2000). "Variations between Countries in Values of Statistical Life". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Transport_Economics_and_Policy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Transport Economics and Policy (page does not exist)">Journal of Transport Economics and Policy</a></i>. <b>34</b>: 169–188. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5258">0022-5258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Transport+Economics+and+Policy&rft.atitle=Variations+between+Countries+in+Values+of+Statistical+Life&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=169-188&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0022-5258&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Ted+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranksWhiteheadCrossthwaiteSmall2002" class="citation book cs1">Franks, Andrew; Whitehead, Richard; Crossthwaite, Phil; Small, Louise (2002). <i>Application of QRA in Operational Safety Issues</i>. Research Report 025. Sudbury: <a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">HSE Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7176-2570-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7176-2570-2"><bdi>0-7176-2570-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Application+of+QRA+in+Operational+Safety+Issues&rft.place=Sudbury&rft.series=Research+Report+025&rft.pub=HSE+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7176-2570-2&rft.aulast=Franks&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Whitehead%2C+Richard&rft.au=Crossthwaite%2C+Phil&rft.au=Small%2C+Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRausand2011" class="citation book cs1">Rausand, Marvin (2011). <i>Risk Assessment: Theory, Methods, and Applications</i>. 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Why Cost Benefit Analysis Values Rich Lives More and How Philosophy Can Fix it</i></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carneades.org&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carneades.org (page does not exist)">Carneades.org</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8986128610" title="Special:BookSources/979-8986128610"><bdi>979-8986128610</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+All+Lives+Equal%3F+Why+Cost+Benefit+Analysis+Values+Rich+Lives+More+and+How+Philosophy+Can+Fix+it&rft.pub=Carneades.org&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=979-8986128610&rft.au=Carneades&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F361535357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1993" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Elizabeth (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27430064"><i>Value in ethics and economics</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-93189-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-93189-0"><bdi>0-674-93189-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27430064">27430064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Value+in+ethics+and+economics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27430064&rft.isbn=0-674-93189-0&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F27430064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnCurran2021" class="citation journal cs1">John, Stephen David; Curran, Emma J. (2021-03-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jme.bmj.com/content/early/2021/03/19/medethics-2020-107103">"Costa, cancer and coronavirus: contractualism as a guide to the ethics of lockdown"</a>. <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i>. <b>48</b> (9): 643–650. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fmedethics-2020-107103">10.1136/medethics-2020-107103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0306-6800">0306-6800</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7985975">7985975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33741680">33741680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=Costa%2C+cancer+and+coronavirus%3A+contractualism+as+a+guide+to+the+ethics+of+lockdown&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=643-650&rft.date=2021-03-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7985975%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0306-6800&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33741680&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fmedethics-2020-107103&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Stephen+David&rft.au=Curran%2C+Emma+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjme.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2Fearly%2F2021%2F03%2F19%2Fmedethics-2020-107103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunstein2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sunstein, Cass (2004-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol54/iss2/2">"Valuing Life: A Plea for Disaggregation"</a>. <i>Duke Law Journal</i>. <b>54</b> (2): 385–445. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-7086">0012-7086</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15940845">15940845</a>. <q>First, VSL should vary across risks. For example, people are willing to pay high amounts to avoid cancer risks, and hence there is reason to think that people's VSL is higher for cancer deaths than for sudden, unanticipated deaths. Cancer risks are involved in the work of many regulatory agencies, and people seem to be particularly concerned about such risks, in a way that should produce a high VSL- almost unquestionably higher than the values that agencies now use. More generally, deaths that produce unusual fear, or that are accompanied by high levels of pain and suffering, should be expected to produce a higher VSL. Human beings face countless mortality risks, and it would be truly bizarre to maintain that people value avoiding each of those risks identically. Second, VSL should vary across individuals, simply because different people are willing to pay different amounts to avoid risks. People who are risk averse will be willing to pay more, and will therefore show a higher VSL, than people who are risk-seeking. Those who are rich will show a higher VSL than those who are poor. People who are thirty might well show a higher VSL than people who are sixty. It follows that different demographic groups will show diversity in their VSLs as well.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Duke+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Valuing+Life%3A+A+Plea+for+Disaggregation&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=385-445&rft.date=2004-11-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15940845&rft.issn=0012-7086&rft.aulast=Sunstein&rft.aufirst=Cass&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.duke.edu%2Fdlj%2Fvol54%2Fiss2%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarneades2022" class="citation book cs1">Carneades (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361535357"><i>Are All Lives Equal? Why Cost Benefit Analysis Values Rich Lives More and How Philosophy Can Fix it</i></a>. Carneades.org. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8986128610" title="Special:BookSources/979-8986128610"><bdi>979-8986128610</bdi></a>. <q>we should value risks by demographic groups so that if a particular group is more impacted by a risk than another, we can use a more accurate value of a statistical life for that group. This will assure that the government neither imposes undue costs or fails to eliminate risks that individuals would be willing to pay to eliminate.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+All+Lives+Equal%3F+Why+Cost+Benefit+Analysis+Values+Rich+Lives+More+and+How+Philosophy+Can+Fix+it&rft.pub=Carneades.org&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=979-8986128610&rft.au=Carneades&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F361535357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAckerman2004" class="citation book cs1">Ackerman, Frank (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52819812"><i>Priceless: on knowing the price of everything and the value of nothing</i></a>. Lisa Heinzerling. New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-850-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-850-0"><bdi>1-56584-850-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52819812">52819812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Priceless%3A+on+knowing+the+price+of+everything+and+the+value+of+nothing&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52819812&rft.isbn=1-56584-850-0&rft.aulast=Ackerman&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F52819812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagoff2004" class="citation book cs1">Sagoff, Mark (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76951369"><i>Price, principle, and the environment</i></a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-511-23172-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-511-23172-5"><bdi>0-511-23172-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/76951369">76951369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Price%2C+principle%2C+and+the+environment&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F76951369&rft.isbn=0-511-23172-5&rft.aulast=Sagoff&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F76951369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarneades2022" class="citation book cs1">Carneades (25 June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361535357"><i>Are All Lives Equal? Why Cost Benefit Analysis Values Rich Lives More and How Philosophy Can Fix it</i></a>. Carneades.org. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8986128610" title="Special:BookSources/979-8986128610"><bdi>979-8986128610</bdi></a>. <q>If there are some goods that cannot be compared, then the project of attempting to monetize all of the benefits and costs for comparison is flawed from the start. If you accept this position, you may have a way out of the original problematic conclusion. If we cannot compare the value of a life and other benefits, then the problem of disparately valued lives comes from trying to convert a life into something with which it cannot be compared: money.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+All+Lives+Equal%3F+Why+Cost+Benefit+Analysis+Values+Rich+Lives+More+and+How+Philosophy+Can+Fix+it&rft.pub=Carneades.org&rft.date=2022-06-25&rft.isbn=979-8986128610&rft.au=Carneades&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F361535357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphyTopel2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_M._Murphy" title="Kevin M. Murphy">Murphy, Kevin M.</a>; Topel, Robert H. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.nber.org/papers/w11405.pdf">"The Value of Health and Longevity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Political_Economy" title="Journal of Political Economy">Journal of Political Economy</a></i>. <b>114</b> (5): 871–904. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F508033">10.1086/508033</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19755649">19755649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Value+of+Health+and+Longevity&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=871-904&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F508033&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19755649%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Kevin+M.&rft.au=Topel%2C+Robert+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpapers.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fw11405.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchelling1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Schelling" title="Thomas Schelling">Schelling, Thomas C.</a> (1987). "Value of Life". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</a></i>. Vol. 4. pp. 793–96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Value+of+Life&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.pages=793-96&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Schelling&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Viscusi, W. Kip (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/olin_center/papers/pdf/422.pdf"><i>The Value of Life: Estimates with Risks by Occupation and Industry</i></a> (PDF). Discussion Paper No. 422. Cambridge, Mass.: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1045-6333">1045-6333</a>. Retrieved 17 July 2023.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_of_life&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/facts_stats/t75702.cfm">"Motor Vehicle Accident Costs"</a>. US Department of Transportation. 31 October 1994.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Motor+Vehicle+Accident+Costs&rft.pub=US+Department+of+Transportation&rft.date=1994-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsafety.fhwa.dot.gov%2Ffacts_stats%2Ft75702.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Insurance" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Insurance" title="Template:Insurance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Insurance" title="Template talk:Insurance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Insurance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Insurance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Insurance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <br />insurance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_insurance" title="Accident insurance">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_death_and_dismemberment_insurance" title="Accidental death and dismemberment insurance">Accidental death and dismemberment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_insurance" title="Dental insurance">Dental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_insurance" title="Disability insurance">Disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Total_permanent_disability_insurance" title="Total permanent disability insurance">Total permanent disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_overhead_expense_disability_insurance" title="Business overhead expense disability insurance">Business overhead expense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_protection_insurance" title="Income protection insurance">Income protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_care_insurance" title="Long-term care insurance">Long-term care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payment_protection_insurance" title="Payment protection insurance">Payment protection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longevity_insurance" title="Longevity insurance">Longevity insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_life_insurance" title="Mortgage life insurance">Mortgage life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_life_insurance" title="Term life insurance">Term life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitised_insurance_fund" title="Unitised insurance fund">Unitised fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_life_insurance" title="Universal life insurance">Universal life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_universal_life_insurance" title="Variable universal life insurance">Variable universal life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_life_insurance" title="Whole life insurance">Whole life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Business</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bond_insurance" title="Bond insurance">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_interruption_insurance" title="Business interruption insurance">Business interruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_owner%27s_policy" title="Business owner's policy">Business owner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_protection_insurance" title="Collateral protection insurance">Collateral protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directors_and_officers_liability_insurance" title="Directors and officers liability insurance">Directors and officers liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity_bond" title="Fidelity bond">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Over-redemption_insurance" title="Over-redemption insurance">Over-redemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payment_protection_insurance" title="Payment protection insurance">Payment protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_insurance" title="Pollution insurance">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_liability_insurance" title="Professional liability insurance">Professional liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_and_indemnity_insurance" title="Protection and indemnity insurance">Protection and indemnity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surety" title="Surety">Surety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_credit_insurance" title="Trade credit insurance">Trade credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_insurance" title="Umbrella insurance">Umbrella</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Residential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiler_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Boiler insurance">Boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Builder%27s_risk_insurance" title="Builder's risk insurance">Builder's risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contents_insurance" title="Contents insurance">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_insurance" title="Earthquake insurance">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_insurance" title="Flood insurance">Flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_insurance" title="Home insurance">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlords%27_insurance" title="Landlords' insurance">Landlords'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenders_mortgage_insurance" title="Lenders mortgage insurance">Lenders mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_insurance" title="Mortgage insurance">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_insurance" title="Property insurance">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renters%27_insurance" title="Renters' insurance">Renters'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_insurance" title="Title insurance">Title</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transport/<br />Communication</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_insurance" title="Aviation insurance">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GAP_insurance" title="GAP insurance">GAP insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_marine_insurance" title="Inland marine insurance">Inland marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_auto_insurance" title="Public auto insurance">Public auto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_insurance" title="Marine insurance">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_insurance" title="Satellite insurance">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_insurance" title="Shipping insurance">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_insurance" title="Travel insurance">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_insurance" title="Vehicle insurance">Vehicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance" title="Reinsurance">Reinsurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_bond" title="Catastrophe bond">Catastrophe bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance-linked_security" title="Insurance-linked security">Insurance-linked securities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casualty_insurance" title="Casualty insurance">Casualty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance#Casualty_insurance" title="Insurance">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop_insurance" title="Crop insurance">Crop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_crop_insurance" title="Catastrophic crop insurance">Catastrophic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-peril_crop_insurance" title="Multi-peril crop insurance">Multi-peril</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_insurance" title="Cyber insurance">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposit_insurance" title="Deposit insurance">Deposit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expatriate_insurance" title="Expatriate insurance">Expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_warranty" title="Extended warranty">Extended warranty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_insurance" title="Group insurance">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index-based_insurance" title="Index-based insurance">Index-based</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parametric_insurance" title="Parametric insurance">Parametric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate_insurance" title="Interest rate insurance">Interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnap_and_ransom_insurance" title="Kidnap and ransom insurance">Kidnap and ransom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_expenses_insurance" title="Legal expenses insurance">Legal expenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liability_insurance" title="Liability insurance">Liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-fault_insurance" title="No-fault insurance">No-fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_insurance" title="Pet insurance">Pet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_risk_insurance" title="Political risk insurance">Political risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prize_indemnity_insurance" title="Prize indemnity insurance">Prize indemnity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_insurance" title="Terrorism insurance">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuition_insurance" title="Tuition insurance">Tuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_risk_insurance" title="War risk insurance">War risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_insurance" title="Weather insurance">Weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">Workers' compensation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insurance_policy" title="Insurance policy">Insurance <br />policy</a> <br />and <a href="/wiki/Insurance_law" title="Insurance law">law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_God" title="Act of God">Act of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actuarial_science" title="Actuarial science">Actuarial science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actuary" title="Actuary">Actuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_selection" title="Adverse selection">Adverse selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a>/<a href="/wiki/Knightian_uncertainty" title="Knightian uncertainty">Knightian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Value of life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actual_cash_value" title="Actual cash value">Actual cash value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cash_value" title="Cash value">Cash value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_broker" title="Insurance broker">Broker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancellation_(insurance)" title="Cancellation (insurance)">Cancellation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_rata" title="Pro rata">Pro rata</a></i></li> <li>Short rate table</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">Claim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claims_adjuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Claims adjuster">Claims adjuster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductible" title="Deductible">Deductible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-insurance" title="Co-insurance">Co-insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copayment" title="Copayment">Copayment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-pocket_expense" title="Out-of-pocket expense">Out-of-pocket expense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation_of_benefits" title="Explanation of benefits">Explanation of benefits</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Force_majeure" title="Force majeure">Force majeure</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_average" title="General average">General average</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indemnity" title="Indemnity">Indemnity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurability" title="Insurability">Insurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurable_interest" title="Insurable interest">Insurable interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_fraud" title="Insurance fraud">Insurance fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximate_cause" title="Proximate cause">Proximate cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replacement_value" title="Replacement value">Replacement value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_pool" title="Risk pool">Risk pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-insurance" title="Self-insurance">Self-insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_loss" title="Total loss">Total loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underinsured" title="Underinsured">Underinsurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwriting" title="Underwriting">Underwriting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwriting_profit" title="Underwriting profit">Profit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insurance <br />by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_Australia" title="Insurance in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_industry_in_China" title="Insurance industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_India" title="Insurance in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_Pakistan" title="Insurance in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_Serbia" title="Insurance in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Insurance in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_coverage_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance coverage in the United States">Health insurance coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Vehicle insurance in the United States">Vehicle insurance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_insurance" title="History of insurance">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banker_(ancient)" title="Banker (ancient)">Mesopotamian banker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_insurance" title="Marine insurance">§100–105; §126</a>; <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">§234</a>; <a href="/wiki/Marine_insurance" title="Marine insurance">§235–238; §240</a>; <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">§275–277</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">Collegium</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burial_society" title="Burial society">Burial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">Guild</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digesta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicate" title="Syndicate">Syndicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benefit_society" title="Benefit society">Benefit</a>/<a href="/wiki/Friendly_society" title="Friendly society">Friendly society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_banking" title="Cooperative banking">Cooperative banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit_union" title="Credit union">Credit union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraternal_order" title="Fraternal order">Fraternal order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_organization" title="Mutual organization">Mutual organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_savings_bank" title="Mutual savings bank">Mutual savings bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochdale_Principles" title="Rochdale Principles">Rochdale Principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savings_and_loan_association" title="Savings and loan association">Savings and loan association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Trade union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_cycle" title="Insurance cycle">Insurance cycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Insurance" title="Category:Insurance">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_finance#Insurance" title="Outline of finance">List of topics</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Death" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Death" title="Template:Death"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Death" title="Template talk:Death"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Death" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Death"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Death" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cell_death" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_necrosis" title="Temporal lobe necrosis">Temporal lobe necrosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activation-induced_cell_death" title="Activation-induced cell death">AICD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoikis" title="Anoikis">Anoikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autophagy" title="Autophagy">Autophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_apoptosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic apoptosis">Intrinsic apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necroptosis" title="Necroptosis">Necroptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraptosis" title="Paraptosis">Paraptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthanatos" title="Parthanatos">Parthanatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenoptosis" title="Phenoptosis">Phenoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoapoptosis" title="Pseudoapoptosis">Pseudoapoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroptosis" title="Pyroptosis">Pyroptosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">Autolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoschizis" title="Autoschizis">Autoschizis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschar" title="Eschar">Eschar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenic_cell_death" title="Immunogenic cell death">Immunogenic cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_cell_death" title="Ischemic cell death">Ischemic cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitotic_catastrophe" title="Mitotic catastrophe">Mitotic catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_gene" title="Suicide gene">Suicide gene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_death" title="Accidental death">Accidental death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brainstem_death" title="Brainstem death">Brainstem death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_death" title="Clinical death">Clinical death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_on_arrival" title="Dead on arrival">DOA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_death" title="Manner of death">Death by natural causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_rattle" title="Death rattle">Death rattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthanasia" title="Dysthanasia">Dysthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-of-life_care" title="End-of-life care">End-of-life care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_sign" title="Lazarus sign">Lazarus sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_syndrome" title="Lazarus syndrome">Lazarus syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_death#Medical_declaration" title="Legal death">Medical declaration of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_illness" title="Terminal illness">Terminal illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_death" title="Manner of death">Unnatural death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Death-related_lists" title="Category:Death-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">Causes of death by rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deaths_by_year" title="Lists of deaths by year">Notable deaths by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expressions_related_to_death" class="mw-redirect" title="List of expressions related to death">Expressions related to death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">Natural disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_people_by_cause_of_death" title="Lists of people by cause of death">People by cause of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_premature_obituaries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of premature obituaries">Premature obituaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventable_causes_of_death" title="Preventable causes of death">Preventable causes of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unusual_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of unusual deaths">Unusual deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ways_people_dishonor_the_dead" title="List of ways people dishonor the dead">List of ways people dishonor the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ways_people_honor_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ways people honor the dead">List of ways people honor the dead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mortality</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birthday_effect" title="Birthday effect">Birthday effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality" title="Excess mortality">Excess mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gompertz%E2%80%93Makeham_law_of_mortality" title="Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality">Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_death" title="Maternal death">Maternal death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_mortality_in_fiction" title="Maternal mortality in fiction">Maternal mortality in fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micromort" title="Micromort">Micromort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Risk_adjusted_mortality_rate" title="Risk adjusted mortality rate">RAMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_salience" title="Mortality salience">Mortality salience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After death</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b><a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">Body</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallor_mortis" title="Pallor mortis">Pallor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livor_mortis" title="Livor mortis">Livor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algor_mortis" title="Algor mortis">Algor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigor_mortis" title="Rigor mortis">Rigor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putrefaction" title="Putrefaction">Putrefaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletonization" title="Skeletonization">Skeletonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation" title="Cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropreservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropreservation">Neuropreservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embalming" title="Embalming">Embalming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maceration_(bone)" title="Maceration (bone)">Maceration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastination" title="Plastination">Plastination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosection" title="Prosection">Prosection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxidermy" title="Taxidermy">Taxidermy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Disposal_of_human_corpses" title="Disposal of human corpses">Disposal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">Burial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_burial" title="Natural burial">Natural burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">Sky burial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismemberment" title="Dismemberment">Dismemberment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excarnation" title="Excarnation">Excarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promession" title="Promession">Promession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_hydrolysis_(body_disposal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline hydrolysis (body disposal)">Resomation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beating_heart_cadaver" title="Beating heart cadaver">Beating heart cadaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_donation" title="Body donation">Body donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadaveric_spasm" title="Cadaveric spasm">Cadaveric spasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffin_birth" title="Coffin birth">Coffin birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_erection" title="Death erection">Death erection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">Dissection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbeting" title="Gibbeting">Gibbeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmortem_caloricity" title="Postmortem caloricity">Postmortem caloricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_interval" title="Post-mortem interval">Post-mortem interval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b>Other aspects</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">Carrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery" title="Cemetery">Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_after_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness after death">Consciousness after death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Death_customs" title="Category:Death customs">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crematorium" title="Crematorium">Crematorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration_of_graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Desecration of graves">Desecration of graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_oblivion" title="Eternal oblivion">Eternal oblivion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_examiner" title="Medical examiner">Examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">Grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_the_Internet" title="Death and the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_midwife" title="Death midwife">Midwife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">Mourning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_mourning" title="Online mourning">Online mourning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obituary" title="Obituary">Obituary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palingenesis" title="Palingenesis">Palingenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underworld" title="Underworld">Underworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigil" title="Vigil">Vigil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paranormal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">Ghosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-death_experience" title="Near-death experience">Near-death experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-death_studies" title="Near-death studies">Near-death studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-body_experience" title="Out-of-body experience">Out-of-body experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reincarnation_research" title="Template:Reincarnation research">Reincarnation research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_of_death" title="Cause of death">Cause of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">Coroner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death-qualified_jury" title="Death-qualified jury">Death-qualified jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_certificate" title="Death certificate">Death certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_death" title="Presumption of death">Declared death <i>in absentia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">Death row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying_declaration" title="Dying declaration">Dying declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquest" title="Inquest">Inquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_death" title="Legal death">Legal death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necropolitics" title="Necropolitics">Necropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_dying" title="Prohibition of dying">Prohibition of dying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspicious_death" title="Suspicious death">Suspicious death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_tech&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Death tech (page does not exist)">Death tech</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_Tech" class="extiw" title="pt:Death Tech">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_director" title="Funeral director">Funeral director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_science" title="Mortuary science">Mortuary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Necrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratinomy" title="Biostratinomy">Biostratinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanatology" title="Thanatology">Thanatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_burial_money" title="Chinese burial money">Chinese burial money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coins_for_the_dead" title="Coins for the dead">Coins for the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_tourism" title="Dark tourism">Dark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Awards" title="Darwin Awards">Darwin Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_culture" title="Death and culture">Death and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_anniversary" title="Death anniversary">Death anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_anxiety" title="Death anxiety">Death anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_death_deities" title="List of death deities">Death deity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personifications_of_death" title="Personifications of death">Personification of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying-and-rising_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dying-and-rising deity">Dying-and-rising god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">Psychopomp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Death camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_from_laughter" title="Death from laughter">Death from laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_hoax" title="Death hoax">Death hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_knell" title="Death knell">Death knell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death march</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_messenger" title="Death messenger">Death messenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_notification" title="Death notification">Death notification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_panel" title="Death panel">Death panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_poem" title="Death poem">Death poem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opisthotonic_death_pose" title="Opisthotonic death pose">Death pose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death-positive_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Death-positive movement">Death-positive movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_threat" title="Death threat">Death threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_trajectory" title="Death trajectory">Death 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