CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Swarm behaviour - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"7c7b7aaa-9bba-421e-bf8e-d568b5c3aea3","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Swarm_behaviour","wgTitle":"Swarm behaviour","wgCurRevisionId":1259255958,"wgRevisionId":1259255958,"wgArticleId":207874,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","CS1 maint: unfit URL","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use British English from August 2021","Use dmy dates from August 2021","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018","All accuracy disputes","Articles with disputed statements from May 2019", "Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link","Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link","Articles containing video clips","Animal migration","Aquatic ecology","Group processes","Crowds","Fisheries science","Periodic phenomena","Zoology","Animal cognition"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Swarm_behaviour","wgRelevantArticleId":207874,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true} ,"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q14915018","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready", "jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/1200px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="818"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/800px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="545"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/640px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="436"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Swarm behaviour - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviour"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviour"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Swarm_behaviour rootpage-Swarm_behaviour skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Swarm+behaviour" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Swarm+behaviour" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Swarm+behaviour" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Swarm+behaviour" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mathematical_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Mathematical models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Evolutionary models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Agents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Self-organization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Emergence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stigmergy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stigmergy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Stigmergy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stigmergy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swarm_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swarm_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Swarm intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swarm_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algorithms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algorithms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Algorithms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algorithms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ant_colony_optimization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ant_colony_optimization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.1 Ant colony optimization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ant_colony_optimization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-propelled_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-propelled_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.2 Self-propelled particles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-propelled_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particle_swarm_optimization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle_swarm_optimization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.3 Particle swarm optimization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle_swarm_optimization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.4 Altruism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_swarming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_swarming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Biological swarming </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_swarming-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biological swarming subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_swarming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Social insects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Ants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honey_bees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honey_bees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Honey bees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honey_bees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-social_insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-social_insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Non-social insects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-social_insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Moths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Moths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Flies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cockroaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cockroaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Cockroaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cockroaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locusts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locusts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Locusts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locusts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migratory_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migratory_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.5 Migratory behavior </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migratory_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Birds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bird_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bird_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Bird migration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bird_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Marine life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Fish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Fish migration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Krill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Krill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Krill </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Krill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copepods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copepods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 Copepods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copepods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algal_blooms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algal_blooms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.5 Algal blooms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algal_blooms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Plants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Bacteria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Mammals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 People </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robotics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robotics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Robotics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robotics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Myths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Swarm behaviour</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" > 13 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="سلوك السرب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلوك السرب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarmverhalten" title="Schwarmverhalten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schwarmverhalten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comportamiento_de_enjambre" title="Comportamiento de enjambre – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comportamiento de enjambre" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svarmo" title="Svarmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Svarmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AF%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="رفتار ازدحامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رفتار ازدحامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="झुंड व्यवहार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="झुंड व्यवहार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formazione_a_sciame" title="Formazione a sciame – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Formazione a sciame" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="התקהלות בעלי חיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התקהלות בעלי חיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parveilu" title="Parveilu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Parveilu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%C3%A4rmning" title="Svärmning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Svärmning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCr%C3%BC_davran%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Sürü davranışı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sürü davranışı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%BE%A4%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA" title="大群行為 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大群行為" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E8%A1%8C%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA" title="群行行為 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="群行行為" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q14915018#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Swarm_behaviour" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Swarm_behaviour" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Swarm_behaviour" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&oldid=1259255958" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Swarm_behaviour&id=1259255958&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSwarm_behaviour">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSwarm_behaviour">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Swarm_behaviour&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_behavior_of_animals" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q14915018" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Collective behaviour of a large number of (usually) self-propelled entities of similar size</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Swarm" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Swarm_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Swarm (disambiguation)">Swarm (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/350px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/525px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/700px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3756" data-file-height="2561" /></a><figcaption>A flock of <a href="/wiki/Auklet" class="mw-redirect" title="Auklet">auklets</a> exhibit swarm behaviour</figcaption></figure> Swarm behaviour, or swarming, is a <a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective animal behaviour">collective behaviour</a> exhibited by entities, particularly animals, of similar size which aggregate together, perhaps milling about the same spot or perhaps moving en masse or <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migrating</a> in some direction. It is a highly interdisciplinary topic.<a href="#cite_note-Bouffanais-1">[1]</a> As a term, swarming is applied particularly to insects, but can also be applied to any other entity or animal that exhibits swarm behaviour. The term <a href="/wiki/Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a> or murmuration can refer specifically to swarm behaviour in birds, <a href="/wiki/Herd_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Herd behaviour">herding</a> to refer to swarm behaviour in <a href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">shoaling or schooling</a> to refer to swarm behaviour in fish. <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a> also gather in huge swarms called <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">blooms</a>, although these organisms are <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and are not self-propelled the way animals are. By extension, the term "swarm" is applied also to inanimate entities which exhibit parallel behaviours, as in a <a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">robot swarm</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_swarm" title="Earthquake swarm">earthquake swarm</a>, or a swarm of stars. From a more abstract point of view, swarm behaviour is the collective motion of a large number of <a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">self-propelled entities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> From the perspective of the mathematical modeller, it is an <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent</a> behaviour arising from simple rules that are followed by individuals and does not involve any central coordination. Swarm behaviour is also studied by <a href="/wiki/Active_matter" title="Active matter">active matter</a> physicists as a phenomenon which is not in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a>, and as such requires the development of tools beyond those available from the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical physics">statistical physics</a> of systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. In this regard, swarming has been compared to the mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Superfluids" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluids">superfluids</a>, specifically in the context of <a href="/wiki/Starling#Behaviour" title="Starling">starling flocks</a> (murmuration).<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Swarm behaviour was first simulated on a computer in 1986 with the simulation program <a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">boids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-4">[4]</a> This program simulates simple <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">agents</a> (boids) that are allowed to move according to a set of basic rules. The model was originally designed to mimic the flocking behaviour of birds, but it can be applied also to schooling fish and other swarming entities. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Models">Models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Models">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective animal behaviour">Collective animal behaviour</a></div> In recent decades, scientists have turned to modeling swarm behaviour to gain a deeper understanding of the behaviour. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematical_models">Mathematical models</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mathematical models">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png/400px-Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png/600px-Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png/800px-Metric_vs_topological_distance_in_schools_of_fish.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/Metric_distance" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric distance">metric distance</a> model of a <a href="/wiki/Fish_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish school">fish school</a> (left), the focal fish (yellow) pays attention to all fish within the small zone of repulsion (red), the zone of alignment (lighter red) and the larger zone of attraction (lightest red). In the <a href="/wiki/Topological_space" title="Topological space">topological distance</a> model (right), the focal fish only pays attention to the six or seven closest fish (green), regardless of their distance.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 160px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External images</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.red3d.com/cwr/boids/">Boids simulation</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aridolan.com/ofiles/iFloys.html">iFloys simulation</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aridolan.com/ofiles/Efloys.aspx">Efloys simulation</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Early studies of swarm behaviour employed mathematical models to simulate and understand the behaviour. The simplest mathematical models of animal swarms generally represent individual animals as following three rules: <ul><li>Move in the same direction as their neighbours</li> <li>Remain close to their neighbours</li> <li>Avoid collisions with their neighbours</li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">boids</a> computer program, created by <a href="/wiki/Craig_Reynolds_(computer_graphics)" title="Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)">Craig Reynolds</a> in 1986, simulates swarm behaviour following the above rules.<a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-4">[4]</a> Many subsequent and current models use variations on these rules, often implementing them by means of concentric "zones" around each animal. In the "zone of repulsion", very close to the animal, the focal animal will seek to distance itself from its neighbours to avoid collision. Slightly further away, in the "zone of alignment", the focal animal will seek to align its direction of motion with its neighbours. In the outermost "zone of attraction", which extends as far away from the focal animal as it is able to sense, the focal animal will seek to move towards a neighbour. The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities of a given animal. For example, the visual field of a bird does not extend behind its body. Fish rely on both vision and on <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamic">hydrodynamic</a> perceptions relayed through their <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">lateral lines</a>, while Antarctic <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a> rely both on vision and hydrodynamic signals relayed through <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>. However recent studies of starling flocks have shown that each bird modifies its position, relative to the six or seven animals directly surrounding it, no matter how close or how far away those animals are.<a href="#cite_note-Ballerini_et_al-5">[5]</a> Interactions between flocking starlings are thus based on a <a href="/wiki/Topological" class="mw-redirect" title="Topological">topological</a>, rather than a metric, rule. It remains to be seen whether this applies to other animals. Another recent study, based on an analysis of high-speed camera footage of flocks above Rome and assuming minimal behavioural rules, has convincingly simulated a number of aspects of flock behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_models">Evolutionary models</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Evolutionary models">edit</a>]</div> In order to gain insight into why animals evolve swarming behaviours, scientists have turned to evolutionary models that simulate populations of evolving animals. Typically these studies use a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">genetic algorithm</a> to simulate <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> over many generations. These studies have investigated a number of hypotheses attempting to explain why animals evolve swarming behaviours, such as the <a href="/wiki/Selfish_herd_theory" title="Selfish herd theory">selfish herd theory</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> the predator confusion effect,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> the dilution effect,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and the many eyes theory.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agents">Agents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Agents">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model in biology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent-based models">Agent-based models</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_agent" title="Intelligent agent">Intelligent agent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_agent" title="Autonomous agent">Autonomous agent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMachSchweitzer2003" class="citation book cs1">Mach, Robert; Schweitzer, Frank (2003). "Multi-Agent Model of Biological Swarming". Advances In Artificial Life. <a href="/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Computer_Science" title="Lecture Notes in Computer Science">Lecture Notes in Computer Science</a>. Vol. 2801. pp. 810–820. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.87.8022">10.1.1.87.8022</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-39432-7_87">10.1007/978-3-540-39432-7_87</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20057-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20057-4"><bdi>978-3-540-20057-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Multi-Agent+Model+of+Biological+Swarming&rft.btitle=Advances+In+Artificial+Life&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science&rft.pages=810-820&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.87.8022%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-39432-7_87&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20057-4&rft.aulast=Mach&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Schweitzer%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-organization">Self-organization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Self-organization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg/220px-Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg/330px-Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg/440px-Sort_sol_ved_%C3%98rns%C3%B8_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Flocking birds are an example of <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">self-organization in biology</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Biological organisation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence">Emergence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Emergence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></div> The concept of emergence—that the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and are irrelevant at the lower levels–is often a basic principle behind <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organizing systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-importance-ppt-20">[20]</a> An example of <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">self-organization in biology</a> leading to emergence in the natural world occurs in ant colonies. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scents from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behaviours and have even been able to demonstrate the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stigmergy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></div> A further key concept in the field of swarm intelligence is <a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">stigmergy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Parunak2003-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marsh2007-22">[22]</a> Stigmergy is a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions. The principle is that the trace left in the environment by an action stimulates the performance of a next action, by the same or a different agent. In that way, subsequent actions tend to reinforce and build on each other, leading to the spontaneous emergence of coherent, apparently systematic activity. Stigmergy is a form of self-organization. It produces complex, seemingly intelligent structures, without need for any planning, control, or even direct communication between the agents. As such it supports efficient collaboration between extremely simple agents, who lack any memory, intelligence or even awareness of each other.<a href="#cite_note-Marsh2007-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swarm_intelligence">Swarm intelligence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Swarm intelligence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Collective_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective behaviour">collective behaviour</a> of <a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organized</a> systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. The expression was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Gerardo_Beni" title="Gerardo Beni">Gerardo Beni</a> and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automaton" title="Cellular automaton">cellular robotic</a> systems.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Swarm intelligence systems are typically made up of a population of simple <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">agents</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">boids</a> interacting locally with one another and with their environment. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a> of intelligent global behaviour, unknown to the individual agents. Swarm intelligence research is multidisciplinary. It can be divided into natural swarm research studying biological systems and artificial swarm research studying human artefacts. There is also a scientific stream attempting to model the swarm systems themselves and understand their underlying mechanisms, and an engineering stream focused on applying the insights developed by the scientific stream to solve practical problems in other areas.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algorithms">Algorithms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Algorithms">edit</a>]</div> Swarm algorithms follow a Lagrangian approach or an <a href="/wiki/Euler_equations_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Euler equations (fluid dynamics)">Eulerian</a> approach.<a href="#cite_note-Li_et_al-25">[25]</a> The Eulerian approach views the swarm as a <a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">field</a>, working with the density of the swarm and deriving mean field properties. It is a hydrodynamic approach, and can be useful for modelling the overall dynamics of large swarms.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> However, most models work with the Lagrangian approach, which is an <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">agent-based model</a> following the individual agents (points or particles) that make up the swarm. Individual particle models can follow information on heading and spacing that is lost in the Eulerian approach.<a href="#cite_note-Li_et_al-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ant_colony_optimization">Ant colony optimization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ant colony optimization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization algorithm</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 230px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBhv4pKksgU">Swarmanoid robots find shortest path over double bridge</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Ant colony optimization is a widely used algorithm which was inspired by the behaviours of ants, and has been effective solving <a href="/wiki/Discrete_optimization" title="Discrete optimization">discrete optimization</a> problems related to swarming.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The algorithm was initially proposed by <a href="/wiki/Marco_Dorigo" title="Marco Dorigo">Marco Dorigo</a> in 1992,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-M._Dorigo,_Optimization,_Learning_and_Natural_Algorithms-33">[33]</a> and has since been diversified to solve a wider class of numerical problems. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, a process akin to <a href="/wiki/Swarming_(honey_bee)" title="Swarming (honey bee)">swarming in honeybees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HolldoblerWilsonAnts2-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dorigo99-35">[35]</a> <ul><li>Ants are behaviourally unsophisticated; collectively they perform complex tasks. Ants have highly developed sophisticated sign-based communication.</li> <li>Ants communicate using pheromones; trails are laid that can be followed by other ants.</li> <li>Routing problem ants drop different pheromones used to compute the "shortest" path from source to destination(s).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRauchMillonasChialvo1995" class="citation journal cs1">Rauch, EM; Millonas, MM; Chialvo, DR (1995). "Pattern formation and functionality in swarm models". Physics Letters A. 207 (3–4): 185. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/adap-org/9507003">adap-org/9507003</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhLA..207..185R">1995PhLA..207..185R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0375-9601%2895%2900624-c">10.1016/0375-9601(95)00624-c</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120567147">120567147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+A&rft.atitle=Pattern+formation+and+functionality+in+swarm+models&rft.volume=207&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=185&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fadap-org%2F9507003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120567147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0375-9601%2895%2900624-c&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhLA..207..185R&rft.aulast=Rauch&rft.aufirst=EM&rft.au=Millonas%2C+MM&rft.au=Chialvo%2C+DR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Self-propelled_particles">Self-propelled particles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Self-propelled particles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 230px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/self-driven-particle-model/self-driven-particle-model_en.jar">SPP model interactive simulation</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> – needs Java</td></tr></tbody></table> The concept of <a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">self-propelled particles</a> (SPP) was introduced in 1995 by <a href="/wiki/Tam%C3%A1s_Vicsek" title="Tamás Vicsek">Tamás Vicsek</a> et al.<a href="#cite_note-Vicsek1995-37">[37]</a> as a special case of the boids model introduced in 1986 by Reynolds.<a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-4">[4]</a> An SPP swarm is modelled by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed and respond to random perturbations by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the other particles in their local neighbourhood.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Simulations demonstrate that a suitable "nearest neighbour rule" eventually results in all the particles swarming together, or moving in the same direction. This emerges, even though there is no centralized coordination, and even though the neighbours for each particle constantly change over time.<a href="#cite_note-Vicsek1995-37">[37]</a> SPP models predict that swarming animals share certain properties at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm.<a href="#cite_note-Buhl_et_al-39">[39]</a> Swarming systems give rise to <a href="/wiki/Emergent_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent behaviour">emergent behaviours</a> which occur at many different scales, some of which are both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bertin_et_al-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Particle_swarm_optimization">Particle swarm optimization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Particle swarm optimization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a> is another algorithm widely used to solve problems related to swarms. It was developed in 1995 by <a href="/wiki/James_Kennedy_(social_psychologist)" title="James Kennedy (social psychologist)">Kennedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russell_C._Eberhart" title="Russell C. Eberhart">Eberhart</a> and was first aimed at <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">simulating</a> the social behaviour and choreography of bird flocks and fish schools.<a href="#cite_note-kennedy95particle-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-kennedy97particle-43">[43]</a> The algorithm was simplified and it was observed to be performing optimization. The system initially seeds a population with random solutions. It then searches in the <a href="/wiki/Candidate_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Candidate solution">problem space</a> through successive generations using <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_optimization" title="Stochastic optimization">stochastic optimization</a> to find the best solutions. The solutions it finds are called <a href="/wiki/Point_particle" title="Point particle">particles</a>. Each particle stores its position as well as the best solution it has achieved so far. The particle swarm optimizer tracks the <a href="/wiki/Maxima_and_minima" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxima and minima">best local value</a> obtained so far by any particle in the local neighbourhood. The remaining particles then move through the problem space following the lead of the optimum particles. At each time iteration, the particle swarm optimiser accelerates each particle toward its optimum locations according to simple <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical formulae">mathematical rules</a>. Particle swarm optimization has been applied in many areas. It has few parameters to adjust, and a version that works well for a specific applications can also work well with minor modifications across a range of related applications.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> A book by Kennedy and Eberhart describes some philosophical aspects of particle swarm optimization applications and swarm intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-kennedy01swarm-45">[45]</a> An extensive survey of applications is made by Poli.<a href="#cite_note-poli07analysis-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-poli08analysis-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Altruism">Altruism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Altruism">edit</a>]</div> Researchers in Switzerland have developed an algorithm based on <a href="/wiki/Hamilton%27s_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamilton's rule">Hamilton's rule</a> of kin selection. The algorithm shows how <a href="/wiki/Altruism_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Altruism in animals">altruism</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Swarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Swarm">swarm</a> of entities can, over time, evolve and result in more effective swarm behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_swarming">Biological swarming</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Biological swarming">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linear_clusters_of_Ampyx_priscus_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Linear_clusters_of_Ampyx_priscus_2.png/155px-Linear_clusters_of_Ampyx_priscus_2.png" decoding="async" width="155" height="597" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Linear_clusters_of_Ampyx_priscus_2.png 1.5x" data-file-width="168" data-file-height="647" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Linear cluster of Ampyx priscus</div></figcaption></figure> The earliest evidence of swarm behaviour in animals dates back about 480 million years. Fossils of the <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a> <a href="/wiki/Ampyx_priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ampyx priscus">Ampyx priscus</a> have been recently described as clustered in lines along the ocean floor. The animals were all mature adults, and were all facing the same direction as though they had formed a <a href="/wiki/Conga_line" title="Conga line">conga line</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Peloton" title="Peloton">peloton</a>. It has been suggested they line up in this manner to migrate, much as <a href="/wiki/Spiny_lobster" title="Spiny lobster">spiny lobsters</a> migrate in single-file queues;<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> it has also been suggested that the formation is the precursor for mating,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> as with the fly <a href="/wiki/Leptoconops_torrens" title="Leptoconops torrens">Leptoconops torrens</a>. The findings suggest animal collective behaviour has very early evolutionary origins.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Examples of biological swarming are found in <a href="/wiki/Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">bird flocks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">fish schools</a>,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Insect_swarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Insect swarm">insect swarms</a>,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria_swarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria swarm">bacteria swarms</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Allison_C,_Hughes_C_1991_403–422-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> molds,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_motor" title="Molecular motor">molecular motors</a>,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> quadruped <a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">herds</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> and people.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_insects">Social insects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Social insects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv/220px--Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="26" data-mwtitle="Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fb/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="392" data-height="294" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="392" data-height="294" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fb/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fb/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv/Mueckenschwarm_50p_1600kbit.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption>Swarm of <a href="/wiki/Nematocera" title="Nematocera">nematocera</a>, flying around a treetop</figcaption></figure> The behaviour of social insects (insects that live in <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a>, such as ants, bees, wasps and termites) has always been a source of fascination for children, naturalists and artists. Individual insects seem to do their own thing without any central control, yet the colony as a whole behaves in a highly coordinated manner.<a href="#cite_note-SwarmSmarts-66">[66]</a> Researchers have found that cooperation at the colony level is largely <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organized</a>. The group coordination that emerges is often just a consequence of the way individuals in the colony interact. These interactions can be remarkably simple, such as one ant merely following the trail left by another ant. Yet put together, the cumulative effect of such behaviours can solve highly complex problems, such as locating the shortest route in a network of possible paths to a food source. The organised behaviour that emerges in this way is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">swarm intelligence</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Emergence#Living,_biological_systems" title="Emergence">biological emergence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SwarmSmarts-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ants">Ants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ant_colony" title="Ant colony">Ant colony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization algorithm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant_mill" title="Ant mill">Ant mill</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/220px--Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="146" data-mwtitle="Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko,_in_Laos_(video).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko,_in_Laos_(video).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/ff/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm/Red_weaver_ants_transporting_a_dead_gecko%2C_in_Laos_%28video%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>A swarm of weaver ants (<a href="/wiki/Oecophylla_smaragdina" title="Oecophylla smaragdina">Oecophylla smaragdina</a>) transporting a dead gecko</figcaption></figure> Individual <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">ants</a> do not exhibit complex behaviours, yet a colony of ants collectively achieves complex tasks such as constructing nests, taking care of their young, building bridges and <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a> for food. A colony of ants can collectively select (i.e. send most workers towards) the best, or closest, food source from several in the vicinity.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Such collective decisions are achieved using positive feedback mechanisms. Selection of the best food source is achieved by ants following two simple rules. First, ants which find food return to the nest depositing a <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromone</a> chemical. More pheromone is laid for higher quality food sources.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Thus, if two equidistant food sources of different qualities are found simultaneously, the pheromone trail to the better one will be stronger. Ants in the nest follow another simple rule, to favor stronger trails, on average. More ants then follow the stronger trail, so more ants arrive at the high quality food source, and a positive feedback cycle ensures, resulting in a collective decision for the best food source. If there are two paths from the ant nest to a food source, then the colony usually selects the shorter path. This is because the ants that first return to the nest from the food source are more likely to be those that took the shorter path. More ants then retrace the shorter path, reinforcing the pheromone trail.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Army_ant" title="Army ant">Army ants</a>, unlike most ant species, do not construct permanent nests; an army ant colony moves almost incessantly over the time it exists, remaining in an essentially perpetual state of swarming. Several lineages have independently evolved the same basic behavioural and ecological syndrome, often referred to as "legionary behaviour", and may be an example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brady2003-70">[70]</a> The successful techniques used by <a href="/wiki/Ant_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colonies">ant colonies</a> have been studied in computer science and <a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Distributed_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed system">distributed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fault-tolerant_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault-tolerant system">fault-tolerant systems</a> for solving problems. This area of <a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">biomimetics</a> has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage and <a href="/wiki/Category:Networking_algorithms" title="Category:Networking algorithms">networking algorithms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SANdisk-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Honey_bees">Honey bees</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Honey bees">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg/170px-Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg/255px-Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg/340px-Bee_swarm_feb08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Bees swarming on a tree</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bees_algorithm" title="Bees algorithm">Bees algorithm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swarming_(honey_bee)" title="Swarming (honey bee)">Swarming (honey bee)</a></div> In temperate climates, <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">honey bees</a> usually form swarms in late spring. A swarm typically contains about half the workers together with the old queen, while the new queen stays back with the remaining workers in the original hive. When honey bees emerge from a hive to form a swarm, they may gather on a branch of a tree or on a bush only a few meters from the hive. The bees cluster about the queen and send out 20–50 scouts to find suitable new nest locations. The scouts are the most experienced foragers in the cluster. If a scout finds a suitable location, she returns to the cluster and promotes it by dancing a version of the <a href="/wiki/Waggle_dance" title="Waggle dance">waggle dance</a>. This dance conveys information about the quality, direction, and distance of the new site. The more excited she is about her findings, the more vigorously she dances. If she can convince others they may take off and check the site she found. If they approve they may promote it as well. In this decision-making process, scouts check several sites, often abandoning their own original site to promote the superior site of another scout. Several different sites may be promoted by different scouts at first. After some hours and sometimes days, a preferred location eventually emerges from this decision-making process. When all scouts agree on the final location, the whole cluster takes off and swarms to it. Sometimes, if no decision is reached, the swarm will separate, some bees going in one direction; others, going in another. This usually results in failure, with both groups dying. A new location is typically a kilometre or more from the original hive, though some species, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Apis_dorsata" title="Apis dorsata">Apis dorsata</a>,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> may establish new colonies within as little as 500 meters from the natal nest. This collective decision-making process is remarkably successful in identifying the most suitable new nest site and keeping the swarm intact. A good hive site has to be large enough to accommodate the swarm (about 15 litres in volume), has to be well-protected from the elements, receive an optimal amount of sunshine, be some height above the ground, have a small entrance and be capable of resisting ant infestation - that is why tree cavities are often selected.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-social_insects">Non-social insects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Non-social insects">edit</a>]</div> Unlike social insects, swarms of non-social insects that have been studied primarily seem to function in contexts such as mating, feeding, predator avoidance, and migration. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moths">Moths</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Moths">edit</a>]</div> Moths may exhibit synchronized mating, during which pheromones released by females initiate searching and swarming behavior in males.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Males sense pheromones with sensitive antennae and may track females as far as several kilometers away.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Swarm mating involves female choice and male competition. Only one male in the swarm—typically the first—will successfully copulate.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Females maximize <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> benefits and minimize cost by governing the onset and magnitude of pheromone deployed. Too little pheromone will not attract a mate, too much allows less fit males to sense the signal.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> After copulation, females lay the eggs on a host plant. Quality of host plant may be a factor influencing the location of swarming and egg-laying. In one case, researchers observed pink-striped oakworm moths (<a href="/wiki/Anisota_virginiensis" title="Anisota virginiensis">Anisota virginiensis</a>) swarming at a <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a> site, where decomposition likely increased soil nutrient levels and host plant quality.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flies">Flies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Flies">edit</a>]</div> Midges, such as <a href="/wiki/Tokunagayusurika_akamusi" title="Tokunagayusurika akamusi">Tokunagayusurika akamusi</a>, form swarms, dancing in the air. Swarming serves multiple purposes, including the facilitation of mating by attracting females to approach the swarm, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">lek mating</a>. Such cloud-like swarms often form in early evening when the sun is getting low, at the tip of a bush, on a hilltop, over a pool of water, or even sometimes above a person. The forming of such swarms is not out of instinct, but an adaptive behavior – a "consensus" – between the individuals within the swarms. It is also suggested that swarming is a <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, because there is rarely any male midge by itself and not in a swarm. This could have formed due to the benefit of lowering inbreeding by having males of various genes gathering in one spot.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The genus <a href="/wiki/Culicoides" title="Culicoides">Culicoides</a>, also known as biting midges, have displayed swarming behavior which are believed to cause confusion in predators.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cockroaches">Cockroaches</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cockroaches">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Cockroach" title="Cockroach">Cockroaches</a> leave chemical trails in their feces as well as emitting airborne <a href="/wiki/Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a> for mating. Other cockroaches will follow these trails to discover sources of food and water, and also discover where other cockroaches are hiding. Thus, groups of cockroaches can exhibit <a href="/wiki/Emergence#Living,_biological_systems" title="Emergence">emergent behaviour</a>,<a href="#cite_note-viegas-85">[85]</a> in which group or swarm behaviour emerges from a simple set of individual interactions. Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and will run away when exposed to light. A study tested the hypothesis that cockroaches use just two pieces of information to decide where to go under those conditions: how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. The study conducted by José Halloy and colleagues at the <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Libre_de_Bruxelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Université Libre de Bruxelles">Free University of Brussels</a> and other European institutions created a set of tiny <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a> that appear to the roaches as other roaches and can thus alter the roaches' perception of <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass_(sociodynamics)" title="Critical mass (sociodynamics)">critical mass</a>. The robots were also specially scented so that they would be accepted by the real roaches.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Locusts">Locusts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Locusts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marching_locusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Marching locusts">Marching locusts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg/170px-Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg/255px-Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg/340px-Schwarm_Wanderheuschrecke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1592" /></a><figcaption>A 19th century depiction of a swarm of <a href="/wiki/Desert_locust" title="Desert locust">desert locusts</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Locusts</a> are the swarming phase of the short-horned <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a> of the family <a href="/wiki/Acrididae" title="Acrididae">Acrididae</a>. Some species can breed rapidly under suitable conditions and subsequently become gregarious and migratory. They form bands as <a href="/wiki/Nymph_(biology)" title="Nymph (biology)">nymphs</a> and swarms as adults—both of which can travel great distances, rapidly stripping fields and greatly <a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">damaging crops</a>. The largest swarms can cover hundreds of square miles and contain billions of locusts. A locust can eat its own weight (about 2 grams) in plants every day. That means one million locusts can eat more than one tonne of food each day, and the largest swarms can consume over 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> each day.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Swarming in locusts has been found to be associated with increased levels of <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> which causes the locust to change colour, eat much more, become mutually attracted, and breed much more easily. Researchers propose that swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding and studies have shown that increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs or, in some species, simply encountering other individuals causes an increase in levels of serotonin. The transformation of the locust to the swarming variety can be induced by several contacts per minute over a four-hour period.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Notably, an innate predisposition to aggregate has been found in hatchlings of the desert locust, <a href="/wiki/Schistocerca_gregaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Schistocerca gregaria">Schistocerca gregaria</a>, independent of their parental phase.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> An individual locust's response to a loss of alignment in the group appears to increase the randomness of its motion, until an aligned state is again achieved. This noise-induced alignment appears to be an intrinsic characteristic of collective coherent motion.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Migratory_behavior">Migratory behavior</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Migratory behavior">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monarch_flock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Monarch_flock.jpg/170px-Monarch_flock.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Monarch_flock.jpg/255px-Monarch_flock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Monarch_flock.jpg/340px-Monarch_flock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Cluster of <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">monarch butterflies</a>. Monarch butterflies migrate to <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz,_California" title="Santa Cruz, California">Santa Cruz, California</a>, where they <a href="/wiki/Overwinter" class="mw-redirect" title="Overwinter">overwinter</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera_migration" title="Lepidoptera migration">Lepidoptera migration</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a> is the seasonal movement of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, particularly those by species of <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonflies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>. The distance can vary from species to species, but in most cases these movements involve large numbers of individuals. In some cases the individuals that migrate in one direction may not return and the next generation may instead migrate in the opposite direction. This is a significant difference from <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">bird migration</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">Monarch butterflies</a> are especially noted for their lengthy annual migration. In North America they make massive southward migrations starting in August until the first frost. A northward migration takes place in the spring. The monarch is the only butterfly that migrates both north and south as the birds do on a regular basis. But no single individual makes the entire round trip. Female monarchs deposit eggs for the next generation during these migrations.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The length of these journeys exceeds the normal lifespan of most monarchs, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The last generation of the summer enters into a non-reproductive phase known as <a href="/wiki/Diapause" title="Diapause">diapause</a> and may live seven months or more.<a href="#cite_note-ref1-95">[95]</a> During diapause, butterflies fly to one of many overwintering sites. The generation that overwinters generally does not reproduce until it leaves the overwintering site sometime in February and March. It is the second, third and fourth generations that return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring. How the species manages to return to the same overwintering spots over a gap of several generations is still a subject of research; the flight patterns appear to be inherited, based on a combination of the position of the sun in the sky<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> and a time-compensated Sun compass that depends upon a <a href="/wiki/Circadian_clock" title="Circadian clock">circadian clock</a> that is based in their antennae.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birds">Birds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Birds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg/220px-Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg/330px-Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg/440px-Rail_Bridge_Swarm_of_Starlings._-_geograph.org.uk_-_124591.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Recent studies of <a href="/wiki/Starling" title="Starling">starling</a> flocks have shown that each bird modifies its position, relative to the six or seven animals directly surrounding it, no matter how close or how far away those animals are.<a href="#cite_note-Ballerini_et_al-5">[5]</a> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/31158841">Murmurations of starlings</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flocking_(behaviour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behaviour)">Flocking (behaviour)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Flock_(birds)" title="Flock (birds)">Flock (birds)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird_landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird landings">Bird landings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird_strike" title="Bird strike">Bird strike</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock" title="Mixed-species foraging flock">Mixed-species foraging flock</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mobbing_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobbing behaviour">Mobbing behaviour</a></div><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bird_migration">Bird migration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bird migration">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg/220px-PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg/330px-PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg/440px-PSM_V84_D217_2_Flocking_habit_of_migratory_birds_fig5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>Large bird typically migrate in V <a href="/wiki/Echelon_formation" title="Echelon formation">echelon formations</a>. There are significant aerodynamic gains. All birds can see ahead, and towards one side, making a good arrangement for protection. </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Bird migration</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reverse_migration_(birds)" title="Reverse migration (birds)">Reverse migration (birds)</a></div> Approximately 1800 of the world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. Also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for <a href="/wiki/Breeding_in_the_wild" title="Breeding in the wild">breeding</a> birds to feed their young. This helps <a href="/wiki/Diurnality" title="Diurnality">diurnal</a> birds to produce larger <a href="/wiki/Clutch_(eggs)" title="Clutch (eggs)">clutches</a> than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season. These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of the migration such as predation. Many birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, it is assumed that flying in flocks reduces energy costs. The V formation is often supposed to boost the efficiency and range of flying birds, particularly over long <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">migratory</a> routes. All the birds except the first fly in the <a href="/wiki/Upwash" class="mw-redirect" title="Upwash">upwash</a> from one of the <a href="/wiki/Wingtip_vortices" title="Wingtip vortices">wingtip vortices</a> of the bird ahead. The upwash assists each bird in supporting its own weight in flight, in the same way a <a href="/wiki/Glider_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider aircraft">glider</a> can climb or maintain height indefinitely in rising air. Geese flying in a <a href="/wiki/V_formation" title="V formation">V formation</a> save energy by flying in the updraft of the wingtip vortex generated by the previous animal in the formation. Thus, the birds flying behind do not need to work as hard to achieve lift. Studies show that birds in a V formation place themselves roughly at the optimum distance predicted by simple aerodynamic theory.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_knot" title="Red knot">Red knots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dunlin" title="Dunlin">dunlins</a> were found in radar studies to fly 5 km per hour faster in flocks than when they were flying alone.<a href="#cite_note-newton-104">[104]</a> The birds flying at the tips and at the front are rotated in a timely cyclical fashion to spread flight <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a> equally among the flock members. The formation also makes communication easier and allows the birds to maintain visual contact with each other. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv/220px--Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="62" data-mwtitle="Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/ee/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv/Flock_of_birds_at_Rome.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Common starlings</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 220px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.red3d.com/cwr/boids/">Lobster Migration scene</a> – from <a href="/wiki/The_Trials_of_Life" title="The Trials of Life">The Trials of Life</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Other animals may use similar drafting techniques when migrating. <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">Lobsters</a>, for example, migrate in close single-file formation "lobster trains", sometimes for hundreds of miles. The Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a> and storks pass through areas such as <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falsterbo" title="Falsterbo">Falsterbo</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a> at migration times. More common species, such as the <a href="/wiki/European_honey_buzzard" title="European honey buzzard">European honey buzzard</a>, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central American</a> migratory bottleneck. This concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk. Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct, the most notable being the <a href="/wiki/Passenger_pigeon" title="Passenger pigeon">passenger pigeon</a>. During migration the flocks were a mile (1.6 km) wide and 300 miles (500 km) long, taking several days to pass and containing up to a billion birds. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_life">Marine life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Marine life">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fish">Fish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Fish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg/220px-Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg/330px-Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg/440px-Moofushi_Kandu_fish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Schooling</a> predator fish size up schooling <a href="/wiki/Anchovy" title="Anchovy">anchovies</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 228px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kI1aU1RVILY">Foraging efficiency</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The term "shoal" can be used to describe any group of fish, including mixed-species groups, while "school" is used for more closely knit groups of the same species swimming in a highly synchronised and polarised manner. Fish derive many benefits from shoaling behaviour including defence against predators (through better predator detection and by diluting the chance of capture), enhanced <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a> success, and higher success in finding a mate.<a href="#cite_note-Pitcher_1993-106">[106]</a> It is also likely that fish benefit from shoal membership through increased <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamic">hydrodynamic</a> efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Hoare_et_al._2000-107">[107]</a> Fish use many traits to choose shoalmates. Generally they prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognised). The "oddity effect" posits that any shoal member that stands out in appearance will be preferentially targeted by predators. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals that resemble them. The oddity effect would thus tend to homogenise shoals.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> One puzzling aspect of shoal selection is how a fish can choose to join a shoal of animals similar to themselves, given that it cannot know its own appearance. Experiments with <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a> have shown that shoal preference is a learned ability, not innate. A zebrafish tends to associate with shoals that resemble shoals in which it was reared, a form of <a href="/wiki/Imprinting_(psychology)" title="Imprinting (psychology)">imprinting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Other open questions of shoaling behaviour include identifying which individuals are responsible for the direction of shoal movement. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">migratory</a> movement, most members of a shoal seem to know where they are going. In the case of foraging behaviour, captive shoals of <a href="/wiki/Golden_shiner" title="Golden shiner">golden shiner</a> (a kind of <a href="/wiki/Minnow" title="Minnow">minnow</a>) are led by a small number of experienced individuals who knew when and where food was available.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre, totalling several billion fish in one school.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eel_life_history" title="Eel life history">Eel life history</a></div> <ul><li>Partridge BL (1982) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110703035553/https://137.146.28.140/biology/BI358j/Readings/Partridge%201982.pdf">"The structure and function of fish schools"</a> Scientific American, June:114–123.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrishViscidoGrunbaum2002" class="citation journal cs1">Parrish JK, Viscido SV, Grunbaum D (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060911165104/http://faculty.washington.edu/random/Reprints/Parrishetal02.pdf">"Self-Organized Fish Schools: An Examination of Emergent Properties"</a> (PDF). Biol. Bull. 202 (3): 296–305. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.116.1548">10.1.1.116.1548</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1543482">10.2307/1543482</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1543482">1543482</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12087003">12087003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:377484">377484</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/random/Reprints/Parrishetal02.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biol.+Bull.&rft.atitle=Self-Organized+Fish+Schools%3A+An+Examination+of+Emergent+Properties&rft.volume=202&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=296-305&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1543482%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1543482&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.116.1548%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12087003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A377484%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Viscido%2C+SV&rft.au=Grunbaum%2C+D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.washington.edu%2Frandom%2FReprints%2FParrishetal02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fish_migration">Fish migration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Fish migration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Fish migration</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">Sardine run</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">Salmon run</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 228px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xYl4m0xFcCU">Video clip of the "Sardine run"</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Between May and July huge numbers of <a href="/wiki/Sardine" title="Sardine">sardines</a> spawn in the cool waters of the <a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Bank" title="Agulhas Bank">Agulhas Bank</a> and then follow a current of cold water northward along the east coast of South Africa. This great migration, called the <a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">sardine run</a>, creates spectacular feeding frenzies along the coastline as marine predators, such as dolphins, sharks and gannets attack the schools. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Krill">Krill</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Krill">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krill_swarm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Krill_swarm.jpg/220px-Krill_swarm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Krill_swarm.jpg/330px-Krill_swarm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Krill_swarm.jpg/440px-Krill_swarm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1732" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>Swarming <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a></figcaption></figure> Most <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a>, small shrimp-like <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, form large swarms, sometimes reaching densities of 10,000–60,000 individual animals per cubic metre.<a href="#cite_note-H+83-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Swarming is a defensive mechanism, confusing smaller predators that would like to pick out single individuals. The largest swarms are visible from space and can be tracked by satellite.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> One swarm was observed to cover an area of 450 square kilometres (175 square miles) of ocean, to a depth of 200 meters (650 feet) and was estimated to contain over 2 million tons of krill.<a href="#cite_note-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107-117">[117]</a> Recent research suggests that krill do not simply drift passively in these currents but actually modify them.<a href="#cite_note-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107-117">[117]</a> Krill typically follow a <a href="/wiki/Diurnality" title="Diurnality">diurnal</a> <a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">vertical migration</a>. By moving vertically through the ocean on a 12-hour cycle, the swarms play a major part in mixing deeper, nutrient-rich water with nutrient-poor water at the surface.<a href="#cite_note-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107-117">[117]</a> Until recently it has been assumed that they spend the day at greater depths and rise during the night toward the surface. It has been found that the deeper they go, the more they reduce their activity,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> apparently to reduce encounters with predators and to conserve energy. Later work suggested that swimming activity in krill varied with stomach fullness. Satiated animals that had been feeding at the surface swim less actively and therefore sink below the mixed layer.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> As they sink they produce faeces which may mean that they have an important role to play in the Antarctic carbon cycle. Krill with empty stomachs were found to swim more actively and thus head towards the surface. This implies that vertical migration may be a bi- or tri-daily occurrence. Some species form surface swarms during the day for feeding and reproductive purposes even though such behaviour is dangerous because it makes them extremely vulnerable to predators.<a href="#cite_note-howard-120">[120]</a> Dense swarms may elicit a <a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">feeding frenzy</a> among fish, birds and mammal predators, especially near the surface. When disturbed, a swarm scatters, and some individuals have even been observed to <a href="/wiki/Ecdysis" title="Ecdysis">moult</a> instantaneously, leaving the <a href="/wiki/Exuvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Exuvia">exuvia</a> behind as a decoy.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In 2012, Gandomi and Alavi presented what appears to be a <a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence#Krill_herd_algorithm" title="Swarm intelligence">successful stochastic algorithm</a> for modelling the behaviour of krill swarms. The algorithm is based on three main factors: " (i) movement induced by the presence of other individuals (ii) foraging activity, and (iii) random diffusion."<a href="#cite_note-kha2012-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copepods">Copepods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Copepods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copepodkils.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Copepodkils.jpg/220px-Copepodkils.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Copepodkils.jpg/330px-Copepodkils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Copepodkils.jpg/440px-Copepodkils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>This copepod has its antenna spread (click to enlarge). The antenna detects the pressure wave of an approaching fish.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hunting_copepods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting copepods">Hunting copepods</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepods</a> are a group of tiny <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> found in the sea and lakes. Many species are <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">planktonic</a> (drifting in sea waters), and others are <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthic</a> (living on the ocean floor). Copepods are typically 1 to 2 millimetres (0.04 to 0.08 in) long, with a teardrop shaped body and large <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>. Although like other crustaceans they have an armoured <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>, they are so small that in most species this thin armour, and the entire body, is almost totally transparent. Copepods have a compound, median single eye, usually bright red, in the centre of the transparent head. Copepods also swarm. For example, monospecific swarms have been observed regularly around <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea grass">sea grass</a>, and in lakes. Swarms densities were about one million copepods per cubic metre. Typical swarms were one or two metres in diameter, but some exceeded 30 cubic metres. Copepods need visual contact to keep together, and they disperse at night.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Spring produces <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">blooms</a> of swarming <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> which provide food for copepods. Planktonic copepods are usually the dominant members of the <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, and are in turn major food organisms for many other marine animals. In particular, copepods are prey to <a href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">forage fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>, both of which can assemble in vast, million-strong swarms. Some copepods have extremely fast <a href="/wiki/Escape_response" title="Escape response">escape responses</a> when a predator is sensed and can jump with high speed over a few millimetres (see animated image below). <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Herringramkils.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photo: School of herrings ram feeding on a swarm of copepods."><img alt="Photo: School of herrings ram feeding on a swarm of copepods." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Herringramkils.jpg/120px-Herringramkils.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Herringramkils.jpg/180px-Herringramkils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Herringramkils.jpg/240px-Herringramkils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photo: School of herrings <a href="/wiki/Ram_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram feeding">ram feeding</a> on a swarm of copepods.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Synchropredation.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Animation showing how herrings hunting in a synchronised way can capture the very alert and evasive copepod (click to view)."><img alt="Animation showing how herrings hunting in a synchronised way can capture the very alert and evasive copepod (click to view)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Synchropredation.gif/120px-Synchropredation.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Synchropredation.gif/180px-Synchropredation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Synchropredation.gif/240px-Synchropredation.gif 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Animation showing how herrings hunting in a synchronised way can capture the very alert and evasive copepod (click to view).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jelly_cc4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Swarms of jellyfish also prey on copepods"><img alt="Swarms of jellyfish also prey on copepods" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Jelly_cc4.jpg/120px-Jelly_cc4.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Jelly_cc4.jpg/180px-Jelly_cc4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Jelly_cc4.jpg/240px-Jelly_cc4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Swarms of <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a> also prey on copepods</div> </li> </ul> Planktonic copepods are important to the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>. Some scientists say they form the largest animal <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> on earth.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> They compete for this title with <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_krill" title="Antarctic krill">Antarctic krill</a>. Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, however, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary productivity">secondary productivity</a> of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> than <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a>, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are currently believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tonnes of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">human carbon emissions</a>, thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons, faecal pellets and respiration at depth all bring carbon to the deep sea. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Algal_blooms">Algal blooms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Algal blooms">edit</a>]</div> Many single-celled organisms called <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> live in oceans and lakes. When certain conditions are present, such as high nutrient or light levels, these organisms reproduce explosively. The resulting dense swarm of phytoplankton is called an <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal bloom</a>. Blooms can cover hundreds of square kilometres and are easily seen in satellite images. Individual phytoplankton rarely live more than a few days, but blooms can last weeks.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_HAB-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</div> Scientists have attributed swarm behavior to plants for hundreds of years. In his 1800 book, Phytologia: or, The philosophy of agriculture and gardening, <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> wrote that plant growth resembled swarms observed elsewhere in nature.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> While he was referring to more broad observations of plant morphology, and was focused on both root and shoot behavior, recent research has supported this claim. <a href="/wiki/Plant_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant root">Plant roots</a>, in particular, display observable swarm behavior, growing in patterns that exceed the statistical threshold for random probability, and indicate the presence of communication between individual <a href="/wiki/Root_apex_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Root apex (botany)">root apexes</a>. The primary function of plant roots is the uptake of <a href="/wiki/Soil_nutrient" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil nutrient">soil nutrients</a>, and it is this purpose which drives swarm behavior. Plants growing in close proximity have adapted their growth to assure optimal nutrient availability. This is accomplished by growing in a direction that optimizes the distance between nearby roots, thereby increasing their chance of exploiting untapped nutrient reserves. The action of this behavior takes two forms: maximization of distance from, and repulsion by, neighboring root apexes.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The transition zone of a root tip is largely responsible for monitoring for the presence of soil-borne hormones, signaling responsive growth patterns as appropriate. Plant responses are often complex, integrating multiple inputs to inform an autonomous response. Additional inputs that inform swarm growth includes light and gravity, both of which are also monitored in the transition zone of a root's apex.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> These forces act to inform any number of growing "main" roots, which exhibit their own independent releases of inhibitory chemicals to establish appropriate spacing, thereby contributing to a swarm behavior pattern. Horizontal growth of roots, whether in response to high mineral content in soil or due to <a href="/wiki/Stolon" title="Stolon">stolon</a> growth, produces branched growth that establish to also form their own, independent root swarms.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bacteria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Swarming_motility" title="Swarming motility">Swarming motility</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></div> Swarming also describes groupings of some kinds of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria#Predators" title="Bacteria">predatory bacteria</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">myxobacteria</a>. Myxobacteria swarm together in "wolf packs", actively moving using a process known as <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_gliding" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial gliding">bacterial gliding</a> and keeping together with the help of intercellular molecular <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allison_C,_Hughes_C_1991_403–422-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reichenbach_2001-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mammals">Mammals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Mammals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">Herd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herd_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Herd behaviour">Herd behaviour</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg/220px-Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg/330px-Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg/440px-Border_Collie_sheepdog_trial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Herding_dog" title="Herding dog">Sheep dogs</a> (here a <a href="/wiki/Border_Collie" title="Border Collie">Border Collie</a>) control the <a href="/wiki/Sheep#Behavior_and_intelligence" title="Sheep">flocking behaviour of sheep</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThaiFledermaus.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/ThaiFledermaus.gif" decoding="async" width="180" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="144" /></a><figcaption>Bats swarming out of a cave in Thailand</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrishEdelstein-Keshet1999" class="citation journal cs1">Parrish JK, Edelstein-Keshet L (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720060041/http://people.hnl.bcm.tmc.edu/jli/reference/105.pdf">"Complexity, pattern and evolutionary trade-offs in animal aggregation"</a> (PDF). Science. 284 (5411): 99–101. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Sci...284...99P">1999Sci...284...99P</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.560.5229">10.1.1.560.5229</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.284.5411.99">10.1126/science.284.5411.99</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10102827">10102827</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.hnl.bcm.tmc.edu/jli/reference/105.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Complexity%2C+pattern+and+evolutionary+trade-offs+in+animal+aggregation&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=5411&rft.pages=99-101&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.560.5229%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10102827&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.284.5411.99&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Sci...284...99P&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Edelstein-Keshet%2C+L&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.hnl.bcm.tmc.edu%2Fjli%2Freference%2F105.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="People">People</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: People">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd,_1906_World_Series.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd%2C_1906_World_Series.jpg/220px-Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd%2C_1906_World_Series.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd%2C_1906_World_Series.jpg/330px-Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd%2C_1906_World_Series.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd%2C_1906_World_Series.jpg/440px-Police_protect_Nick_Altrock_from_adoring_crowd%2C_1906_World_Series.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Police protect <a href="/wiki/Nick_Altrock" title="Nick Altrock">Nick Altrock</a> from an adoring crowd during <a href="/wiki/Baseball" title="Baseball">baseball</a>'s <a href="/wiki/1906_World_Series" title="1906 World Series">1906 World Series</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 228px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External images</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.elte.hu/~vicsek/MW.html">Mexican wave simulation</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.elte.hu/~vicsek/RA.html">Rhythmic applause simulation</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crowd" title="Crowd">Crowd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></div> A collection of people can also exhibit swarm behaviour, such as pedestrians<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> or soldiers swarming the parapets[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Swarm_behaviour#Dubious" title="Talk:Swarm behaviour">discuss</a>]. In Cologne, Germany, two biologists from the University of Leeds demonstrated flock like behaviour in humans. The group of people exhibited similar behavioural pattern to a flock, where if five percent of the flock changed direction the others would follow. If one person was designated as a predator and everyone else was to avoid him, the flock behaved very much like a school of fish.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Understanding how humans interact in crowds is important if crowd management is to effectively avoid casualties at football grounds, music concerts and subway stations.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The mathematical modelling of <a href="/wiki/Flocking_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking behaviour">flocking behaviour</a> is a common technology, and has found uses in animation. Flocking simulations have been used in many films<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> to <a href="/wiki/Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">generate crowds</a> which move realistically. Tim Burton's <a href="/wiki/Batman_Returns" title="Batman Returns">Batman Returns</a> was the first movie to make use of swarm technology for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of a group of bats using the <a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">boids</a> system. <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)" title="The Lord of the Rings (film series)">The Lord of the Rings film trilogy</a> made use of similar technology, known as <a href="/wiki/Massive_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive (software)">Massive</a>, during battle scenes. Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple. An ant-based computer simulation using only six interaction rules has also been used to evaluate aircraft boarding behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. An airline system developed by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A._Lawson" title="Douglas A. Lawson">Douglas A. Lawson</a> uses swarm theory, or <a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">swarm intelligence</a>—the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. "The pilot learns from his experience what's the best for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline," Lawson explains. As a result, the "colony" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive and depart quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. "We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available," says Lawson.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Swarm behaviour occurs also in <a href="/wiki/Traffic_flow" title="Traffic flow">traffic flow</a> dynamics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Traffic_wave" title="Traffic wave">traffic wave</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bidirectional_traffic" title="Bidirectional traffic">Bidirectional traffic</a> can be observed in <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ant</a> trails.<a href="#cite_note-Burd_2003-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ribeiro_2009-142">[142]</a> In recent years this behaviour has been researched for insight into pedestrian and traffic models.<a href="#cite_note-John_2008-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Simulations based on pedestrian models have also been applied to crowds which stampede because of panic.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herd_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Herd behaviour">Herd behaviour</a> in <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> has been used to explain the dependencies of customers' mutual behaviour. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> reported a recent conference in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> on the subject of the simulation of adaptive human behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> It shared mechanisms to increase impulse buying and get people "to buy more by playing on the herd instinct." The basic idea is that people will buy more of products that are seen to be popular, and several feedback mechanisms to get product popularity information to consumers are mentioned, including <a href="/wiki/Smart_card" title="Smart card">smart card</a> technology and the use of <a href="/wiki/RFID" class="mw-redirect" title="RFID">Radio Frequency Identification Tag</a> technology. A "swarm-moves" model was introduced by a <a href="/wiki/Florida_Institute_of_Technology" title="Florida Institute of Technology">Florida Institute of Technology</a> researcher, which is appealing to supermarkets because it can "increase sales without the need to give people discounts." <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingKeltschMolnar1997" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing D, Keltsch J, Molnar P (1997). "Modelling the evolution of human trail systems". Nature. 388 (6637): 47–50. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9805158">cond-mat/9805158</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Natur.388...47H">1997Natur.388...47H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F40353">10.1038/40353</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9214501">9214501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4364517">4364517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Modelling+the+evolution+of+human+trail+systems&rft.volume=388&rft.issue=6637&rft.pages=47-50&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4364517%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997Natur.388...47H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9805158&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9214501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F40353&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Keltsch%2C+J&rft.au=Molnar%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingFarkasVicsek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing D, Farkas I, Vicsek T (2000). "Simulating dynamical features of escape panic". Nature. 407 (6803): 487–490. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0009448">cond-mat/0009448</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.407..487H">2000Natur.407..487H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35035023">10.1038/35035023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11028994">11028994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:310346">310346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Simulating+dynamical+features+of+escape+panic&rft.volume=407&rft.issue=6803&rft.pages=487-490&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A310346%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Natur.407..487H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0009448&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11028994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35035023&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Farkas%2C+I&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingFarkasVicsek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing D, Farkas IJ, Vicsek T (2000). "Freezing by heating in a driven mesoscopic system". Physical Review Letters. 84 (6): 1240–1243. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9904326">cond-mat/9904326</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhRvL..84.1240H">2000PhRvL..84.1240H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.84.1240">10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.1240</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11017488">11017488</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18649078">18649078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Freezing+by+heating+in+a+driven+mesoscopic+system&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1240-1243&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18649078%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhRvL..84.1240H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9904326&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11017488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.84.1240&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Farkas%2C+IJ&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Robotics">Robotics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Robotics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robotic_materials" title="Robotic materials">Robotic materials</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG/220px-Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG/330px-Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG/440px-Kilobot_robot_swarm.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kilobot" title="Kilobot">Kilobot</a> thousand-robot swarm developed by <a href="/wiki/Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a> and Michael Rubenstein at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>.</figcaption></figure> The application of swarm principles to <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">swarm robotics</a>, while swarm intelligence refers to the more general set of algorithms. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 228px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQIMGV5vtd4">A Swarm of Nano Quadrotors</a> – YouTube<a href="#cite_note-Kushleyev2013-147">[147]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2TjdGuBK9mI&ab_channel=naturevideo">March of the microscopic robots</a> Nature Video, YouTube</td></tr></tbody></table> Partially inspired by <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies of insects</a> such as ants and bees, researchers are modelling the behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">swarms</a> of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the <a href="/wiki/Emergent_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent behaviour">emergent behaviour</a> of the swarm is more complex.<a href="#cite_note-Bouffanais-1">[1]</a> The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a <a href="/wiki/Superorganism" title="Superorganism">superorganism</a>, exhibiting <a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">swarm intelligence</a>. The largest swarms so far created is the 1024 robot Kilobot swarm.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Other large swarms include the <a href="/wiki/IRobot" title="IRobot">iRobot</a> swarm, the <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a>/ActivMedia Robotics <a href="/wiki/Centibots" title="Centibots">Centibots</a> project,<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space exploration missions, where failure is normally extremely costly.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> In addition to ground vehicles, swarm robotics includes also research of swarms of <a href="/wiki/Aerial_robot" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerial robot">aerial robots</a><a href="#cite_note-Kushleyev2013-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> and heterogeneous teams of ground and aerial vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In contrast macroscopic robots, colloidal particles at microscale can also be adopted as agents to perform collective behaviors to conduct tasks using mechanical and physical approaches, such as reconfigurable tornado-like microswarm<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> mimicking schooling fish,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> hierarchical particle species<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> mimicking predating behavior of mammals, micro-object manipulation using a transformable microswarm.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> The fabrication of such colloidal particles is usually based on chemical synthesis. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SWARM-vs-guerilla.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/SWARM-vs-guerilla.png/300px-SWARM-vs-guerilla.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/SWARM-vs-guerilla.png/450px-SWARM-vs-guerilla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/SWARM-vs-guerilla.png/600px-SWARM-vs-guerilla.png 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption>Contrast between guerrilla ambush and true swarming (Edwards-2003)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarming (military)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Military swarming</a> is a behaviour where autonomous or partially autonomous units of action attack an enemy from several different directions and then regroup. Pulsing, where the units shift the point of attack, is also a part of military swarming. Military swarming involves the use of a decentralized force against an opponent, in a manner that emphasizes mobility, communication, unit autonomy and coordination or synchronization.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards-2000-160">[160]</a> Historically military forces used principles of swarming without really examining them explicitly, but now active research consciously examines military doctrines that draw ideas from swarming. Merely because multiple units converge on a target, they are not necessarily swarming. Siege operations do not involve swarming, because there is no manoeuvre; there is convergence but on the besieged fortification. Nor do <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla ambushes</a> constitute swarms, because they are "hit-and-run". Even though the ambush may have several points of attack on the enemy, the guerillas withdraw when they either have inflicted adequate damage, or when they are endangered. In 2014 the U. S. <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Research" title="Office of Naval Research">Office of Naval Research</a> released a video showing tests of a swarm of small autonomous drone attack boats that can steer and take coordinated offensive action as a group.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Heringsschwarm.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="A swarm of migrating herrings"><img alt="A swarm of migrating herrings" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heringsschwarm.gif/120px-Heringsschwarm.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heringsschwarm.gif/180px-Heringsschwarm.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Heringsschwarm.gif/240px-Heringsschwarm.gif 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A swarm of migrating <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">herrings</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A swarm of bees"><img alt="A swarm of bees" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg/120px-Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg/180px-Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg/240px-Bienenschwarm_17c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2468" data-file-height="1851" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A swarm of bees</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Salp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salps arranged in chains form huge swarms.[162]"><img alt="Salps arranged in chains form huge swarms.[162]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Salp.jpg/120px-Salp.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Salp.jpg/180px-Salp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Salp.jpg/240px-Salp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Salp" title="Salp">Salps</a> arranged in chains form huge swarms.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Crowd_04378.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="People swarming through an exit do not always behave like a fluid.[163][164]"><img alt="People swarming through an exit do not always behave like a fluid.[163][164]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Crowd_04378.JPG/120px-Crowd_04378.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Crowd_04378.JPG/180px-Crowd_04378.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Crowd_04378.JPG/240px-Crowd_04378.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">People swarming through an exit do not always behave like a fluid.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A swarm of ladybirds"><img alt="A swarm of ladybirds" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg/120px-Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg/180px-Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg/240px-Marieh%C3%B8nse%C3%A5r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A swarm of <a href="/wiki/Ladybird" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladybird">ladybirds</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Robot-army.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A swarm of robots"><img alt="A swarm of robots" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Robot-army.png/120px-Robot-army.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Robot-army.png/180px-Robot-army.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Robot-army.png/240px-Robot-army.png 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="473" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A swarm of robots</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="A swarm of earthquakes"><img alt="A swarm of earthquakes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif/120px-MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif/180px-MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif/240px-MexicaliEarthquakeSwarm.gif 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="532" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_swarm" title="Earthquake swarm">swarm of earthquakes</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A swarm of ancient stars"><img alt="A swarm of ancient stars" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg/114px-A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg/172px-A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg/229px-A_Swarm_of_Ancient_Stars_-_GPN-2000-000930.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="1864" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A swarm of ancient stars</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myths">Myths</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Myths">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>There is a popular myth that <a href="/wiki/Lemming" title="Lemming">lemmings</a> commit <a href="/wiki/Mass_suicide" title="Mass suicide">mass suicide</a> by swarming off cliffs when they migrate. Driven by strong biological urges, some species of lemmings may migrate in large groups when population density becomes too great. Lemmings can swim and may choose to cross a body of water in search of a new habitat. In such cases, many may drown if the body of water is so wide as to stretch their physical capability to the limit. This fact combined with some unexplained fluctuations in the population of Norwegian lemmings gave rise to the myth.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piranha" title="Piranha">Piranha</a> have a reputation as fearless fish that swarm in ferocious and predatory packs. However, recent research, which started "with the premise that they school as a means of cooperative hunting", discovered that they were in fact rather fearful fish, like other fish, who schooled for protection from their predators, such as cormorants, caimans and dolphins. A researcher described them as "basically like regular fish with large teeth".<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_matter" title="Active matter">Active matter</a> – Matter behavior at system scale</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyson_swarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyson swarm">Dyson swarm</a> – Hypothetical megastructure around a starPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_collective_nouns_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="List of collective nouns in English">List of collective nouns in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_Bay_jubilee" title="Mobile Bay jubilee">Mobile Bay jubilee</a> – Natural phenomenon that occurs in Mobile Bay, Alabama, United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a> – the repeated increase and decrease of a species' population over timePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_(simulation)" title="Swarm (simulation)">Swarm (simulation)</a> – open-source agent-based simulation toolkitPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swirlonic_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Swirlonic state">Swirlonic state</a> – recently (2020) recognised new state of self propelled particles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_wave" title="Traffic wave">Traffic wave</a> – Type of highway congestion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarmalators" title="Swarmalators">Swarmalators</a> - Agents that do swarming and <a href="/wiki/Synchronization" title="Synchronization">synchronization</a> simultaneously.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bouffanais-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bouffanais_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bouffanais_1-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouffanais2016" class="citation book cs1">Bouffanais, Roland (2016). Design and Control of Swarm Dynamics. SpringerBriefs in Complexity (First ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-287-751-2">10.1007/978-981-287-751-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-287-750-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-287-750-5"><bdi>978-981-287-750-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+and+Control+of+Swarm+Dynamics&rft.series=SpringerBriefs+in+Complexity&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-287-751-2&rft.isbn=978-981-287-750-5&rft.aulast=Bouffanais&rft.aufirst=Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'LoanEvans1998" class="citation journal cs1">O'Loan; Evans (1998). "Alternating steady state in one-dimensional flocking". Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General. 32 (8): L99–L105. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9811336">cond-mat/9811336</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JPhA...32L..99O">1999JPhA...32L..99O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0305-4470%2F32%2F8%2F002">10.1088/0305-4470/32/8/002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7642063">7642063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics+A%3A+Mathematical+and+General&rft.atitle=Alternating+steady+state+in+one-dimensional+flocking&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=L99-L105&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9811336&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7642063%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0305-4470%2F32%2F8%2F002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JPhA...32L..99O&rft.au=O%27Loan&rft.au=Evans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAttanasiCavagnaDel_CastelloGiardina2014" class="citation journal cs1">Attanasi, A.; Cavagna, A.; Del Castello, L.; Giardina, I.; Grigera, T. S.; Jelić, A.; Melillo, S.; Parisi, L.; Pohl, O.; Shen, E.; Viale, M. (September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4173114">"Information transfer and behavioural inertia in starling flocks"</a>. Nature Physics. 10 (9): 691–696. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1303.7097">1303.7097</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014NatPh..10..691A">2014NatPh..10..691A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys3035">10.1038/nphys3035</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4173114">4173114</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25264452">25264452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Physics&rft.atitle=Information+transfer+and+behavioural+inertia+in+starling+flocks.&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=691-696&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4173114%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014NatPh..10..691A&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1303.7097&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25264452&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphys3035&rft.aulast=Attanasi&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Cavagna%2C+A.&rft.au=Del+Castello%2C+L.&rft.au=Giardina%2C+I.&rft.au=Grigera%2C+T.+S.&rft.au=Jeli%C4%87%2C+A.&rft.au=Melillo%2C+S.&rft.au=Parisi%2C+L.&rft.au=Pohl%2C+O.&rft.au=Shen%2C+E.&rft.au=Viale%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4173114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reynolds-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds_CW1987" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds CW (1987). "Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model". Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques. Vol. 21. pp. 25–34. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.103.7187">10.1.1.103.7187</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F37401.37406">10.1145/37401.37406</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89791-227-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89791-227-3"><bdi>978-0-89791-227-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:546350">546350</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Flocks%2C+herds+and+schools%3A+A+distributed+behavioral+model&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+14th+annual+conference+on+Computer+graphics+and+interactive+techniques&rft.pages=25-34&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.103.7187%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A546350%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F37401.37406&rft.isbn=978-0-89791-227-3&rft.au=Reynolds+CW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ballerini_et_al-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ballerini_et_al_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ballerini_et_al_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalleriniCabibboCandelierCavagna2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ballerini M, Cabibbo N, Candelier R, Cavagna A, Cisbani E, Giardina I, Lecomte V, Orlandi A, Parisi G, Procaccini A, Viale M, Zdravkovic V (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2234121">"Interaction ruling animal collective behavior depends on topological rather than metric distance: Evidence from a field study"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (4): 1232–7. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0709.1916">0709.1916</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..105.1232B">2008PNAS..105.1232B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0711437105">10.1073/pnas.0711437105</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2234121">2234121</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18227508">18227508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Interaction+ruling+animal+collective+behavior+depends+on+topological+rather+than+metric+distance%3A+Evidence+from+a+field+study&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1232-7&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2234121%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.1232B&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0709.1916&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18227508&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0711437105&rft.aulast=Ballerini&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Cabibbo%2C+N&rft.au=Candelier%2C+R&rft.au=Cavagna%2C+A&rft.au=Cisbani%2C+E&rft.au=Giardina%2C+I&rft.au=Lecomte%2C+V&rft.au=Orlandi%2C+A&rft.au=Parisi%2C+G&rft.au=Procaccini%2C+A&rft.au=Viale%2C+M&rft.au=Zdravkovic%2C+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2234121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHildenbrandtCarereHemelrijk2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hildenbrandt H, Carere C, Hemelrijk CK (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Farq149">"Self-organized aerial displays of thousands of starlings: a model"</a>. Behavioral Ecology. 21 (6): 1349–1359. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0908.2677">0908.2677</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Farq149">10.1093/beheco/arq149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology&rft.atitle=Self-organized+aerial+displays+of+thousands+of+starlings%3A+a+model&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1349-1359&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0908.2677&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Farq149&rft.aulast=Hildenbrandt&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Carere%2C+C&rft.au=Hemelrijk%2C+CK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fbeheco%252Farq149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHemelrijkHildenbrandt2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hemelrijk CK, Hildenbrandt H (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3150374">"Some causes of the variable shape of flocks of birds"</a>. PLOS ONE. 6 (8): e22479. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoSO...622479H">2011PLoSO...622479H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0022479">10.1371/journal.pone.0022479</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3150374">3150374</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21829627">21829627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Some+causes+of+the+variable+shape+of+flocks+of+birds&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e22479&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3150374%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21829627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0022479&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PLoSO...622479H&rft.aulast=Hemelrijk&rft.aufirst=CK&rft.au=Hildenbrandt%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3150374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rug.nl/sciencelinx/exhibits/swarming/index">"Zwermen en scholen - Swarming - Permanente expo - Bezoek onze expo's & workshops! - Science LinX - Rijksuniversiteit Groningen"</a>. 10 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zwermen+en+scholen+-+Swarming+-+Permanente+expo+-+Bezoek+onze+expo%27s+%26+workshops%21+-+Science+LinX+-+Rijksuniversiteit+Groningen&rft.date=2007-11-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rug.nl%2Fsciencelinx%2Fexhibits%2Fswarming%2Findex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rug.nl/fmns-research/beso/_people/hemelrijk">"Onderzoek aan de Faculteit Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen - Faculteit Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen - Over ons - Rijksuniversiteit Groningen"</a>. 25 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Onderzoek+aan+de+Faculteit+Wiskunde+en+Natuurwetenschappen+-+Faculteit+Wiskunde+en+Natuurwetenschappen+-+Over+ons+-+Rijksuniversiteit+Groningen&rft.date=2012-10-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rug.nl%2Ffmns-research%2Fbeso%2F_people%2Fhemelrijk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangSchmickl2019" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, W.; Schmickl, T. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6488663">"Collective Motion as an Ultimate Effect in Crowded Selfish Herds"</a>. Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 6618. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...9.6618Y">2019NatSR...9.6618Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-43179-6">10.1038/s41598-019-43179-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6488663">6488663</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31036873">31036873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Collective+Motion+as+an+Ultimate+Effect+in+Crowded+Selfish+Herds&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6618&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6488663%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31036873&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-019-43179-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatSR...9.6618Y&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Schmickl%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6488663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsonKnoesterAdami2013" class="citation book cs1">Olson RS, Knoester DB, Adami C (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2463372.2463394">"Critical interplay between density-dependent predation and evolution of the selfish herd"</a>. Proceedings of the 15th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation. Gecco '13. pp. 247–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2463372.2463394">10.1145/2463372.2463394</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450319638" title="Special:BookSources/9781450319638"><bdi>9781450319638</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14414033">14414033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Critical+interplay+between+density-dependent+predation+and+evolution+of+the+selfish+herd&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+15th+annual+conference+on+Genetic+and+evolutionary+computation&rft.series=Gecco+%2713&rft.pages=247-254&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14414033%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2463372.2463394&rft.isbn=9781450319638&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=RS&rft.au=Knoester%2C+DB&rft.au=Adami%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fdoid%3D2463372.2463394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardGobetKendall2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ward CR, Gobet F, Kendall G (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=569757">"Evolving collective behavior in an artificial ecology"</a>. Artificial Life. 7 (2): 191–209. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.108.3956">10.1.1.108.3956</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F106454601753139005">10.1162/106454601753139005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11580880">11580880</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12133884">12133884</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Life&rft.atitle=Evolving+collective+behavior+in+an+artificial+ecology&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-209&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.108.3956%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12133884%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11580880&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F106454601753139005&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=CR&rft.au=Gobet%2C+F&rft.au=Kendall%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D569757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRelugaViscido2005" class="citation journal cs1">Reluga TC, Viscido S (2005). "Simulated evolution of selfish herd behavior". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 234 (2): 213–225. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JThBi.234..213R">2005JThBi.234..213R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2004.11.035">10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.11.035</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15757680">15757680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Simulated+evolution+of+selfish+herd+behavior&rft.volume=234&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=213-225&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15757680&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2004.11.035&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JThBi.234..213R&rft.aulast=Reluga&rft.aufirst=TC&rft.au=Viscido%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodAckland2007" class="citation journal cs1">Wood AJ, Ackland GJ (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2169279">"Evolving the selfish herd: emergence of distinct aggregating strategies in an individual-based model"</a>. Proc Biol Sci. 274 (1618): 1637–1642. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0306">10.1098/rspb.2007.0306</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2169279">2169279</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17472913">17472913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Biol+Sci&rft.atitle=Evolving+the+selfish+herd%3A+emergence+of+distinct+aggregating+strategies+in+an+individual-based+model&rft.volume=274&rft.issue=1618&rft.pages=1637-1642&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2169279%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17472913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0306&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=AJ&rft.au=Ackland%2C+GJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2169279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsonHintzeDyerKnoester2013" class="citation journal cs1">Olson RS, Hintze A, Dyer FC, Knoester DB, Adami C (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4043163">"Predator confusion is sufficient to evolve swarming behaviour"</a>. J. R. Soc. Interface. 10 (85): 20130305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsif.2013.0305">10.1098/rsif.2013.0305</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4043163">4043163</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23740485">23740485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+R.+Soc.+Interface&rft.atitle=Predator+confusion+is+sufficient+to+evolve+swarming+behaviour&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=85&rft.pages=20130305&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4043163%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23740485&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsif.2013.0305&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=RS&rft.au=Hintze%2C+A&rft.au=Dyer%2C+FC&rft.au=Knoester%2C+DB&rft.au=Adami%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4043163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemsarHemelrijkHildenbrandtBajec2015" class="citation journal cs1">Demsar J, Hemelrijk CK, Hildenbrandt H, Bajec IL (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/85452752/Simulating_predator_attacks_on_schools_Evolving_composite_tactics.pdf">"Simulating predator attacks on schools: Evolving composite tactics"</a> (PDF). Ecological Modelling. 304: 22–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015EcMod.304...22D">2015EcMod.304...22D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolmodel.2015.02.018">10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.02.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11370%2F0bfcbb69-a101-4ec1-833a-df301e49d8ef">11370/0bfcbb69-a101-4ec1-833a-df301e49d8ef</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46988508">46988508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Modelling&rft.atitle=Simulating+predator+attacks+on+schools%3A+Evolving+composite+tactics&rft.volume=304&rft.pages=22-33&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11370%2F0bfcbb69-a101-4ec1-833a-df301e49d8ef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46988508%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecolmodel.2015.02.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015EcMod.304...22D&rft.aulast=Demsar&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Hemelrijk%2C+CK&rft.au=Hildenbrandt%2C+H&rft.au=Bajec%2C+IL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.rug.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F85452752%2FSimulating_predator_attacks_on_schools_Evolving_composite_tactics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTosh_CR2011" class="citation journal cs1">Tosh CR (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00708525/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.jtbi.2011.04.014.pdf">"Which conditions promote negative density dependent selection on prey aggregations?"</a> (PDF). Journal of Theoretical Biology. 281 (1): 24–30. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JThBi.281...24T">2011JThBi.281...24T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2011.04.014">10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.04.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21540037">21540037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Which+conditions+promote+negative+density+dependent+selection+on+prey+aggregations%3F&rft.volume=281&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-30&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21540037&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2011.04.014&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JThBi.281...24T&rft.au=Tosh+CR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00708525%2Ffile%2FPEER_stage2_10.1016%25252Fj.jtbi.2011.04.014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIoannouGuttalCouzin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ioannou CC, Guttal V, Couzin ID (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-0-387618">"Predatory Fish Select for Coordinated Collective Motion in Virtual Prey"</a>. Science. 337 (6099): 1212–1215. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Sci...337.1212I">2012Sci...337.1212I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1218919">10.1126/science.1218919</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22903520">22903520</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10203872">10203872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Predatory+Fish+Select+for+Coordinated+Collective+Motion+in+Virtual+Prey&rft.volume=337&rft.issue=6099&rft.pages=1212-1215&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1218919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10203872%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22903520&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Sci...337.1212I&rft.aulast=Ioannou&rft.aufirst=CC&rft.au=Guttal%2C+V&rft.au=Couzin%2C+ID&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnbn-resolving.de%2Furn%3Anbn%3Ade%3Absz%3A352-0-387618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsonHaleyDyerAdami2015" class="citation journal cs1">Olson RS, Haley PB, Dyer FC, Adami C (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4593673">"Exploring the evolution of a trade-off between vigilance and foraging in group-living organisms"</a>. Royal Society Open Science. 2 (9): 150135. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1408.1906">1408.1906</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015RSOS....250135O">2015RSOS....250135O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsos.150135">10.1098/rsos.150135</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4593673">4593673</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26473039">26473039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Royal+Society+Open+Science&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+evolution+of+a+trade-off+between+vigilance+and+foraging+in+group-living+organisms&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=150135&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4593673%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015RSOS....250135O&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1408.1906&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26473039&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsos.150135&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=RS&rft.au=Haley%2C+PB&rft.au=Dyer%2C+FC&rft.au=Adami%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4593673&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-importance-ppt-20"><a href="#cite_ref-importance-ppt_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160703121704/http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/wdorsey-88049-hierarchy-life-biology-education-ppt-powerpoint/">"Hierarchy of Life"</a>. 14 September 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/wdorsey-88049-hierarchy-life-biology-education-ppt-powerpoint/">the original</a> on 3 July 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hierarchy+of+Life&rft.date=2008-09-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.authorstream.com%2FPresentation%2Fwdorsey-88049-hierarchy-life-biology-education-ppt-powerpoint%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parunak2003-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Parunak2003_21-0">^</a> Parunak, H. v D. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.116.1990&rep=rep1&type=pdf">"Making swarming happen"</a> In: Proceedings of Conference on Swarming and Network Enabled Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR), McLean, Virginia, USA, 3 January 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-Marsh2007-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marsh2007_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marsh2007_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarsh_L.Onof_C.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Marsh L.; Onof C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/10004/1/3z2fx4r7prqwob3vfdq.pdf">"Stigmergic epistemology, stigmergic cognition"</a> (PDF). Cognitive Systems Research. 9 (1): 136–149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cogsys.2007.06.009">10.1016/j.cogsys.2007.06.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23140721">23140721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Systems+Research&rft.atitle=Stigmergic+epistemology%2C+stigmergic+cognition&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=136-149&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cogsys.2007.06.009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23140721%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Marsh+L.&rft.au=Onof+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2F10004%2F1%2F3z2fx4r7prqwob3vfdq.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Beni, G., Wang, J. Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems, Proceed. NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Tuscany, Italy, June 26–30 (1989) </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorigoBirattari2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dorigo, M; Birattari, M (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.1462">"Swarm intelligence"</a>. Scholarpedia. 2 (9): 1462. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SchpJ...2.1462D">2007SchpJ...2.1462D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.1462">10.4249/scholarpedia.1462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarpedia&rft.atitle=Swarm+intelligence&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1462&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.1462&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007SchpJ...2.1462D&rft.aulast=Dorigo&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Birattari%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4249%252Fscholarpedia.1462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Li_et_al-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Li_et_al_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Li_et_al_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiLukemanEdelstein-Keshet2007" class="citation journal cs1">Li, YX; Lukeman, R; Edelstein-Keshet, L (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.ubc.ca/~keshet/Papers/YXL_Lukeman_LEK.pdf">"Minimal mechanisms for school formation in self-propelled particles"</a> (PDF). Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena. 237 (5): 699–720. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhyD..237..699L">2008PhyD..237..699L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physd.2007.10.009">10.1016/j.physd.2007.10.009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+D%3A+Nonlinear+Phenomena&rft.atitle=Minimal+mechanisms+for+school+formation+in+self-propelled+particles&rft.volume=237&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=699-720&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physd.2007.10.009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PhyD..237..699L&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=YX&rft.au=Lukeman%2C+R&rft.au=Edelstein-Keshet%2C+L&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.ubc.ca%2F~keshet%2FPapers%2FYXL_Lukeman_LEK.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Toner J and Tu Y (1995) "Long-range order in a two-dimensional xy model: how birds fly together" Physical Revue Letters, 75 (23)(1995), 4326–4329. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopazBertozzi2004" class="citation journal cs1">Topaz C, Bertozzi A (2004). "Swarming patterns in a two-dimensional kinematic model for biological groups". SIAM J Appl Math. 65 (1): 152–174. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004APS..MAR.t9004T">2004APS..MAR.t9004T</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.88.3071">10.1.1.88.3071</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1137%2FS0036139903437424">10.1137/S0036139903437424</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18468679">18468679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SIAM+J+Appl+Math&rft.atitle=Swarming+patterns+in+a+two-dimensional+kinematic+model+for+biological+groups&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=152-174&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.88.3071%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18468679%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1137%2FS0036139903437424&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004APS..MAR.t9004T&rft.aulast=Topaz&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Bertozzi%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopazBertozziLewis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Topaz C, Bertozzi A, Lewis M (2006). "A nonlocal continuum model for biological aggregation". Bull Math Biol. 68 (7): 1601–1623. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/q-bio/0504001">q-bio/0504001</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11538-006-9088-6">10.1007/s11538-006-9088-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16858662">16858662</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14750061">14750061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bull+Math+Biol&rft.atitle=A+nonlocal+continuum+model+for+biological+aggregation&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1601-1623&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fq-bio%2F0504001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14750061%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16858662&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11538-006-9088-6&rft.aulast=Topaz&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Bertozzi%2C+A&rft.au=Lewis%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrilloFornasierToscani2010" class="citation book cs1">Carrillo, J; Fornasier, M; Toscani, G (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mate.unipv.it/~toscani/publi/swarming.pdf">"Particle, kinetic, and hydrodynamic models of swarming"</a> (PDF). Mathematical Modeling of Collective Behavior in Socio-Economic and Life Sciences. Modeling and Simulation in Science, Engineering and Technology. Vol. 3. pp. 297–336. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.193.5047">10.1.1.193.5047</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-8176-4946-3_12">10.1007/978-0-8176-4946-3_12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4945-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4945-6"><bdi>978-0-8176-4945-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Particle%2C+kinetic%2C+and+hydrodynamic+models+of+swarming&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Modeling+of+Collective+Behavior+in+Socio-Economic+and+Life+Sciences&rft.series=Modeling+and+Simulation+in+Science%2C+Engineering+and+Technology&rft.pages=297-336&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.193.5047%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-8176-4946-3_12&rft.isbn=978-0-8176-4945-6&rft.aulast=Carrillo&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Fornasier%2C+M&rft.au=Toscani%2C+G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmate.unipv.it%2F~toscani%2Fpubli%2Fswarming.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070705115810/http://www.swarmanoid.org/swarmanoid_simulation.php">"Swarmanoid project"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swarmanoid.org/swarmanoid_simulation.php#">the original</a> on 5 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Swarmanoid+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.swarmanoid.org%2Fswarmanoid_simulation.php%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iridia.ulb.ac.be/~mdorigo/ACO/ACO.html">Ant colony optimization</a> Retrieved 15 December 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> A. Colorni, M. Dorigo et V. Maniezzo, Distributed Optimization by Ant Colonies, actes de la première conférence européenne sur la vie artificielle, Paris, Elsevier Publishing, 134–142, 1991. </li> <li id="cite_note-M._Dorigo,_Optimization,_Learning_and_Natural_Algorithms-33"><a href="#cite_ref-M._Dorigo,_Optimization,_Learning_and_Natural_Algorithms_33-0">^</a> M. Dorigo, Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms, PhD thesis, Politecnico di Milano, Italie, 1992. </li> <li id="cite_note-HolldoblerWilsonAnts2-34"><a href="#cite_ref-HolldoblerWilsonAnts2_34-0">^</a> Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 143–179 </li> <li id="cite_note-Dorigo99-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Dorigo99_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDORIGODI_CAROGAMBERELLA1999" class="citation book cs1">DORIGO, M.; DI CARO, G.; GAMBERELLA, L. M. (1999). Ant Algorithms for Discrete Optimization, Artificial Life. MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ant+Algorithms+for+Discrete+Optimization%2C+Artificial+Life&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=DORIGO&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=DI+CARO%2C+G.&rft.au=GAMBERELLA%2C+L.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/physics/pion/srr/particles/">Self driven particle model</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014155808/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/pion/srr/particles/">Archived</a> 2012-10-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Interactive simulations, 2005, University of Colorado. Retrieved 10 April 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vicsek1995-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vicsek1995_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vicsek1995_37-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVicsekCzirokBen-JacobCohen1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vicsek_T" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicsek T">Vicsek T</a>, Czirok A, Ben-Jacob E, Cohen I, Shochet O (1995). "Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>. 75 (6): 1226–1229. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0611743">cond-mat/0611743</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvL..75.1226V">1995PhRvL..75.1226V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.75.1226">10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1226</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10060237">10060237</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15918052">15918052</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Novel+type+of+phase+transition+in+a+system+of+self-driven+particles&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1226-1229&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15918052%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhRvL..75.1226V&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0611743&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10060237&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.75.1226&rft.aulast=Vicsek&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Czirok%2C+A&rft.au=Ben-Jacob%2C+E&rft.au=Cohen%2C+I&rft.au=Shochet%2C+O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCzirókVicsek2006" class="citation journal cs1">Czirók A, Vicsek T (2006). "Collective behavior of interacting self-propelled particles". Physica A. 281 (1–4): 17–29. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0611742">cond-mat/0611742</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhyA..281...17C">2000PhyA..281...17C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0378-4371%2800%2900013-3">10.1016/S0378-4371(00)00013-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14211016">14211016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+A&rft.atitle=Collective+behavior+of+interacting+self-propelled+particles&rft.volume=281&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=17-29&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0611742&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14211016%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0378-4371%2800%2900013-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhyA..281...17C&rft.aulast=Czir%C3%B3k&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buhl_et_al-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Buhl_et_al_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuhlSumpter_DJTCouzinHale2006" class="citation journal cs1">Buhl J, Sumpter DJT, Couzin D, Hale JJ, Despland E, Miller ER, Simpson SJ, et al. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929220754/http://webscript.princeton.edu/~icouzin/website/wp-content/plugins/bib2html/data/papers/buhl06.pdf">"From disorder to order in marching locusts"</a> (PDF). Science. 312 (5778): 1402–1406. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...312.1402B">2006Sci...312.1402B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1125142">10.1126/science.1125142</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16741126">16741126</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:359329">359329</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webscript.princeton.edu/~icouzin/website/wp-content/plugins/bib2html/data/papers/buhl06.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=From+disorder+to+order+in+marching+locusts&rft.volume=312&rft.issue=5778&rft.pages=1402-1406&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1125142&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A359329%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16741126&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...312.1402B&rft.aulast=Buhl&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Sumpter+DJT&rft.au=Couzin%2C+D&rft.au=Hale%2C+JJ&rft.au=Despland%2C+E&rft.au=Miller%2C+ER&rft.au=Simpson%2C+SJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebscript.princeton.edu%2F~icouzin%2Fwebsite%2Fwp-content%2Fplugins%2Fbib2html%2Fdata%2Fpapers%2Fbuhl06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTonerTuRamaswamy2005" class="citation journal cs1">Toner J, Tu Y, Ramaswamy S (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172510/http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/3397/1/A89.pdf">"Hydrodynamics and phases of flocks"</a> (PDF). Annals of Physics. 318 (1): 170–244. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AnPhy.318..170T">2005AnPhy.318..170T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aop.2005.04.011">10.1016/j.aop.2005.04.011</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/3397/1/A89.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Hydrodynamics+and+phases+of+flocks&rft.volume=318&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=170-244&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.aop.2005.04.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AnPhy.318..170T&rft.aulast=Toner&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Tu%2C+Y&rft.au=Ramaswamy%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.iisc.ernet.in%2F3397%2F1%2FA89.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bertin_et_al-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Bertin_et_al_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertinDrozGrégoire2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bertin, E; Droz; Grégoire, G (2009). "Hydrodynamic equations for self-propelled particles: microscopic derivation and stability analysis". J. Phys. A. 42 (44): 445001. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0907.4688">0907.4688</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPhA...42R5001B">2009JPhA...42R5001B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1751-8113%2F42%2F44%2F445001">10.1088/1751-8113/42/44/445001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17686543">17686543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Phys.+A&rft.atitle=Hydrodynamic+equations+for+self-propelled+particles%3A+microscopic+derivation+and+stability+analysis&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=44&rft.pages=445001&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0907.4688&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17686543%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1751-8113%2F42%2F44%2F445001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JPhA...42R5001B&rft.aulast=Bertin&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Droz&rft.au=Gr%C3%A9goire%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kennedy95particle-42"><a href="#cite_ref-kennedy95particle_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedyEberhart1995" class="citation conference cs1">Kennedy, J.; Eberhart, R. (1995). "Particle Swarm Optimization". Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks. Vol. IV. pp. 1942–1948.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Particle+Swarm+Optimization&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+IEEE+International+Conference+on+Neural+Networks&rft.pages=1942-1948&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Eberhart%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kennedy97particle-43"><a href="#cite_ref-kennedy97particle_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1997" class="citation conference cs1">Kennedy, J. (1997). "The particle swarm: social adaptation of knowledge". Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Evolutionary Computation. pp. 303–308.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+particle+swarm%3A+social+adaptation+of+knowledge&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+IEEE+International+Conference+on+Evolutionary+Computation&rft.pages=303-308&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Hu X <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swarmintelligence.org/tutorials.php">Particle swarm optimization: Tutorial</a>. Retrieved 15 December 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-kennedy01swarm-45"><a href="#cite_ref-kennedy01swarm_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedyEberhart2001" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, J.; Eberhart, R.C. (2001). Swarm Intelligence. Morgan Kaufmann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-595-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-595-4"><bdi>978-1-55860-595-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swarm+Intelligence&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-55860-595-4&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Eberhart%2C+R.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-poli07analysis-46"><a href="#cite_ref-poli07analysis_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoli2007" class="citation journal cs1">Poli, R. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716231935/http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/technical-reports/2007/tr-csm469.pdf">"An analysis of publications on particle swarm optimisation applications"</a> (PDF). Technical Report CSM-469. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/technical-reports/2007/tr-csm469.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technical+Report+CSM-469&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+publications+on+particle+swarm+optimisation+applications&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Poli&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcswww.essex.ac.uk%2Ftechnical-reports%2F2007%2Ftr-csm469.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-poli08analysis-47"><a href="#cite_ref-poli08analysis_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoli2008" class="citation journal cs1">Poli, R. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/jaea/2008/685175.pdf">"Analysis of the publications on the applications of particle swarm optimisation"</a> (PDF). Journal of Artificial Evolution and Applications. 2008: 1–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2008%2F685175">10.1155/2008/685175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Artificial+Evolution+and+Applications&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+the+publications+on+the+applications+of+particle+swarm+optimisation&rft.volume=2008&rft.pages=1-10&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2008%2F685175&rft.aulast=Poli&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdownloads.hindawi.com%2Fjournals%2Fjaea%2F2008%2F685175.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genevalunch.com/blog/2011/05/04/altruism-helps-swarming-robots-fly-better-study-shows/">Altruism helps swarming robots fly better</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915092222/http://genevalunch.com/blog/2011/05/04/altruism-helps-swarming-robots-fly-better-study-shows/">Archived</a> 2012-09-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> genevalunch.com, 4 May 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaibelFloreanoKeller2011" class="citation journal cs1">Waibel, M; Floreano, D; Keller, L (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3086867">"A quantitative test of Hamilton's rule for the evolution of altruism"</a>. PLOS Biology. 9 (5): 1000615. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000615">10.1371/journal.pbio.1000615</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3086867">3086867</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21559320">21559320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=A+quantitative+test+of+Hamilton%27s+rule+for+the+evolution+of+altruism&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1000615&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3086867%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21559320&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000615&rft.aulast=Waibel&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Floreano%2C+D&rft.au=Keller%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3086867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrnkind1969" class="citation journal cs1">Herrnkind, W (1969). "Queuing behavior of spiny lobsters". Science. 164 (3886): 1425–1427. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969Sci...164.1425H">1969Sci...164.1425H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.164.3886.1425">10.1126/science.164.3886.1425</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5783720">5783720</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10324354">10324354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Queuing+behavior+of+spiny+lobsters&rft.volume=164&rft.issue=3886&rft.pages=1425-1427&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.164.3886.1425&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10324354%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5783720&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969Sci...164.1425H&rft.aulast=Herrnkind&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191018055143/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/10/fossil-conga-lines-reveal-origins-of-animal-swarms/">Fossil 'conga lines' reveal origins of animal swarms</a> National Geographic, 17 October 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVannierVidalMarchantEl_Hariri2019" class="citation journal cs1">Vannier, J; Vidal, M; Marchant, R; El Hariri, K; Kouraiss, K; Pittet, B; El Albani, A; Mazurier, A; Martin, E (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6797724">"Collective behaviour in 480-million-year-old trilobite arthropods from Morocco"</a>. Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 14941. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...914941V">2019NatSR...914941V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-51012-3">10.1038/s41598-019-51012-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6797724">6797724</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31624280">31624280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Collective+behaviour+in+480-million-year-old+trilobite+arthropods+from+Morocco&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14941&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6797724%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31624280&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-019-51012-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019NatSR...914941V&rft.aulast=Vannier&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Vidal%2C+M&rft.au=Marchant%2C+R&rft.au=El+Hariri%2C+K&rft.au=Kouraiss%2C+K&rft.au=Pittet%2C+B&rft.au=El+Albani%2C+A&rft.au=Mazurier%2C+A&rft.au=Martin%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6797724&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Feare C (1984) The Starling, Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-217705-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-217705-6">978-0-19-217705-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartridge_BL1982" class="citation magazine cs1">Partridge BL (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110703035553/https://137.146.28.140/biology/BI358j/Readings/Partridge%201982.pdf">"The structure and function of fish schools"</a> (PDF). Scientific American. Vol. 246, no. 6. pp. 114–123. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982SciAm.246f.114P">1982SciAm.246f.114P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0682-114">10.1038/scientificamerican0682-114</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7201674">7201674</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://137.146.28.140/biology/BI358j/Readings/Partridge%201982.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+structure+and+function+of+fish+schools&rft.volume=246&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=114-123&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7201674&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0682-114&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982SciAm.246f.114P&rft.au=Partridge+BL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F137.146.28.140%2Fbiology%2FBI358j%2FReadings%2FPartridge%25201982.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHubbardBabakSigurdssonMagnusson2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hubbard S, Babak P, Sigurdsson S, Magnusson K (2004). "A model of the formation of fish schools and migrations of fish". Ecol. Model. 174 (4): 359–374. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004EcMod.174..359H">2004EcMod.174..359H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolmodel.2003.06.006">10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2003.06.006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecol.+Model.&rft.atitle=A+model+of+the+formation+of+fish+schools+and+migrations+of+fish&rft.volume=174&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=359-374&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecolmodel.2003.06.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004EcMod.174..359H&rft.aulast=Hubbard&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Babak%2C+P&rft.au=Sigurdsson%2C+S&rft.au=Magnusson%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRauchMillonasChialvo1995" class="citation journal cs1">Rauch E, Millonas M, Chialvo D (1995). "Pattern formation and functionality in swarm models". Physics Letters A. 207 (3–4): 185–193. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/adap-org/9507003">adap-org/9507003</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhLA..207..185R">1995PhLA..207..185R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0375-9601%2895%2900624-C">10.1016/0375-9601(95)00624-C</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120567147">120567147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+A&rft.atitle=Pattern+formation+and+functionality+in+swarm+models&rft.volume=207&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=185-193&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fadap-org%2F9507003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120567147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0375-9601%2895%2900624-C&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhLA..207..185R&rft.aulast=Rauch&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Millonas%2C+M&rft.au=Chialvo%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allison_C,_Hughes_C_1991_403–422-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allison_C,_Hughes_C_1991_403–422_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allison_C,_Hughes_C_1991_403–422_57-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllisonHughes1991" class="citation journal cs1">Allison C, Hughes C (1991). "Bacterial swarming: an example of prokaryotic differentiation and multicellular behaviour". Science Progress. 75 (298 Pt 3–4): 403–422. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1842857">1842857</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Progress&rft.atitle=Bacterial+swarming%3A+an+example+of+prokaryotic+differentiation+and+multicellular+behaviour&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=298+Pt+3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=403-422&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1842857&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Hughes%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-JacobCohenShochetCzirok1995" class="citation journal cs1">Ben-Jacob E, Cohen I, Shochet O, Czirok A, Vicsek T (1995). "Cooperative Formation of Chiral Patterns during Growth of Bacterial Colonies". Physical Review Letters. 75 (15): 2899–2902. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvL..75.2899B">1995PhRvL..75.2899B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.75.2899">10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.2899</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10059433">10059433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Cooperative+Formation+of+Chiral+Patterns+during+Growth+of+Bacterial+Colonies&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=2899-2902&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10059433&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.75.2899&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhRvL..75.2899B&rft.aulast=Ben-Jacob&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Cohen%2C+I&rft.au=Shochet%2C+O&rft.au=Czirok%2C+A&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRappelNicolSarkissianLevine1999" class="citation journal cs1">Rappel WJ, Nicol A, Sarkissian A, Levine H, Loomis WF (1999). "Self-organized vortex state in two-dimensional Dictyostelium dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 83 (6): 1247–1250. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/patt-sol/9811001">patt-sol/9811001</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhRvL..83.1247R">1999PhRvL..83.1247R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.83.1247">10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1247</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1590827">1590827</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Self-organized+vortex+state+in+two-dimensional+Dictyostelium+dynamics&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1247-1250&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fpatt-sol%2F9811001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1590827%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.83.1247&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999PhRvL..83.1247R&rft.aulast=Rappel&rft.aufirst=WJ&rft.au=Nicol%2C+A&rft.au=Sarkissian%2C+A&rft.au=Levine%2C+H&rft.au=Loomis%2C+WF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChowdhury2006" class="citation journal cs1">Chowdhury, D (2006). "Collective effects in intra-cellular molecular motor transport: coordination, cooperation and competition". Physica A. 372 (1): 84–95. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0605053">physics/0605053</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhyA..372...84C">2006PhyA..372...84C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physa.2006.05.005">10.1016/j.physa.2006.05.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14822256">14822256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+A&rft.atitle=Collective+effects+in+intra-cellular+molecular+motor+transport%3A+coordination%2C+cooperation+and+competition&rft.volume=372&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=84-95&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0605053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14822256%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physa.2006.05.005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhyA..372...84C&rft.aulast=Chowdhury&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Parrish JK and Hamner WM (eds) (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zj4I4HNZSR0C&q=%22Animal+Groups+in+Three+Dimensions%22">Animal Groups in Three Dimensions</a> Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46024-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46024-8">978-0-521-46024-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingKeltschMolnar1997" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing D, Keltsch J, Molnar P (1997). "Modelling the evolution of human trail systems". Nature. 388 (6637): 47–50. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9805158">cond-mat/9805158</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Natur.388...47H">1997Natur.388...47H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F40353">10.1038/40353</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9214501">9214501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4364517">4364517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Modelling+the+evolution+of+human+trail+systems&rft.volume=388&rft.issue=6637&rft.pages=47-50&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4364517%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997Natur.388...47H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9805158&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9214501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F40353&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Keltsch%2C+J&rft.au=Molnar%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingFarkasVicsek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing D, Farkas I, Vicsek T (2000). "Simulating dynamical features of escape panic". Nature. 407 (6803): 487–490. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0009448">cond-mat/0009448</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.407..487H">2000Natur.407..487H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35035023">10.1038/35035023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11028994">11028994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:310346">310346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Simulating+dynamical+features+of+escape+panic&rft.volume=407&rft.issue=6803&rft.pages=487-490&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A310346%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Natur.407..487H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0009448&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11028994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35035023&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Farkas%2C+I&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingFarkasVicsek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing D, Farkas IJ, Vicsek T (2000). "Freezing by heating in a driven mesoscopic system". Physical Review Letters. 84 (6): 1240–1243. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9904326">cond-mat/9904326</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhRvL..84.1240H">2000PhRvL..84.1240H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.84.1240">10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.1240</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11017488">11017488</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18649078">18649078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Freezing+by+heating+in+a+driven+mesoscopic+system&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1240-1243&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18649078%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhRvL..84.1240H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9904326&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11017488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.84.1240&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Farkas%2C+IJ&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080519215742/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/07/swarms/miller-text">Swarm Theory</a> National Geographic. Feature article, July 2007.</li> <li>Beekman M, Sword GA and Simpson SK (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ky4bVPCXqMC&q=%22Swarm+intelligence%22">Biological Foundations of Swarm Intelligence</a>. In Swarm intelligence: introduction and applications, Eds Blum C and Merkle D. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社, Page 3–43. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-74088-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-74088-9">978-3-540-74088-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrishEdelstein-Keshet1999" class="citation journal cs1">Parrish JK, Edelstein-Keshet L (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720060041/http://people.hnl.bcm.tmc.edu/jli/reference/105.pdf">"Complexity, pattern and evolutionary trade-offs in animal aggregation"</a> (PDF). Science. 284 (5411): 99–101. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Sci...284...99P">1999Sci...284...99P</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.560.5229">10.1.1.560.5229</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.284.5411.99">10.1126/science.284.5411.99</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10102827">10102827</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.hnl.bcm.tmc.edu/jli/reference/105.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Complexity%2C+pattern+and+evolutionary+trade-offs+in+animal+aggregation&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=5411&rft.pages=99-101&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.560.5229%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10102827&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.284.5411.99&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Sci...284...99P&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=JK&rft.au=Edelstein-Keshet%2C+L&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.hnl.bcm.tmc.edu%2Fjli%2Freference%2F105.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-SwarmSmarts-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SwarmSmarts_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SwarmSmarts_66-1">b</a> Bonabeau E and Theraulaz G (2008) "Swarm Smarts". In Your Future with Robots Scientific American Special Editions. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCzaczkesGrüterRatnieks2015" class="citation journal cs1">Czaczkes, T.J.; Grüter, C.; Ratnieks, F. L. W. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-ento-010814-020627">"Trail pheromones: an integrative view of their role in colony organisation"</a>. Annual Review of Entomology. 60: 581–599. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-ento-010814-020627">10.1146/annurev-ento-010814-020627</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25386724">25386724</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37972066">37972066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=Trail+pheromones%3A+an+integrative+view+of+their+role+in+colony+organisation&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=581-599&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37972066%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25386724&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-ento-010814-020627&rft.aulast=Czaczkes&rft.aufirst=T.J.&rft.au=Gr%C3%BCter%2C+C.&rft.au=Ratnieks%2C+F.+L.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-ento-010814-020627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckersDeneubourgGoss1993" class="citation journal cs1">Beckers, R.; Deneubourg, J. L.; Goss, S (1993). "Modulation of trail laying in the ant Lasius niger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and its role in the collective selection of a food source". Journal of Insect Behavior. 6 (6): 751–759. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993JIBeh...6..751B">1993JIBeh...6..751B</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.161.9541">10.1.1.161.9541</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01201674">10.1007/BF01201674</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14670150">14670150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Insect+Behavior&rft.atitle=Modulation+of+trail+laying+in+the+ant+Lasius+niger+%28Hymenoptera%3A+Formicidae%29+and+its+role+in+the+collective+selection+of+a+food+source&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=751-759&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.161.9541%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14670150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01201674&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993JIBeh...6..751B&rft.aulast=Beckers&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Deneubourg%2C+J.+L.&rft.au=Goss%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGossAronDeneubourgPasteels1989" class="citation journal cs1">Goss, S.; Aron, S.; Deneubourg, J. L.; Pasteels, J. M. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/19271/1/042GossNaturwissenschaften89.pdf">"Self-organized shortcuts in the Argentine ant"</a> (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. 76 (12): 579–581. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989NW.....76..579G">1989NW.....76..579G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00462870">10.1007/BF00462870</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18506807">18506807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=Self-organized+shortcuts+in+the+Argentine+ant&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=579-581&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18506807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00462870&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989NW.....76..579G&rft.aulast=Goss&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Aron%2C+S.&rft.au=Deneubourg%2C+J.+L.&rft.au=Pasteels%2C+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdipot.ulb.ac.be%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2013%2F19271%2F1%2F042GossNaturwissenschaften89.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-brady2003-70"><a href="#cite_ref-brady2003_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrady2003" class="citation journal cs1">Brady, Seán G. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC164488">"Evolution of the army ant syndrome: The origin and long-term evolutionary stasis of a complex of behavioral and reproductive adaptations"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (11): 6575–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PNAS..100.6575B">2003PNAS..100.6575B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1137809100">10.1073/pnas.1137809100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC164488">164488</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12750466">12750466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+army+ant+syndrome%3A+The+origin+and+long-term+evolutionary+stasis+of+a+complex+of+behavioral+and+reproductive+adaptations&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=6575-9&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC164488%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12750466&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1137809100&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003PNAS..100.6575B&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Se%C3%A1n+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC164488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SANdisk-71"><a href="#cite_ref-SANdisk_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickeBydeCliffLayzell2004" class="citation book cs1">Dicke E, Byde A, Cliff D, Layzell P (2004). "An ant-inspired technique for storage area network design". In A. J. Ispeert, M. Murata, N. Wakamiya (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologicallyinsp2004ijsp">Proceedings of Biologically Inspired Approaches to Advanced Information Technology: First International Workshop, BioADIT 2004 LNCS 3141</a>. Springer. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologicallyinsp2004ijsp/page/n378">364</a>–379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540233398" title="Special:BookSources/9783540233398"><bdi>9783540233398</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+ant-inspired+technique+for+storage+area+network+design&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+Biologically+Inspired+Approaches+to+Advanced+Information+Technology%3A+First+International+Workshop%2C+BioADIT+2004+LNCS+3141&rft.pages=364-379&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9783540233398&rft.aulast=Dicke&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Byde%2C+A&rft.au=Cliff%2C+D&rft.au=Layzell%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologicallyinsp2004ijsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOldroyd1998" class="citation journal cs1">Oldroyd, BP (1998). "Colony relatedness in aggregations of Apis dorsata Fabricius (Hymenoptera, Apidae)". Insectes Sociaux. 47: 94–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs000400050015">10.1007/s000400050015</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40346464">40346464</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insectes+Sociaux&rft.atitle=Colony+relatedness+in+aggregations+of+Apis+dorsata+Fabricius+%28Hymenoptera%2C+Apidae%29&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=94-95&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs000400050015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40346464%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Oldroyd&rft.aufirst=BP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Milius, Susan <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/43117/title/Swarm_Savvy">Swarm Savvy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005309/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/43117/title/Swarm_Savvy">Archived</a> 27 September 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, How bees, ants and other animals avoid dumb collective decisions; Science News, May 9th, 2009; Vol.175 #10 (p. 16) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081003081637.htm">Bee Swarms Follow High-speed 'Streaker' Bees To Find A New Nest</a>; ScienceDaily (Nov. 24, 2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeeleyVisscher2003" class="citation journal cs1">Seeley, Thomas D.; Visscher, P. Kirk (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090131024024/http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/bes54.pdf">"Choosing a home: how the scouts in a honey bee swarm perceive the completion of their group decision making"</a> (PDF). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 54 (5): 511–520. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003BEcoS..54..511S">2003BEcoS..54..511S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00265-003-0664-6">10.1007/s00265-003-0664-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16948152">16948152</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/bes54.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 14 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology+and+Sociobiology&rft.atitle=Choosing+a+home%3A+how+the+scouts+in+a+honey+bee+swarm+perceive+the+completion+of+their+group+decision+making&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=511-520&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16948152%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00265-003-0664-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003BEcoS..54..511S&rft.aulast=Seeley&rft.aufirst=Thomas+D.&rft.au=Visscher%2C+P.+Kirk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbees.ucr.edu%2Freprints%2Fbes54.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorse1963" class="citation journal cs1">Morse, R.A. (1963). "Swarm orientation in honeybees". Science. 141 (3578): 357–358. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963Sci...141..357M">1963Sci...141..357M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.141.3578.357">10.1126/science.141.3578.357</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17815993">17815993</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46516976">46516976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Swarm+orientation+in+honeybees&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=3578&rft.pages=357-358&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.141.3578.357&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46516976%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17815993&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1963Sci...141..357M&rft.aulast=Morse&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeeley2003" class="citation journal cs1">Seeley, Thomas (2003). "Consensus building during nest-site selection in honey bee swarms: The expiration of dissent". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 53 (6): 417–424. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003BEcoS..53..417S">2003BEcoS..53..417S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00265-003-0598-z">10.1007/s00265-003-0598-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34798300">34798300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology+and+Sociobiology&rft.atitle=Consensus+building+during+nest-site+selection+in+honey+bee+swarms%3A+The+expiration+of+dissent&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=417-424&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34798300%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00265-003-0598-z&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003BEcoS..53..417S&rft.aulast=Seeley&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepienZmurchokHengeniusCaja_Rivera2000" class="citation journal cs1">Stepien, T.L.; Zmurchok, C.; Hengenius, J.B.; Caja Rivera, R.M.; <a href="/wiki/Maria_Rita_D%27Orsogna" title="Maria Rita D'Orsogna">D'Orsogna, M.R.</a>; Lindsay, A.E. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp10186543">"Moth Mating: Modeling Female Pheromone Calling and Male Navigational Strategies to Optimize Reproductive Success"</a>. Applied Sciences. 10 (18): 6543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp10186543">10.3390/app10186543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Sciences&rft.atitle=Moth+Mating%3A+Modeling+Female+Pheromone+Calling+and+Male+Navigational+Strategies+to+Optimize+Reproductive+Success.&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=6543&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fapp10186543&rft.aulast=Stepien&rft.aufirst=T.L.&rft.au=Zmurchok%2C+C.&rft.au=Hengenius%2C+J.B.&rft.au=Caja+Rivera%2C+R.M.&rft.au=D%27Orsogna%2C+M.R.&rft.au=Lindsay%2C+A.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fapp10186543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadekeHaverkampSachse2016" class="citation journal cs1">Badeke, B.; Haverkamp, A.; Sachse, S.A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843018">"A challenge for a male noctuid moth? Discerning the female sex pheromone against the background of plant volatiles"</a>. Frontiers in Physiology. 7: 143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffphys.2016.00143">10.3389/fphys.2016.00143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843018">4843018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27199761">27199761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Physiology&rft.atitle=A+challenge+for+a+male+noctuid+moth%3F+Discerning+the+female+sex+pheromone+against+the+background+of+plant+volatiles.&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=143&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4843018%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27199761&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffphys.2016.00143&rft.aulast=Badeke&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Haverkamp%2C+A.&rft.au=Sachse%2C+S.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4843018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenfield1981" class="citation journal cs1">Greenfield, M.D. (1981). "Moth sex pheromones: an evolutionary perspective". The Florida Entomologist. 64 (1): 4–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3494597">10.2307/3494597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3494597">3494597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Florida+Entomologist&rft.atitle=Moth+sex+pheromones%3A+an+evolutionary+perspective.&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-17&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3494597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3494597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Greenfield&rft.aufirst=M.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUmbersSymondsKokko2015" class="citation journal cs1">Umbers, K.D.L.; Symonds, M.R.E.; Kokko, H. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/187449/1/50Umbers.pdf">"The Mothematics of female pheromone signaling: Strategies for aging virgins"</a> (PDF). American Naturalist. 185 (3): 417–432. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F679614">10.1086/679614</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F13166">1885/13166</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25674695">25674695</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13846468">13846468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=The+Mothematics+of+female+pheromone+signaling%3A+Strategies+for+aging+virgins.&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417-432&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F13166&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13846468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25674695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F679614&rft.aulast=Umbers&rft.aufirst=K.D.L.&rft.au=Symonds%2C+M.R.E.&rft.au=Kokko%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zora.uzh.ch%2Fid%2Feprint%2F187449%2F1%2F50Umbers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasonBaruzzi2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mason, D.S.; Baruzzi, C. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ffee.2027">"Love in strange places"</a>. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17 (3): 184. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019FrEE...17..184M">2019FrEE...17..184M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ffee.2027">10.1002/fee.2027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+the+Environment&rft.atitle=Love+in+strange+places.&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=184&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Ffee.2027&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019FrEE...17..184M&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=D.S.&rft.au=Baruzzi%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Ffee.2027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nature.mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/midges">"Midges"</a>. MDC Discover Nature. Retrieved 19 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MDC+Discover+Nature&rft.atitle=Midges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnature.mdc.mo.gov%2Fdiscover-nature%2Ffield-guide%2Fmidges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkeby2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kirkeby, Carsten (30 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fpjen-2018-0014">"Observations of female and mixed sex swarming behaviour in Culicoides LATREILLE, 1809 (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)"</a>. Polish Journal of Entomology. 87 (2): 191–197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fpjen-2018-0014">10.2478/pjen-2018-0014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polish+Journal+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=Observations+of+female+and+mixed+sex+swarming+behaviour+in+Culicoides+LATREILLE%2C+1809+%28Diptera%3A+Ceratopogonidae%29&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-197&rft.date=2018-06-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2478%2Fpjen-2018-0014&rft.aulast=Kirkeby&rft.aufirst=Carsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2478%252Fpjen-2018-0014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-viegas-85"><a href="#cite_ref-viegas_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennifer_Viegas" class="citation web cs1">Jennifer Viegas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080704111419/http://animal.discovery.com/news/briefs/20060327/cockroach.html">"Cockroaches Make Group Decisions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Channel" title="Discovery Channel">Discovery Channel</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animal.discovery.com/news/briefs/20060327/cockroach.html">the original</a> on 4 July 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cockroaches+Make+Group+Decisions&rft.pub=Discovery+Channel&rft.au=Jennifer+Viegas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanimal.discovery.com%2Fnews%2Fbriefs%2F20060327%2Fcockroach.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemonick2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Lemonick, Michael D. (15 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071116222235/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1684427,00.html?imw=Y">"Robotic Roaches Do the Trick"</a>. Time. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1684427,00.html?imw=Y">the original</a> on 16 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Robotic+Roaches+Do+the+Trick&rft.date=2007-11-15&rft.aulast=Lemonick&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fhealth%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1684427%2C00.html%3Fimw%3DY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070625102824/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/bugs/locust.html">Locust Locustidae</a> National Geographic. Retrieved 12 December 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7858996.stm">"Locust swarms 'high' on serotonin"</a>. 29 January 2009 – via BBC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Locust+swarms+%27high%27+on+serotonin&rft.date=2009-01-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F7858996.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogersMathesonDesplandDodgson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers SM, Matheson T, Despland E, Dodgson T, Burrows M, Simpson SJ (November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.00648">"Mechanosensory-induced behavioural gregarization in the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria"</a>. J. Exp. Biol. 206 (Pt 22): 3991–4002. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.00648">10.1242/jeb.00648</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14555739">14555739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Exp.+Biol.&rft.atitle=Mechanosensory-induced+behavioural+gregarization+in+the+desert+locust+Schistocerca+gregaria&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=Pt+22&rft.pages=3991-4002&rft.date=2003-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.00648&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14555739&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=SM&rft.au=Matheson%2C+T&rft.au=Despland%2C+E&rft.au=Dodgson%2C+T&rft.au=Burrows%2C+M&rft.au=Simpson%2C+SJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1242%252Fjeb.00648&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Stevenson, PA (2009). "The Key to Pandora's Box". Science. 323 (5914): 594–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1169280">10.1126/science.1169280</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19179520">19179520</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39306643">39306643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Key+to+Pandora%27s+Box&rft.volume=323&rft.issue=5914&rft.pages=594-5&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39306643%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19179520&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1169280&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=PA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16505-blocking-happiness-chemical-may-prevent-locust-plagues.html">Blocking 'happiness' chemical may prevent locust plagues</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>, 2009-01-29, accessed 2009-01-31 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoshe_GuershonAmir_Ayali2012" class="citation journal cs1">Moshe Guershon; Amir Ayali (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2012.01518.x">"Innate phase behavior in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria"</a>. Insect Science. 19 (6): 649–656. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012InsSc..19..649G">2012InsSc..19..649G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2012.01518.x">10.1111/j.1744-7917.2012.01518.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83412818">83412818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insect+Science&rft.atitle=Innate+phase+behavior+in+the+desert+locust%2C+Schistocerca+gregaria&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=649-656&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83412818%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2012.01518.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012InsSc..19..649G&rft.au=Moshe+Guershon&rft.au=Amir+Ayali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1744-7917.2012.01518.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYatesErbanEscuderoCouzin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Yates, CA; Erban, R; Escudero, C; Couzin, ID; Buhl, J; Kevrekidis, IG; Maini, PK; Sumpter, DJ (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2667078">"Inherent noise can facilitate coherence in collective swarm motion"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 (14): 5464–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..106.5464Y">2009PNAS..106.5464Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0811195106">10.1073/pnas.0811195106</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2667078">2667078</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19336580">19336580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Inherent+noise+can+facilitate+coherence+in+collective+swarm+motion&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=5464-9&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2667078%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19336580&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0811195106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..106.5464Y&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Erban%2C+R&rft.au=Escudero%2C+C&rft.au=Couzin%2C+ID&rft.au=Buhl%2C+J&rft.au=Kevrekidis%2C+IG&rft.au=Maini%2C+PK&rft.au=Sumpter%2C+DJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2667078&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Pyle, Robert Michael, "National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies", p712-713, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-51914-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-51914-0">0-394-51914-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref1-95"><a href="#cite_ref-ref1_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121215095741/http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~pjbryant/biodiv/lepidopt/danaidae/monarchm.htm">"Monarch, Danaus plexippus"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~pjbryant/biodiv/lepidopt/danaidae/monarchm.htm">the original</a> on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 27 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Monarch%2C+Danaus+plexippus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbc.uci.edu%2F~pjbryant%2Fbiodiv%2Flepidopt%2Fdanaidae%2Fmonarchm.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Gugliotta, Guy (2003): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipm.osu.edu/trans/053_231.htm">Butterflies Guided By Body Clocks, Sun Scientists Shine Light on Monarchs' Pilgrimage</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060305034410/http://ipm.osu.edu/trans/053_231.htm">Archived</a> 2006-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a>, May 23, 2003, page A03. Retrieved 2006-JAN-07. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerlinGegearReppert2009" class="citation journal cs1">Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754321">"Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies"</a>. Science. 325 (5948): 1700–1704. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...325.1700M">2009Sci...325.1700M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1176221">10.1126/science.1176221</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754321">2754321</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19779201">19779201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Antennal+Circadian+Clocks+Coordinate+Sun+Compass+Orientation+in+Migratory+Monarch+Butterflies&rft.volume=325&rft.issue=5948&rft.pages=1700-1704&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2754321%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19779201&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1176221&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Sci...325.1700M&rft.aulast=Merlin&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Gegear%2C+RJ&rft.au=Reppert%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2754321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKyriacou_CP2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kyriacou CP (2009). "Unraveling Traveling". Science. 325 (5948): 1629–1630. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1178935">10.1126/science.1178935</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19779177">19779177</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206522416">206522416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Unraveling+Traveling&rft.volume=325&rft.issue=5948&rft.pages=1629-1630&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206522416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19779177&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1178935&rft.au=Kyriacou+CP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagyAkos_ZsVicsek2010" class="citation journal cs1">Nagy, M; Akos Zs, Biro D; Vicsek, T (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706192700/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/zo501/Hierarchical%20group%20dynamics%20in%20pigeon%20flocks.pdf">"Hierarchical group dynamics in pigeon flocks"</a> (PDF). Nature. 464 (7290): 890–893. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1010.5394">1010.5394</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.464..890N">2010Natur.464..890N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08891">10.1038/nature08891</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20376149">20376149</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4430488">4430488</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/zo501/Hierarchical%20group%20dynamics%20in%20pigeon%20flocks.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Hierarchical+group+dynamics+in+pigeon+flocks&rft.volume=464&rft.issue=7290&rft.pages=890-893&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4430488%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.464..890N&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1010.5394&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20376149&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08891&rft.aulast=Nagy&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Akos+Zs%2C+Biro+D&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cals.ncsu.edu%2Fcourse%2Fzo501%2FHierarchical%2520group%2520dynamics%2520in%2520pigeon%2520flocks.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.elte.hu/pigeonflocks/files/SI.pdf">Supplementary pdf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSekercioglu,_C.H.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Sekercioglu, C.H. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2007.02.019">"Conservation ecology: area trumps mobility in fragment bird extinctions"</a>. Current Biology. 17 (8): R283–R286. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007CBio...17.R283S">2007CBio...17.R283S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2007.02.019">10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.019</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17437705">17437705</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:744140">744140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Conservation+ecology%3A+area+trumps+mobility+in+fragment+bird+extinctions&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=R283-R286&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2007.02.019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A744140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17437705&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007CBio...17.R283S&rft.au=Sekercioglu%2C+C.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2007.02.019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20090521201002/http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA401264">Drag Reduction from Formation Flight. Flying Aircraft in Bird-Like Formations Could Significantly Increase Range</a>; Defense Technical Information Center; April 2002; Retrieved February 27, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHummel_D.Beukenberg_M.1989" class="citation journal cs1">Hummel D.; Beukenberg M. (1989). "Aerodynamische Interferenzeffekte beim Formationsfl ug von Vogeln". J. Ornithol. 130 (1): 15–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01647158">10.1007/BF01647158</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:823269">823269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Ornithol.&rft.atitle=Aerodynamische+Interferenzeffekte+beim+Formationsfl+ug+von+Vogeln&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-24&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01647158&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A823269%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Hummel+D.&rft.au=Beukenberg+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutts,_C._J.J_R_Speakman1994" class="citation journal cs1">Cutts, C. J. & J R Speakman (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/189/1/251.pdf">"Energy savings in formation flight of Pink-footed Geese"</a> (PDF). J. Exp. Biol. 189 (1): 251–261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.189.1.251">10.1242/jeb.189.1.251</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9317742">9317742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Exp.+Biol.&rft.atitle=Energy+savings+in+formation+flight+of+Pink-footed+Geese&rft.volume=189&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=251-261&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.189.1.251&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9317742&rft.au=Cutts%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=J+R+Speakman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjeb.biologists.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F189%2F1%2F251.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-newton-104"><a href="#cite_ref-newton_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton,_I.2008" class="citation book cs1">Newton, I. (2008). The Migration Ecology of Birds. Elselvier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-517367-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-517367-4"><bdi>978-0-12-517367-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Migration+Ecology+of+Birds&rft.pub=Elselvier&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-12-517367-4&rft.au=Newton%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Pitcher et al. 1982. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitcher_1993-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitcher_1993_106-0">^</a> Pitcher TJ and Parish JK (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=10lElCT7v5wC&dq=%22Behaviour+of+teleost+fishes%22+%22%22Functions+of+shoaling+behaviour+in+teleosts%22%22&pg=PA363">"Functions of shoaling behaviour in teleosts"</a> In: Pitcher TJ (ed) Behaviour of teleost fishes. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp 363–440 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoare_et_al._2000-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoare_et_al._2000_107-0">^</a> Hoare DJ, Krause J, Peuhkuri N and Godin JGJ (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130105143046/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119004845/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0">Body size and shoaling in fish</a> Journal of Fish Biology, 57(6) 1351-1366. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnekserRuhlBauerMcRobert2010" class="citation journal cs1">Snekser JL, Ruhl N, Bauer K, McRobert SP (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725190329/http://comparativepsychology.org/2010ijcpissue1/05.Snekser_etal_Final.pdf">"The Influence of Sex and Phenotype on Shoaling Decisions in Zebrafish"</a> (PDF). International Journal of Comparative Psychology. 23: 70–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.46867%2FIJCP.2010.23.01.04">10.46867/IJCP.2010.23.01.04</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://comparativepsychology.org/2010ijcpissue1/05.Snekser_etal_Final.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Comparative+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+Sex+and+Phenotype+on+Shoaling+Decisions+in+Zebrafish&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=70-81&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.46867%2FIJCP.2010.23.01.04&rft.aulast=Snekser&rft.aufirst=JL&rft.au=Ruhl%2C+N&rft.au=Bauer%2C+K&rft.au=McRobert%2C+SP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcomparativepsychology.org%2F2010ijcpissue1%2F05.Snekser_etal_Final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngeszerRyanParichy2004" class="citation journal cs1">Engeszer RE, Ryan MJ, Parichy DM (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/ryan/Publications/2004/2004CurrBiol14%20881.pdf">"Learned Social Preference in Zebrafish"</a> (PDF). Current Biology. 14 (10): 881–884. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004CBio...14..881E">2004CBio...14..881E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2004.04.042">10.1016/j.cub.2004.04.042</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15186744">15186744</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18741014">18741014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Learned+Social+Preference+in+Zebrafish&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=881-884&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2004.04.042&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18741014%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15186744&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004CBio...14..881E&rft.aulast=Engeszer&rft.aufirst=RE&rft.au=Ryan%2C+MJ&rft.au=Parichy%2C+DM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.utexas.edu%2Fryan%2FPublications%2F2004%2F2004CurrBiol14%2520881.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReebs,_S.G.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Reebs, S.G. (2000). "Can a minority of informed leaders determine the foraging movements of a fish shoal?". Animal Behaviour. 59 (2): 403–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fanbe.1999.1314">10.1006/anbe.1999.1314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10675263">10675263</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4945309">4945309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animal+Behaviour&rft.atitle=Can+a+minority+of+informed+leaders+determine+the+foraging+movements+of+a+fish+shoal%3F&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=403-9&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4945309%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10675263&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fanbe.1999.1314&rft.au=Reebs%2C+S.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Radakov DV (1973) Schooling in the ecology of fish. Israel Program for Scientific Translation, translated by Mill H. Halsted Press, New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7065-1351-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7065-1351-6">978-0-7065-1351-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Photographer: Mark van Coller </li> <li id="cite_note-H+83-113"><a href="#cite_ref-H+83_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamnerHamnerStrandGilmer1983" class="citation journal cs1">Hamner, WM; Hamner, PP; Strand, SW; Gilmer, RW (1983). "Behavior of Antarctic Krill, Euphausia superba: Chemoreception, Feeding, Schooling and Molting'". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 220 (4595): 433–5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983Sci...220..433H">1983Sci...220..433H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.220.4595.433">10.1126/science.220.4595.433</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17831417">17831417</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22161686">22161686</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Behavior+of+Antarctic+Krill%2C+Euphausia+superba%3A+Chemoreception%2C+Feeding%2C+Schooling+and+Molting%27&rft.volume=220&rft.issue=4595&rft.pages=433-5&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.220.4595.433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22161686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17831417&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983Sci...220..433H&rft.aulast=Hamner&rft.aufirst=WM&rft.au=Hamner%2C+PP&rft.au=Strand%2C+SW&rft.au=Gilmer%2C+RW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU._KilsP._Marshall1995" class="citation book cs1">U. Kils; P. Marshall (1995). "Der Krill, wie er schwimmt und frisst – neue Einsichten mit neuen Methoden ("The Antarctic krill – how it swims and feeds – new insights with new methods")". In I. Hempel; G. Hempel (eds.). Biologie der Polarmeere – Erlebnisse und Ergebnisse (Biology of the Polar Oceans Experiences and Results). <a href="/wiki/Fischer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Fischer Verlag">Fischer Verlag</a>. pp. 201–210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-334-60950-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-334-60950-7"><bdi>978-3-334-60950-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Der+Krill%2C+wie+er+schwimmt+und+frisst+%E2%80%93+neue+Einsichten+mit+neuen+Methoden+%28%22The+Antarctic+krill+%E2%80%93+how+it+swims+and+feeds+%E2%80%93+new+insights+with+new+methods%22%29&rft.btitle=Biologie+der+Polarmeere+%E2%80%93+Erlebnisse+und+Ergebnisse+%28Biology+of+the+Polar+Oceans+Experiences+and+Results%29&rft.pages=201-210&rft.pub=Fischer+Verlag&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-334-60950-7&rft.au=U.+Kils&rft.au=P.+Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Piper2007" class="citation book cs1">R. Piper (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/extraordinaryani0000pipe">Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals</a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33922-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33922-6"><bdi>978-0-313-33922-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extraordinary+Animals%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Curious+and+Unusual+Animals&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33922-6&rft.au=R.+Piper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fextraordinaryani0000pipe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Hoare, Ben (2009). Animal Migration. London: Natural History Museum. p. 107. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09243-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09243-6">978-0-565-09243-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107_117-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoare,_Ben_2009_p._107_117-2">c</a> Hoare, Ben (2009). Animal Migration. London: Natural History Museum. p. 107. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09243-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-565-09243-6">978-0-565-09243-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.S._JaffeM.D._OhmannA._de_Robertis1999" class="citation journal cs1">J.S. Jaffe; M.D. Ohmann; A. de Robertis (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720075623/http://jaffeweb.ucsd.edu/files/pubs/Sonar%20estimates%20of%20daytime%20activity%20levels%20of%20Euphausia%20pacifica%20in%20Saanich%20Inlet.pdf">"Sonar estimates of daytime activity levels of Euphausia pacifica in Saanich Inlet"</a> (PDF). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 56 (11): 2000–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjfas-56-11-2000">10.1139/cjfas-56-11-2000</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228567512">228567512</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jaffeweb.ucsd.edu/files/pubs/Sonar%20estimates%20of%20daytime%20activity%20levels%20of%20Euphausia%20pacifica%20in%20Saanich%20Inlet.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Fisheries+and+Aquatic+Sciences&rft.atitle=Sonar+estimates+of+daytime+activity+levels+of+Euphausia+pacifica+in+Saanich+Inlet&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2000-10&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fcjfas-56-11-2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228567512%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=J.S.+Jaffe&rft.au=M.D.+Ohmann&rft.au=A.+de+Robertis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjaffeweb.ucsd.edu%2Ffiles%2Fpubs%2FSonar%2520estimates%2520of%2520daytime%2520activity%2520levels%2520of%2520Euphausia%2520pacifica%2520in%2520Saanich%2520Inlet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeraint_A._TarlingMagnus_L._Johnson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Geraint A. Tarling & Magnus L. Johnson (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.01.044">"Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling"</a>. Current Biology. 16 (3): 83–4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006CBio...16..R83T">2006CBio...16..R83T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.01.044">10.1016/j.cub.2006.01.044</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16461267">16461267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Satiation+gives+krill+that+sinking+feeling&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=83-4&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16461267&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.01.044&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006CBio...16..R83T&rft.au=Geraint+A.+Tarling&rft.au=Magnus+L.+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2006.01.044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-howard-120"><a href="#cite_ref-howard_120-0">^</a> Howard, D.: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1198/chapters/133-140_Krill.pdf">Krill</a>", pp. 133–140 in Karl, H.A. et al. (eds): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1198/">Beyond the Golden Gate – Oceanography, Geology, Biology, and Environmental Issues in the Gulf of the Farallones</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">USGS</a> Circular 1198, 2001. URLs last accessed 2010-06-04. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Howard" class="citation web cs1">D. Howard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02quest/background/krill/krill.html">"Krill in Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a>. Retrieved 15 June 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Krill+in+Cordell+Bank+National+Marine+Sanctuary&rft.pub=NOAA&rft.au=D.+Howard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foceanexplorer.noaa.gov%2Fexplorations%2F02quest%2Fbackground%2Fkrill%2Fkrill.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kha2012-122"><a href="#cite_ref-kha2012_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGandomiAlavi2012" class="citation journal cs1">Gandomi, A.H.; Alavi, A.H. (2012). "Krill Herd Algorithm: A New Bio-Inspired Optimization Algorithm". Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation. 17 (12): 4831–4845. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012CNSNS..17.4831G">2012CNSNS..17.4831G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cnsns.2012.05.010">10.1016/j.cnsns.2012.05.010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+in+Nonlinear+Science+and+Numerical+Simulation&rft.atitle=Krill+Herd+Algorithm%3A+A+New+Bio-Inspired+Optimization+Algorithm&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4831-4845&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cnsns.2012.05.010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012CNSNS..17.4831G&rft.aulast=Gandomi&rft.aufirst=A.H.&rft.au=Alavi%2C+A.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamnerCarleton1979" class="citation journal cs1">Hamner, WM; Carleton, JH (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.1979.24.1.0001">"Copepod swarms: Attributes and role in coral reef ecosystems"</a>. Limnol. Oceanogr. 24 (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979LimOc..24....1H">1979LimOc..24....1H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.1979.24.1.0001">10.4319/lo.1979.24.1.0001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Limnol.+Oceanogr.&rft.atitle=Copepod+swarms%3A+Attributes+and+role+in+coral+reef+ecosystems&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4319%2Flo.1979.24.1.0001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979LimOc..24....1H&rft.aulast=Hamner&rft.aufirst=WM&rft.au=Carleton%2C+JH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4319%252Flo.1979.24.1.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohannes_DürbaumThorsten_Künnemann1997" class="citation web cs1">Johannes Dürbaum & Thorsten Künnemann (5 November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100526164720/http://www.uni-oldenburg.de/zoomorphology/Biologyintro.html">"Biology of Copepods: An Introduction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Ossietzky_University_of_Oldenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg">Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-oldenburg.de/zoomorphology/Biologyintro.html">the original</a> on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 8 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biology+of+Copepods%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Carl+von+Ossietzky+University+of+Oldenburg&rft.date=1997-11-05&rft.au=Johannes+D%C3%BCrbaum&rft.au=Thorsten+K%C3%BCnnemann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-oldenburg.de%2Fzoomorphology%2FBiologyintro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Lindsey R and Scott M (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Phytoplankton/page1.php">What are phytoplankton</a> <a href="/wiki/NASA_Earth_Observatory" title="NASA Earth Observatory">NASA Earth Observatory</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-NOAA_HAB-126"><a href="#cite_ref-NOAA_HAB_126-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Centers/HumanHealth/docs/habs.pdf">Harmful algal blooms in the Great Lakes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100616173236/http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Centers/HumanHealth/docs/habs.pdf">Archived</a> 2010-06-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2009, <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>, Center of Excellence for Great Lakes and Human Health. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1800" class="citation book cs1">Darwin, Erasmus (1 January 1800). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YggpAAAAYAAJ">Phytologia: Or, The Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening. With the Theory of Draining Morasses and with an Improved Construction of the Drill Plough</a>. P. Byrne.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phytologia%3A+Or%2C+The+Philosophy+of+Agriculture+and+Gardening.+With+the+Theory+of+Draining+Morasses+and+with+an+Improved+Construction+of+the+Drill+Plough&rft.pub=P.+Byrne&rft.date=1800-01-01&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Erasmus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYggpAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiszakCompariniMazzolaiBaluska2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ciszak, Marzena; Comparini, Diego; Mazzolai, Barbara; Baluska, Frantisek; Arecchi, F. Tito; Vicsek, Tamás; Mancuso, Stefano (17 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3260168">"Swarming Behavior in Plant Roots"</a>. PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e29759. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...729759C">2012PLoSO...729759C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029759">10.1371/journal.pone.0029759</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3260168">3260168</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22272246">22272246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Swarming+Behavior+in+Plant+Roots&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e29759&rft.date=2012-01-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3260168%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PLoSO...729759C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22272246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029759&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Ciszak&rft.aufirst=Marzena&rft.au=Comparini%2C+Diego&rft.au=Mazzolai%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Baluska%2C+Frantisek&rft.au=Arecchi%2C+F.+Tito&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+Tam%C3%A1s&rft.au=Mancuso%2C+Stefano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3260168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaluškaMancusoVolkmannBarlow2010" class="citation journal cs1">Baluška, František; Mancuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter; Barlow, Peter W. (1 July 2010). "Root apex transition zone: a signalling–response nexus in the root". Trends in Plant Science. 15 (7): 402–408. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010TPS....15..402B">2010TPS....15..402B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2010.04.007">10.1016/j.tplants.2010.04.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20621671">20621671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=Root+apex+transition+zone%3A+a+signalling%E2%80%93response+nexus+in+the+root&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=402-408&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20621671&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2010.04.007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010TPS....15..402B&rft.aulast=Balu%C5%A1ka&rft.aufirst=Franti%C5%A1ek&rft.au=Mancuso%2C+Stefano&rft.au=Volkmann%2C+Dieter&rft.au=Barlow%2C+Peter+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.2014" class="citation book cs1">J., Trewavas, A. (2014). Plant behaviour and intelligence. Oxford university press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199539543" title="Special:BookSources/9780199539543"><bdi>9780199539543</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/961862730">961862730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+behaviour+and+intelligence&rft.pub=Oxford+university+press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F961862730&rft.isbn=9780199539543&rft.aulast=J.&rft.aufirst=Trewavas%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Reichenbach_2001-131"><a href="#cite_ref-Reichenbach_2001_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReichenbach_H2001" class="citation journal cs1">Reichenbach H (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.jim.7000025">"Myxobacteria, producers of novel bioactive substances"</a>. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 27 (3): 149–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.jim.7000025">10.1038/sj.jim.7000025</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11780785">11780785</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34964313">34964313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Ind+Microbiol+Biotechnol&rft.atitle=Myxobacteria%2C+producers+of+novel+bioactive+substances&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=149-56&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34964313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11780785&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.jim.7000025&rft.au=Reichenbach+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.jim.7000025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarkasHelbingVicsek2002" class="citation journal cs1">Farkas I, Helbing D, Vicsek T (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070710054159/http://angel.elte.hu/~vicsek/pdf/MexWave.pdf">"Mexican waves in an excitable medium"</a> (PDF). Nature. 419 (6903): 131–132. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0210073">cond-mat/0210073</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.419..131F">2002Natur.419..131F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F419131a">10.1038/419131a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12226653">12226653</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4309609">4309609</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://angel.elte.hu/~vicsek/pdf/MexWave.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Mexican+waves+in+an+excitable+medium&rft.volume=419&rft.issue=6903&rft.pages=131-132&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4309609%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.419..131F&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0210073&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12226653&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F419131a&rft.aulast=Farkas&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Helbing%2C+D&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fangel.elte.hu%2F~vicsek%2Fpdf%2FMexWave.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNedaRavaszBrechetVicsek2002" class="citation journal cs1">Neda Z, Ravasz E, Brechet Y, Vicsek T, Barabasi AL (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611091441/http://angel.elte.hu/~vicsek/pdf/longpaper.pdf">"Physics of Rhythmic Applause"</a> (PDF). Physical Review E. 61 (6): 6987–6992. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0006423">cond-mat/0006423</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhRvE..61.6987N">2000PhRvE..61.6987N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysreve.61.6987">10.1103/physreve.61.6987</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11088392">11088392</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14135891">14135891</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://angel.elte.hu/~vicsek/pdf/longpaper.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+E&rft.atitle=Physics+of+Rhythmic+Applause&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=6987-6992&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14135891%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhRvE..61.6987N&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0006423&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11088392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysreve.61.6987&rft.aulast=Neda&rft.aufirst=Z&rft.au=Ravasz%2C+E&rft.au=Brechet%2C+Y&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+T&rft.au=Barabasi%2C+AL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fangel.elte.hu%2F~vicsek%2Fpdf%2Flongpaper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingKeltschMolnar1997" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing, D; Keltsch, J; Molnar, P (1997). "Modelling the evolution of human trail systems". Nature. 388 (6637): 47–50. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/9805158">cond-mat/9805158</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Natur.388...47H">1997Natur.388...47H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F40353">10.1038/40353</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9214501">9214501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4364517">4364517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Modelling+the+evolution+of+human+trail+systems&rft.volume=388&rft.issue=6637&rft.pages=47-50&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4364517%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997Natur.388...47H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F9805158&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9214501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F40353&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Keltsch%2C+J&rft.au=Molnar%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/02/15/herd-mentality-explained/1922.html">http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/02/15/herd-mentality-explained/1922.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129010932/http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/02/15/herd-mentality-explained/1922.html">Archived</a> 29 November 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Retrieved on October 31st 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/science/danger-in-numbers-during-haj?pageCount=2">"Danger in numbers during Haj"</a>. The National. 6 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Danger+in+numbers+during+Haj&rft.pub=The+National&rft.date=2009-09-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenational.ae%2Fnews%2Fuae-news%2Fscience%2Fdanger-in-numbers-during-haj%3FpageCount%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCouzinKrause2003" class="citation book cs1">Couzin ID, Krause J (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120313132355/http://webscript.princeton.edu/~icouzin/website/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/CouzinKrause2003.pdf">Self-organization and collective behavior in vertebrates</a> (PDF). Advances in the Study of Behavior. Vol. 32. pp. 1–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-3454%2803%2901001-5">10.1016/S0065-3454(03)01001-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-004532-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-004532-7"><bdi>978-0-12-004532-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webscript.princeton.edu/~icouzin/website/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/CouzinKrause2003.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Self-organization+and+collective+behavior+in+vertebrates&rft.series=Advances+in+the+Study+of+Behavior&rft.pages=1-75&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0065-3454%2803%2901001-5&rft.isbn=978-0-12-004532-7&rft.aulast=Couzin&rft.aufirst=ID&rft.au=Krause%2C+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebscript.princeton.edu%2F~icouzin%2Fwebsite%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2010%2F07%2FCouzinKrause2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabbai2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Gabbai, J.M.E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141219110658/http://gabbai.com/academic/complexity-and-the-aerospace-industry-understanding-emergence-by-relating-structure-to-performance-using-multi-agent-systems">Complexity and the Aerospace Industry: Understanding Emergence by Relating Structure to Performance using Multi-Agent Systems</a> (Thesis). Manchester: University of Manchester Doctoral Thesis. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gabbai.com/academic/complexity-and-the-aerospace-industry-understanding-emergence-by-relating-structure-to-performance-using-multi-agent-systems/">the original</a> on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Complexity+and+the+Aerospace+Industry%3A+Understanding+Emergence+by+Relating+Structure+to+Performance+using+Multi-Agent+Systems&rft.inst=University+of+Manchester+Doctoral+Thesis&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Gabbai&rft.aufirst=J.M.E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gabbai.com%2Facademic%2Fcomplexity-and-the-aerospace-industry-understanding-emergence-by-relating-structure-to-performance-using-multi-agent-systems%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Livermore R (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://computing-reports.open.ac.uk/2008/TR2008-25.pdf">"A multi-agent system approach to a simulation study comparing the performance of aircraft boarding using pre-assigned seating and free-for-all strategies"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110813221456/http://computing-reports.open.ac.uk/2008/TR2008-25.pdf">Archived</a> 13 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Open University, Technical report No 2008/25. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2008/0406-planes_trains_and_ant_hills.htm">"Planes, Trains and Ant Hills: Computer scientists simulate activity of ants to reduce airline delays"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101124132227/https://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2008/0406-planes_trains_and_ant_hills.htm">Archived</a> 2010-11-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Science Daily, 1 April 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-Burd_2003-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Burd_2003_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurdN._Aranwela2003" class="citation journal cs1">Burd, Martin; N. Aranwela (February 2003). "Head-on encounter rates and walking speed of foragers in leaf-cutting ant traffic". Insectes Sociaux. 50 (1): 3–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs000400300001">10.1007/s000400300001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23876486">23876486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insectes+Sociaux&rft.atitle=Head-on+encounter+rates+and+walking+speed+of+foragers+in+leaf-cutting+ant+traffic&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-8&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs000400300001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23876486%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burd&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=N.+Aranwela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ribeiro_2009-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Ribeiro_2009_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRibeiroAndré_Frazão_HeleneGilberto_XavierCarlos_Navas2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ribeiro, Pedro; André Frazão Helene; Gilberto Xavier; Carlos Navas; Fernando Leite Ribeiro (1 April 2009). Dornhaus, Anna (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2659768">"Ants can learn to forage on one-way trails"</a>. PLOS ONE. 4 (4): e5024. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PLoSO...4.5024R">2009PLoSO...4.5024R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005024">10.1371/journal.pone.0005024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2659768">2659768</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19337369">19337369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Ants+can+learn+to+forage+on+one-way+trails&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e5024&rft.date=2009-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2659768%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19337369&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PLoSO...4.5024R&rft.aulast=Ribeiro&rft.aufirst=Pedro&rft.au=Andr%C3%A9+Fraz%C3%A3o+Helene&rft.au=Gilberto+Xavier&rft.au=Carlos+Navas&rft.au=Fernando+Leite+Ribeiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2659768&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_2008-143"><a href="#cite_ref-John_2008_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnAndreas_SchadschneiderDebashish_ChowdhuryKatsuhiro_Nishinari2008" class="citation journal cs1">John, Alexander; Andreas Schadschneider; Debashish Chowdhury; Katsuhiro Nishinari (March 2008). "Characteristics of ant-inspired traffic flow". Swarm Intelligence. 2 (1): 25–41. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.1434">0903.1434</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11721-008-0010-8">10.1007/s11721-008-0010-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18350336">18350336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Swarm+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+ant-inspired+traffic+flow&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-41&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0903.1434&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18350336%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11721-008-0010-8&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Andreas+Schadschneider&rft.au=Debashish+Chowdhury&rft.au=Katsuhiro+Nishinari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/14020655">Are we nearly there yet? Motorists could learn a thing or two from ants</a> The Economist, 10 July 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelbingFarkasVicsek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Helbing, Dirk; Farkas, Illés; Vicsek, Tamás (2000). "Simulating dynamical features of escape panic". Nature. 407 (6803): 487–490. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0009448">cond-mat/0009448</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.407..487H">2000Natur.407..487H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35035023">10.1038/35035023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11028994">11028994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:310346">310346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Simulating+dynamical+features+of+escape+panic&rft.volume=407&rft.issue=6803&rft.pages=487-490&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A310346%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Natur.407..487H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0009448&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11028994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35035023&rft.aulast=Helbing&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft.au=Farkas%2C+Ill%C3%A9s&rft.au=Vicsek%2C+Tam%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Swarming the shelves: How shops can exploit people's herd mentality to increase sales?". The Economist. 11 November 2006. p. 90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Swarming+the+shelves%3A+How+shops+can+exploit+people%27s+herd+mentality+to+increase+sales%3F&rft.pages=90&rft.date=2006-11-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kushleyev2013-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kushleyev2013_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kushleyev2013_147-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKushleyevMellingerPowersKumar2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kushleyev, Alex; Mellinger, Daniel; Powers, Caitlin; Kumar, Vijay (2013). "Towards a swarm of agile micro quadrotors". Autonomous Robots. 35 (4): 287–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10514-013-9349-9">10.1007/s10514-013-9349-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18340816">18340816</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Autonomous+Robots&rft.atitle=Towards+a+swarm+of+agile+micro+quadrotors&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=287-300&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10514-013-9349-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18340816%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kushleyev&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft.au=Mellinger%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Powers%2C+Caitlin&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Vijay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141026212516/http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/ssr/projects/progSA/kilobot.html">"Self-organizing Systems Research Group"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/ssr/projects/progSA/kilobot.html">the original</a> on 26 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Self-organizing+Systems+Research+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eecs.harvard.edu%2Fssr%2Fprojects%2FprogSA%2Fkilobot.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714105814/http://www.mobilerobots.com/RobotApplications/SpecialResearchProjects.aspx">"Centibots 100-Robot Collaborative Reconnaissance Project"</a>. ActivMedia Robotics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mobilerobots.com/RobotApplications/SpecialResearchProjects.aspx">the original</a> on 14 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centibots+100-Robot+Collaborative+Reconnaissance+Project&rft.pub=ActivMedia+Robotics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mobilerobots.com%2FRobotApplications%2FSpecialResearchProjects.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swarmrobot.org">"Open-source micro-robotic project"</a>. Retrieved 28 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Open-source+micro-robotic+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.swarmrobot.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191006/https://www.irobot.com/sp.cfm?pageid=149">"Swarm"</a>. iRobot Corporation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irobot.com/sp.cfm?pageid=149">the original</a> on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 28 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Swarm&rft.pub=iRobot+Corporation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irobot.com%2Fsp.cfm%3Fpageid%3D149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnapp2000" class="citation magazine cs1">Knapp, Louise (21 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/12/40750">"Look, Up in the Sky: Robofly"</a>. Wired. Retrieved 25 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Look%2C+Up+in+the+Sky%3A+Robofly&rft.date=2000-12-21&rft.aulast=Knapp&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fscience%2Fdiscoveries%2Fnews%2F2000%2F12%2F40750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaskaJanLibor2014" class="citation conference cs1">Saska, Martin; Jan, Vakula; Libor, Preucil (2014). Swarms of micro aerial vehicles stabilized under a visual relative localization. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Swarms+of+micro+aerial+vehicles+stabilized+under+a+visual+relative+localization&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Saska&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Jan%2C+Vakula&rft.au=Libor%2C+Preucil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaskaVonasekKrajnikPreucil2014" class="citation journal cs1">Saska, Martin; Vonasek, Vojtech; Krajnik, Tomas; Preucil, Libor (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/14891/1/formations_2014_IJRR.pdf">"Coordination and navigation of heterogeneous MAV–UGV formations localized by a hawk-eye-like approach under a model predictive control scheme"</a> (PDF). International Journal of Robotics Research. 33 (10): 1393–1412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0278364914530482">10.1177/0278364914530482</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1195374">1195374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Robotics+Research&rft.atitle=Coordination+and+navigation+of+heterogeneous+MAV%E2%80%93UGV+formations+localized+by+a+hawk-eye-like+approach+under+a+model+predictive+control+scheme.&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1393-1412&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0278364914530482&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1195374%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Saska&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Vonasek%2C+Vojtech&rft.au=Krajnik%2C+Tomas&rft.au=Preucil%2C+Libor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.lincoln.ac.uk%2F14891%2F1%2Fformations_2014_IJRR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaskaVonasekKrajnikPreucil2012" class="citation conference cs1">Saska, Martin; Vonasek, Vojtech; Krajnik, Tomas; Preucil, Libor (2012). Coordination and Navigation of Heterogeneous UAVs-UGVs Teams Localized by a Hawk-Eye Approach. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Coordination+and+Navigation+of+Heterogeneous+UAVs-UGVs+Teams+Localized+by+a+Hawk-Eye+Approach&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Saska&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Vonasek%2C+Vojtech&rft.au=Krajnik%2C+Tomas&rft.au=Preucil%2C+Libor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiJinWangZhang2020" class="citation journal cs1">Ji, Fengtong; Jin, Dongdong; Wang, Ben; Zhang, Li (23 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c01464">"Light-Driven Hovering of a Magnetic Microswarm in Fluid"</a>. ACS Nano. 14 (6): 6990–6998. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsnano.0c01464">10.1021/acsnano.0c01464</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-0851">1936-0851</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32463226">32463226</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218976382">218976382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Nano&rft.atitle=Light-Driven+Hovering+of+a+Magnetic+Microswarm+in+Fluid&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=6990-6998&rft.date=2020-06-23&rft.issn=1936-0851&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218976382%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32463226&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facsnano.0c01464&rft.aulast=Ji&rft.aufirst=Fengtong&rft.au=Jin%2C+Dongdong&rft.au=Wang%2C+Ben&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Li&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%2Facsnano.0c01464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2007" class="citation cs2">Hughes, Robin (22 February 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/robinhughes/404457553/">Barracuda Tornado</a>, retrieved 7 February 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barracuda+Tornado&rft.date=2007-02-22&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Frobinhughes%2F404457553%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMouLiXieZhang2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mou, Fangzhi; Li, Xiaofeng; Xie, Qi; Zhang, Jianhua; Xiong, Kang; Xu, Leilei; Guan, Jianguo (20 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsnano.9b05996">"Active Micromotor Systems Built from Passive Particles with Biomimetic Predator–Prey Interactions"</a>. ACS Nano. 14 (1): 406–414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsnano.9b05996">10.1021/acsnano.9b05996</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-0851">1936-0851</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31860277">31860277</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209435036">209435036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Nano&rft.atitle=Active+Micromotor+Systems+Built+from+Passive+Particles+with+Biomimetic+Predator%E2%80%93Prey+Interactions&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=406-414&rft.date=2019-12-20&rft.issn=1936-0851&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A209435036%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31860277&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facsnano.9b05996&rft.aulast=Mou&rft.aufirst=Fangzhi&rft.au=Li%2C+Xiaofeng&rft.au=Xie%2C+Qi&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Jianhua&rft.au=Xiong%2C+Kang&rft.au=Xu%2C+Leilei&rft.au=Guan%2C+Jianguo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1021%2Facsnano.9b05996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuWangDuWang2018" class="citation journal cs1">Yu, Jiangfan; Wang, Ben; Du, Xingzhou; Wang, Qianqian; Zhang, Li (21 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6104072">"Ultra-extensible ribbon-like magnetic microswarm"</a>. Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3260. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatCo...9.3260Y">2018NatCo...9.3260Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-018-05749-6">10.1038/s41467-018-05749-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6104072">6104072</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30131487">30131487</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Ultra-extensible+ribbon-like+magnetic+microswarm&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3260&rft.date=2018-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6104072%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018NatCo...9.3260Y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30131487&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-018-05749-6&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Jiangfan&rft.au=Wang%2C+Ben&rft.au=Du%2C+Xingzhou&rft.au=Wang%2C+Qianqian&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Li&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6104072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edwards-2000-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards-2000_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards,_Sean_J.A.2000" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Sean J.A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1100">Swarming on the Battlefield: Past, Present, and Future</a>. Rand Monograph MR-1100. Rand Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-2779-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-2779-5"><bdi>978-0-8330-2779-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swarming+on+the+Battlefield%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future&rft.series=Rand+Monograph+MR-1100&rft.pub=Rand+Corporation&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-2779-5&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Sean+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fpubs%2Fmonograph_reports%2FMR1100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/06/tech/innovation/navy-swarm-boats/">U.S. Navy could 'swarm' foes with robot boats</a>, CNN, 13 October 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/expedition10/index.html">"Dive and Discover: Scientific Expedition 10: Antarctica"</a>. Retrieved 3 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dive+and+Discover%3A+Scientific+Expedition+10%3A+Antarctica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.divediscover.whoi.edu%2Fexpedition10%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/13174313">Crowd modelling: Simulating the behaviour of crowds of people, or swarms of animals, has both frivolous and important uses</a> The Economist, 5 March 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Fisher, Len (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perfectswarmscie0000fish/page/57">The perfect swarm: the science of complexity in everyday life</a> Page 57. Basic Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01884-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01884-0">978-0-465-01884-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodford" class="citation web cs1">Woodford, Riley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100103112042/http://www.wildlifenews.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlife_news.view_article&articles_id=56&issue_id=6">"Lemming Suicide Myth Disney Film Faked Bogus Behavior"</a>. Archived from the original on 3 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lemming+Suicide+Myth+Disney+Film+Faked+Bogus+Behavior&rft.aulast=Woodford&rft.aufirst=Riley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wildlifenews.alaska.gov%2Findex.cfm%3Fadfg%3Dwildlife_news.view_article%26articles_id%3D56%26issue_id%3D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/24/science/24obse.html?_r=1">Red-Bellied Piranha Is Really Yellow</a> New York Times, 24 May 2005. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Blum C and Merkle D (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zMgyNN6Ufj0C&q=intitle:Self-Organization+intitle:in+intitle:Biological+intitle:Systems">Swarm intelligence: introduction and applications</a> Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-74088-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-74088-9">978-3-540-74088-9</a>.</li> <li>Camazine S, Deneubourg JL, <a href="/wiki/Nigel_R._Franks" title="Nigel R. Franks">Franks NR</a>, Sneyd J, Theraulaz G and Bonabeau E (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zMgyNN6Ufj0C&q=intitle:Self-Organization+intitle:in+intitle:Biological+intitle:Systems">Self-Organization in Biological Systems</a> Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11624-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11624-2">978-0-691-11624-2</a>.</li> <li>Fisher L (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perfectswarmscie0000fish">The perfect swarm: the science of complexity in everyday life</a> Basic Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01884-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01884-0">978-0-465-01884-0</a>.</li> <li>Kennedy JF, Kennedy J, Eberhart RC and Shi Y (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vOx-QV3sRQsC&q=swarm">Swarm intelligence</a> Morgan Kaufmann. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-595-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-595-4">978-1-55860-595-4</a>.</li> <li>Krause, J (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yafjBAOkM4QC&q=intitle:Living+intitle:in+intitle:groups">Living in Groups</a> Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850818-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850818-2">978-0-19-850818-2</a></li> <li>Lim CP, Jain LC and Dehuri S (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CrkFO1I72_UC&q=swarm">Innovations in Swarm Intelligence</a> Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04224-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04224-9">978-3-642-04224-9</a>.</li> <li>Miller, Peter (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sZQkkVPmSyAC&dq=%22The+Smart+Swarm:+How+understanding+flocks,+schools,+and+colonies+can+make+us+better+at+communicating,+decision+making,+and+getting+things+done%22&pg=PT3">The Smart Swarm: How understanding flocks, schools, and colonies can make us better at communicating, decision making, and getting things done</a> Penguin, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58333-390-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58333-390-7">978-1-58333-390-7</a></li> <li>Nedjah N and Mourelle LdM (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WFo9ojpx42sC&q=swarm">Swarm intelligent systems</a> Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-33868-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-33868-0">978-3-540-33868-0</a>.</li> <li>Sumpter, David JT (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7rVDY8pd2MsC&q=%22feeding+frenzy%22+locust">Collective Animal Behavior</a> Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14843-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14843-4">978-0-691-14843-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVicsekZafeiris2012" class="citation journal cs1">Vicsek A, Zafeiris A (2012). "Collective motion". Physics Reports. 517 (3–4): 71–140. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1010.5017">1010.5017</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhR...517...71V">2012PhR...517...71V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physrep.2012.03.004">10.1016/j.physrep.2012.03.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119109873">119109873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Reports&rft.atitle=Collective+motion&rft.volume=517&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=71-140&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1010.5017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119109873%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physrep.2012.03.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PhR...517...71V&rft.aulast=Vicsek&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Zafeiris%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwarm+behaviour" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/13/science/13traff.html?ei=5087&em=&en=2770422853e9f63e&ex=1195102800&pagewanted=print">New York Times article on investigations into swarming</a></li> <li>From the <a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Demonstrations_Project" title="Wolfram Demonstrations Project">Wolfram Demonstrations Project</a> – requires <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/download-cdf-player.html">CDF player (free)</a>: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ModelOfAFireflySwarm/">Model of a Firefly Swarm</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/GarbageCollectionByAnts/">Garbage Collection by Ants</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/MergingSchoolsOfFish/">Beverton and Merging Schools of Fish</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ProppCircles/">Propp Circles</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Swarming" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Swarming" title="Template:Swarming"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Swarming" title="Template talk:Swarming"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Swarming" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Swarming"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Swarming" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Swarming</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Biological_swarming">Biological swarming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">Collective animal behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droving" title="Droving">Droving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flock_(birds)" title="Flock (birds)">Flock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sort_sol" title="Sort sol">sort sol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">Herd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">herd behavior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Locust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock" title="Mixed-species foraging flock">Mixed-species foraging flock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing_(animal_behavior)" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">Mobbing behavior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">feeding frenzy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pack_(canine)" title="Pack (canine)">Pack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pack_hunter" title="Pack hunter">pack hunter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_of_self-organization_in_ants" title="Patterns of self-organization in ants">Patterns of self-organization in ants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_mill" title="Ant mill">ant mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetry_breaking_of_escaping_ants" title="Symmetry breaking of escaping ants">symmetry breaking of escaping ants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">bait ball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Swarming behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(honey_bee)" title="Swarming (honey bee)">Swarming (honey bee)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_motility" title="Swarming motility">Swarming motility</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/140px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/210px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/280px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3756" data-file-height="2561" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_migration" title="Altitudinal migration">altitudinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration_tracking" title="Animal migration tracking">tracking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wildlife_tracking_technology" title="History of wildlife tracking technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coded_wire_tag" title="Coded wire tag">coded wire tag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Bird migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bird_migration_flyways" title="Category:Bird migration flyways">flyways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_migration_(birds)" title="Reverse migration (birds)">reverse migration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">Cell migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Fish migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">diel vertical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessepsian_migration" title="Lessepsian migration">Lessepsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">salmon run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">sardine run</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homing_(biology)" title="Homing (biology)">Homing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natal_homing" title="Natal homing">natal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philopatry" title="Philopatry">philopatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera_migration" title="Lepidoptera migration">butterflies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">monarch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle_migration" title="Sea turtle migration">Sea turtle migration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Models">Swarm algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">Boids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_(simulation)" title="Swarm (simulation)">Swarm (simulation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_matter" title="Active matter">Active matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clustering_of_self-propelled_particles" title="Clustering of self-propelled particles">clustering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicsek_model" title="Vicsek model">Vicsek model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIO-LGCA" title="BIO-LGCA">BIO-LGCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbrion" title="Symbrion">Symbrion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralised_system" title="Decentralised system">Decentralised system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_size_measures" title="Group size measures">Group size measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_organization" title="Spatial organization">Spatial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Military swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_allocation_and_partitioning_of_social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Task allocation and partitioning of social insects">Task allocation and partitioning of social insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&oldid=1259255958">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&oldid=1259255958</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_migration" title="Category:Animal migration">Animal migration</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Aquatic ecology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Group_processes" title="Category:Group processes">Group processes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Crowds" title="Category:Crowds">Crowds</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fisheries_science" title="Category:Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Periodic_phenomena" title="Category:Periodic phenomena">Periodic phenomena</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zoology" title="Category:Zoology">Zoology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_cognition" title="Category:Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">CS1 maint: unfit URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_August_2021" title="Category:Use British English from August 2021">Use British English from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_August_2021" title="Category:Use dmy dates from August 2021">Use dmy dates from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_May_2019" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from May 2019">Articles with disputed statements from May 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_wikidata_descriptions_as_a_fallback_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 05:59 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swarm_behaviour&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-rvszl","wgBackendResponseTime":2487,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.039","walltime":"2.303","ppvisitednodes":{"value":18047,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":399945,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11526,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":53,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":622178,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2017.956 1 -total"," 48.43% 977.305 1 Template:Reflist"," 28.67% 578.555 93 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.18% 185.244 7 Template:Annotated_link"," 8.88% 179.155 15 Template:Cite_book"," 6.02% 121.581 8 Template:External_media"," 5.74% 115.875 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.02% 101.346 8 Template:Infobox"," 4.47% 90.109 1 Template:Collective_animal_behaviour"," 4.28% 86.419 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.283","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22156678,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","220","17.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","12.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","9.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","6.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","6.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","6.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","6.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.2"],["init \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Configuration\u003E","40","3.2"],["(for generator)","40","3.2"],["[others]","320","25.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-rvszl","timestamp":"20241128195619","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Swarm behaviour","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_behaviour","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q14915018","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q14915018","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-04-09T14:34:55Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T05:59:27Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/5e\/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg","headline":"collective behaviour of a large number of (usually) self-propelled entities of similar size"}</script> </body> </html>