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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Roman era (57 BC – 410 AD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_era_(57_BC_–_410_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(411–1000)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages_(411–1000)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early Middle Ages (411–1000)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(411–1000)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early Middle Ages (411–1000) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(411–1000)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frisians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frisians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Frisians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frisians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Franks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doubts_over_archaeological_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doubts_over_archaeological_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Doubts over archaeological divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doubts_over_archaeological_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_the_Dutch_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_the_Dutch_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Emergence of the Dutch language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_Dutch_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Christianization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frankish_dominance_and_incorporation_into_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankish_dominance_and_incorporation_into_the_Holy_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Frankish dominance and incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankish_dominance_and_incorporation_into_the_Holy_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viking_raids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viking_raids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Viking raids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viking_raids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_and_Late_Middle_Ages_(1000–1433)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_and_Late_Middle_Ages_(1000–1433)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>High and Late Middle Ages (1000–1433)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_and_Late_Middle_Ages_(1000–1433)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle High and Late Middle Ages (1000–1433) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-High_and_Late_Middle_Ages_(1000–1433)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Part_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Part_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Part of the Holy Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Part_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_disunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_disunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Political disunity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_disunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Frisians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Frisians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The Frisians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Frisians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_rise_of_Holland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_rise_of_Holland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>The rise of Holland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_rise_of_Holland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_and_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_and_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Expansion and growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_and_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hook_and_Cod_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hook_and_Cod_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Hook and Cod Wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hook_and_Cod_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burgundian_and_Habsburg_period_(1433–1567)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burgundian_and_Habsburg_period_(1433–1567)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Burgundian_and_Habsburg_period_(1433–1567)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Burgundian_and_Habsburg_period_(1433–1567)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Burgundian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burgundian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Burgundian period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burgundian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habsburg_rule_from_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habsburg_rule_from_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Habsburg rule from Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habsburg_rule_from_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The Reformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prelude_to_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prelude_to_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Prelude to war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prelude_to_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Eighty_Years'_War_(1568–1648)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Eighty_Years'_War_(1568–1648)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Eighty_Years'_War_(1568–1648)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golden_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Golden Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Dutch Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dutch_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dutch Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dutch_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Dutch_in_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Dutch_in_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>The Dutch in the Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Dutch_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Dutch_in_Asia:_The_Dutch_East_India_Company" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Dutch_in_Asia:_The_Dutch_East_India_Company"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>The Dutch in Asia: The Dutch East India Company</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Dutch_in_Asia:_The_Dutch_East_India_Company-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Dutch_in_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Dutch_in_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>The Dutch in Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Dutch_in_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_Republic:_Regents_and_Stadholders_(1649–1784)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_Republic:_Regents_and_Stadholders_(1649–1784)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Dutch Republic: Regents and Stadholders (1649–1784)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_Republic:_Regents_and_Stadholders_(1649–1784)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Batavian_Republic_(1795–1806)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Batavian_Republic_(1795–1806)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Batavian Republic (1795–1806)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Batavian_Republic_(1795–1806)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom_of_Holland_to_William_I_(1806–1815)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_of_Holland_to_William_I_(1806–1815)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Kingdom of Holland to William I (1806–1815)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_of_Holland_to_William_I_(1806–1815)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1839)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1839)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1839)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1839)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Constitutional monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium_breaks_away" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium_breaks_away"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Belgium breaks away</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium_breaks_away-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_and_Industrial_Development_(1840–1900)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_and_Industrial_Development_(1840–1900)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Democratic_and_Industrial_Development_(1840–1900)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Democratic_and_Industrial_Development_(1840–1900)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1848_Constitutional_reform_and_liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1848_Constitutional_reform_and_liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>1848 Constitutional reform and liberalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1848_Constitutional_reform_and_liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_pillarisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_pillarisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Religion and pillarisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_pillarisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flourishing_of_art,_culture_and_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flourishing_of_art,_culture_and_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Flourishing of art, culture and science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flourishing_of_art,_culture_and_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1900_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>1900 to present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Historians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Netherlands</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_Nederland" title="Geskiedenis van Nederland – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van Nederland" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="تاريخ هولندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ هولندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_Pa%C3%ADses_Baxos" title="Historia de los Países Baxos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de los Países Baxos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="নেদারল্যান্ডসের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নেদারল্যান্ডসের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История на Нидерландия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Нидерландия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Nizozemske" title="Historija Nizozemske – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija Nizozemske" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istor_an_Izelvroio%C3%B9" title="Istor an Izelvroioù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Istor an Izelvroioù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_dels_Pa%C3%AFsos_Baixos" title="Història dels Països Baixos – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història dels Països Baixos" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Nizozemska" title="Dějiny Nizozemska – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Nizozemska" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_yr_Iseldiroedd" title="Hanes yr Iseldiroedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes yr Iseldiroedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandenes_historie" title="Nederlandenes historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nederlandenes historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Niederlande" title="Geschichte der Niederlande – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Niederlande" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_Pa%C3%ADses_Bajos" title="Historia de los Países Bajos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de los Países Bajos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbehereetako_historia" title="Herbehereetako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Herbehereetako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%87%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF" title="تاریخ هلند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ هلند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_Pays-Bas" title="Histoire des Pays-Bas – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des Pays-Bas" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiednis_fan_Nederl%C3%A2n" title="Skiednis fan Nederlân – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skiednis fan Nederlân" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%84%A4%EB%8D%9C%EB%9E%80%EB%93%9C%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="네덜란드의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="네덜란드의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նիդերլանդների պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նիդերլանդների պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="नीदरलैण्ड का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नीदरलैण्ड का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Nizozemske" title="Povijest Nizozemske – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Nizozemske" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Nederlando" title="Historio di Nederlando – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Nederlando" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Belanda" title="Sejarah Belanda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Belanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dei_Paesi_Bassi" title="Storia dei Paesi Bassi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dei Paesi Bassi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%93" title="היסטוריה של הולנד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של הולנד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნიდერლანდების ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნიდერლანდების ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Uholanzi" title="Historia ya Uholanzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Uholanzi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Nederlandiae" title="Historia Nederlandiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Nederlandiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%ABderlandes_v%C4%93sture" title="Nīderlandes vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nīderlandes vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyderland%C5%B3_istorija" title="Nyderlandų istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nyderlandų istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie_vaan_Nederland" title="Historie vaan Nederland – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Historie vaan Nederland" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_de_Nederland" title="Istoria de Nederland – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria de Nederland" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollandia_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Hollandia történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hollandia történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Историја на Холандија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Холандија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Belanda" title="Sejarah Belanda – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Belanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Nederland" title="Geschiedenis van Nederland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Nederland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="オランダの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オランダの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlands_historie" title="Nederlands historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nederlands historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%DA%89_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د هالنډ تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د هالنډ تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Holandii" title="Historia Holandii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Holandii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_dos_Pa%C3%ADses_Baixos" title="História dos Países Baixos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História dos Países Baixos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="История Нидерландов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Нидерландов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taariikhda_Holland" title="Taariikhda Holland – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Taariikhda Holland" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Историја Холандије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Холандије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Nizozemske" title="Historija Nizozemske – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija Nizozemske" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alankomaiden_historia" title="Alankomaiden historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alankomaiden historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederl%C3%A4ndernas_historia" title="Nederländernas historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nederländernas historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Category:History of the Netherlands">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of the Netherlands</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leo Belgicus"><img alt="Leo Belgicus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/250px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/375px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/500px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="3249" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prehistory of the Netherlands">Prehistory of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" title="Netherlands in the Roman era">Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons#Saxons_in_the_Netherlands" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lotharingia" title="Lower Lotharingia">Lower Lotharingia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">painting</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch colonial empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of the Dutch Empire">evolution</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">VOC</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">East Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">WIC</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonisation_of_the_Guianas" title="Dutch colonisation of the Guianas">Guianas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Brazil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Dutch_Republic" title="List of wars involving the Dutch Republic">List of wars</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarchy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Sovereign Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands_(1900%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Netherlands (1900–present)">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">constituent country within the kingdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of the Netherlands">Economic history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">Dutch guilder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Amsterdam Entrepôt">Amsterdam Entrepôt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_disease" title="Dutch disease">Dutch disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Whaling in the Netherlands">Whaling in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Polder model</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands" title="Military history of the Netherlands">Military history</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Netherlands" title="List of wars involving the Netherlands">List of wars</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Colonial history</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Dutch_language" title="History of the Dutch language">Language</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_the_Netherlands" title="LGBT history in the Netherlands">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Lists of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_healthcare_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of healthcare in the Netherlands">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_heraldry" title="Dutch heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of religion in the Netherlands">Religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Netherlands" title="Portal:Netherlands">Netherlands portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Template:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Template talk:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of the Netherlands</b> extends back before the founding of the modern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> in 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon. For thousands of years, people have been living together around the river deltas of this section of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast. Records begin with the four centuries during which the region formed a militarized border zone of the <a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Roman Empire</a>. As the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">collapsed</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> began, three dominant <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> coalesced in the area – <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a> in the north and coastal areas, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Low Saxons</a> in the northeast, and the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> to the south. By 800, the Frankish <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> dynasty had once again integrated the area into an empire covering a large part of Western Europe. The region was part of the duchy of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Lower Lotharingia</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, but neither the empire nor the duchy were governed in a centralized manner. For several centuries, medieval lordships such as <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Zeeland" title="County of Zeeland">Zeeland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Frisia" title="Lordship of Frisia">Friesland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guelders" title="Duchy of Guelders">Guelders</a> and others held a changing patchwork of territories. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/220px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/330px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/440px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="3249" /></a><figcaption>Map of Netherlands</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1433, the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Duke of Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a> had assumed control over most of Lower Lotharingia, creating the <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>. This included what is now the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and a part of France. When their heirs the Catholic kings of Spain took measures against Protestantism, the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch revolt</a> led to the splitting in 1581 of the Netherlands into southern and northern parts. The southern "<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>" corresponds approximately to modern Belgium and Luxembourg, and the northern <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">"United Provinces" (or "Dutch Republic)</a>", which spoke Dutch and was predominantly Protestant, was the predecessor of the modern Netherlands. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a>, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_the_Dutch_Golden_Age#Science" title="List of people from the Dutch Golden Age">sciences</a>. The Dutch Republic practiced <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a> and Amsterdam attracted <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Portuguese Jews</a>, many of whom were merchants, that practiced their religion and engaged in economic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A worldwide <a href="/wiki/Dutch_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch empire">Dutch empire</a> developed in Asia and the Americas. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> became one of the earliest and most important of national mercantile companies of the time, based on invasion, colonialism, and extraction of outside resources, but not religious evangelization. During the eighteenth century, the power, wealth and influence of the Netherlands declined. A series of wars with the more powerful <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Wars" title="Anglo-Dutch Wars">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">French</a> neighbours weakened it. The English seized the North American colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a>, and renamed it "<a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a>". There was growing unrest and <a href="/wiki/Second_Stadtholderless_Period#Crisis_and_the_Orangist_revolution_of_1747" title="Second Stadtholderless Period">conflict</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Orangism_(Netherlands)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orangism (Netherlands)">Orangists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Patriottentijd" title="Patriottentijd">Patriots</a>. The French Revolution spilled over after 1789, and a pro-French <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> was established in 1795–1806. Napoleon made it a satellite state, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a> (1806–1810), and later simply a French imperial province. </p><p>After the defeat of Napoleon in 1813–1815, an expanded "<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a>" was created with the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">House of Orange</a> as monarchs, also ruling Belgium and Luxembourg. After the King imposed unpopular Protestant reforms on Belgium, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">it left the kingdom in 1830</a> and new borders were agreed in 1839. After an initially conservative period, following the introduction of the 1848 constitution, the country became a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy">parliamentary democracy</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional monarch">constitutional monarch</a>. Modern-day Luxembourg became officially independent of the Netherlands in 1839, but a personal union remained until 1890. Since 1890, it is ruled by another branch of the same dynasty. </p><p>The Netherlands was neutral during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, but during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, it was invaded and occupied by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. The Nazis, including many collaborators, rounded up and killed almost all of the country's Jewish population. When the Dutch resistance increased, the Nazis cut off food supplies to much of the country, causing severe starvation in 1944–1945. In 1942, the Dutch East Indies were conquered by Japan, but prior to this the Dutch destroyed the oil wells for which Japan was desperate. <a href="/wiki/Indonesia_proclaimed_its_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesia proclaimed its independence">Indonesia proclaimed its independence</a> from the Netherlands in 1945, followed by <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> in 1975. The post-war years saw rapid economic recovery (helped by the American <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>), followed by the introduction of a <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a> during an era of peace and prosperity. The Netherlands formed a new economic alliance with Belgium and Luxembourg, the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a>, and all three became founding members of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>. In recent decades, the Dutch economy has been closely linked to that of Germany and is highly prosperous. The four countries adopted the <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euro</a> on 1 January 2002, along with eight other EU member states. </p> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="float:right; clear:right; text-align:center; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:70%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="9" style="font-size:130%;">History of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 1px 0 1px 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#996600; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae"><span style="color: white;">Belgae</span></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cana–<br />nefates</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi"><span style="color: white;">Chamavi</span></a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes"><span style="color: white;">Tubantes</span></a> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a> <small>(55 BC–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span> AD)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a> <small>(83–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-top:none; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks"><span style="color: white;">Salian Franks</span></a> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; -align:top; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 1px"><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; -align:top; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><i>unpopulated</i><br /><small>(4th–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Saxons#Netherlands" title="Saxons"><span style="color: white;">Saxons</span></a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a><br /><small>(4th–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 0"> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a><br /><small> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th</span>–734)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frankish_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Kingdom">Frankish Kingdom</a> <small>(481–843)</small>—<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> <small>(800–843)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> <small>(511–687)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a> <small>(843–855)</small> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West<br />Francia</a><br /><small>(843–)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Kingdom of Lotharingia</a> <small>(855– 959)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Duchy of Lower Lorraine</a> <small>(959–)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Friesland_(kleine_wapen).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/20px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/30px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/40px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="643" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Frisian_freedom" title="Frisian freedom">Frisian<br />Freedom</a><br /><small>(11–16th<br />century)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/20px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/30px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/40px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">County of<br />Holland</a><br /><small>(880–1432)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/20px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/30px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/40px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="494" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Utrecht" title="Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht"><span class="nowrap">Bishopric of</span><br />Utrecht</a><br /><small>(695–1456)</small> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/20px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/30px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/40px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="615" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of<br />Brabant</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1183–1430)</small></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/20px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/30px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/40px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Duchy of<br />Guelders</a><br /><small>(1046–1543)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Flanders.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/20px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/30px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/40px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="468" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of<br />Flanders</a><br /><small>(862–1384)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/20px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/30px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/40px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /> <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">County of<br />Hainaut</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1071–1432)</small></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Namur.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/20px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/30px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/40px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="468" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Namur" title="County of Namur">County of<br />Namur</a><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(981–1421)</span></small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/20px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/30px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/40px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">P.-Bish.<br />of Liège</a><br /><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(980–1794)</span></small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="419" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Duchy of Luxembourg">Duchy of<br />Luxem-<br />bourg</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1059–1443)</small></span><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 1px">  </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a> <small>(1384–1482)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 1px 1px"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efcccb; border:solid 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> <small>(1482–1795)</small><br />(<a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> <small>after 1543</small>) </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Statenvlag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/20px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/30px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/40px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a><br /><small>(1581–1795)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a><br /><small>(1556–1714)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/20px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/30px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/40px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a><br /><small>(1714–1795)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width:0 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 1px 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of Belgium">United States of Belgium</a><br /><small>(1790)</small> </td> <td style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LuikVlag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/20px-LuikVlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/30px-LuikVlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/40px-LuikVlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Republic of Liège">R. Liège</a><br /><small>(1789–'91)</small> </td> <td style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; border:none; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> <small>(1795–1806)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a> <small>(1806–1810)</small> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width:1px 1px 0 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br />associated with <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> <small>(1795–1804)</small><br />part of <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> <small>(1804–1815)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 0 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Princip. of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1813–1815)</small> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 1px 1px 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="8" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0px 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1815–1830)</small> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background: #f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg#Developing_independence_(1815–1890)" title="History of Luxembourg">Gr D. L.</a><br /><small>(1815–)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1839–)</small> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Belgium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/20px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Kingdom of Belgium</a> <small>(1830–)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 1px"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#caf5f7; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Gr D. of<br />Luxem-<br />bourg</a><br /><small>(1890–)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory_(before_57_BC)"><span id="Prehistory_.28before_57_BC.29"></span>Prehistory (before 57 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory (before 57 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prehistory of the Netherlands">Prehistory of the Netherlands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg/220px-Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="392" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg/330px-Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg/440px-Mannetje_van_Willemstad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="1104" /></a><figcaption>An oak figurine found in Willemstad, the Netherlands, dating from around 4500 BC. On display in the <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden" title="Rijksmuseum van Oudheden">Rijksmuseum van Oudheden</a> in Leiden. Height: 12.5 cm (4.9 in).</figcaption></figure> <p>During the last ice age, the Netherlands had a <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> climate with scarce vegetation, and the inhabitants survived as hunter-gatherers. The <a href="/wiki/Swifterbant_culture" title="Swifterbant culture">Swifterbant culture</a>, appearing around 5600 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Kooijmans1998_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kooijmans1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were <a href="/wiki/Hunter_gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter gatherers">hunter gatherers</a> strongly linked to rivers and open water and related to the southern Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Erteb%C3%B8lle_culture" title="Ertebølle culture">Ertebølle culture</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BronzAgeElp.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/BronzAgeElp.png/220px-BronzAgeElp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/BronzAgeElp.png/330px-BronzAgeElp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/BronzAgeElp.png/440px-BronzAgeElp.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption>Location of the <a href="/wiki/Elp_culture" title="Elp culture">Elp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilversum_culture" title="Hilversum culture">Hilversum cultures</a> in the Bronze Age</figcaption></figure> <p>Agriculture also arrived in areas near the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a>, who were central European farmers with Mediterranean ancestry. Their farms were restricted to southern <a href="/wiki/Limburg_(Netherlands)" title="Limburg (Netherlands)">Limburg</a> and only temporarily established. However, there is some evidence that the coastal Swifterband people took up pottery and animal husbandry in the rest of the country. Local groups made the switch to animal husbandry sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Kooijmans1998quote_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kooijmans1998quote-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raemakers_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raemakers-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By about 4000 BC the <a href="/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture" title="Funnelbeaker culture">Funnelbeaker culture</a> brought farming permanently into the region. This culture extended from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands. The <a href="/wiki/Vlaardingen_culture" title="Vlaardingen culture">Vlaardingen culture</a> continued the hunter-gatherer tradition in coastal areas. </p><p>By around 2950 BCE, there was a transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Corded Ware">Corded Ware</a> culture which extended across much of northern and central Europe. The expansion of this culture is believed to have involved the movement of people from the direction of Ukraine, bringing <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a> technology. The earliest bronze tools were in the <a href="/wiki/Wageningen_horde" class="mw-redirect" title="Wageningen horde">Wageningen horde</a>, found in the grave of a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> metalworker.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Elp_culture" title="Elp culture">Elp culture</a> in the north<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Hilversum_culture" title="Hilversum culture">Hilversum culture</a> in the south developed during the Bronze Age, with the latter having cultural ties with Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanic_tribes_(750BC-1AD).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/220px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/330px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/440px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of the primary Germanic groups <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1 AD</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> brought a measure of prosperity to the people living in the area of the present-day Netherlands with iron ore available throughout the country. <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">Smiths</a> travelled from small settlement to settlement with <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including axes, knives, pins, arrowheads and swords. The <a href="/wiki/Vorstengraf_(Oss)" title="Vorstengraf (Oss)">Vorstengraf</a> large burial mound contained a number of objects, including a curved iron sword. Leading up to the arrival of the Romans, the probably Germanic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harpstedt_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harpstedt culture (page does not exist)">Harpstedt culture</a> rose in the north<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> possibly migrating from Scandinavia due to climatic deterioration which had separated<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into a northern group that would later become <a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">early Frisians</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a><sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a southern group that extended into the Rhine which eventually developed into the Salian Franks,<sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while further to the south were peoples influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a> who eventually assimilated into the Celtic <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a> with some mixture between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>'s account of the Rhine forming the boundary between Celtic and Germanic tribes. Some scholars<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have speculated that a separate ethnic identity with its own language that was neither Germanic nor Celtic, formed a <a href="/wiki/Nordwestblock" title="Nordwestblock">Nordwestblock</a> stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Somme_(river)" title="Somme (river)">Somme</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lendering_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lendering-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and survived until the Roman period before being absorbed by their Celtic and Germanic neighbours. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_era_(57_BC_–_410_AD)"><span id="Roman_era_.2857_BC_.E2.80.93_410_AD.29"></span>Roman era (57 BC – 410 AD)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roman era (57 BC – 410 AD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Romans in the Netherlands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png/220px-Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png/330px-Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png/440px-Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="1340" /></a><figcaption>Tribes during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During his <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> conquered all of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> for Rome, and this included the Netherlands south of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>. He also wrote about his experiences in his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i>, which is the first surviving written account of the region. Caesar mentioned the <a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapii</a> living in the river delta, and the <a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a> to their southeast towards what is now Limburg. He called the land between the Rhine and <a href="/wiki/Waal_(river)" title="Waal (river)">Waal</a> "the island of the Batavi" (<i>insula batavorum</i>). He portrayed the Rhine as a natural boundary between the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> on the other side but he understood that peoples such as the Eburones had a kinship with their neighbours over the river. Later Roman authors such as <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> describe the region north of the Rhine being inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes">Tubantes</a>. Within the delta lived the <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sturii" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturii">Sturii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frisiavones" title="Frisiavones">Frisiavones</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Texuandri" class="mw-redirect" title="Texuandri">Texuandri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Baetasii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a> lived south of the delta. </p><p>The 450 years of Roman rule profoundly changed the region that would later become the Netherlands. The Rhine was a militarized border, frequently destabilized by violent incursions, and Rome recruited soldiers on both sides of it. The tribes of the region were esteemed soldiers in the empire, often serving in the <a href="/wiki/Ala_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala (Roman military)">Roman cavalry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frontier culture was influenced by Roman, Germanic, and Gaulish elements, and trade flourished after Rome's conquest of Gaul. There were still grievances against Roman rule, including the taking of young Batavians as <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavian rebellion">Batavian rebellion</a> under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Civilis" title="Gaius Julius Civilis">Gaius Julius Civilis</a> in 69 AD, which resulted in the burning of several Roman <a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">Castellum</a> and the desertion of sections of the northern Roman army. In April 70 AD, legions led by <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Petillius_Cerialis" title="Quintus Petillius Cerialis">Quintus Petillius Cerialis</a> defeated the rebels. </p><p>The Batavians were considered the "true" forefathers of the Dutch by 17th and 18th-century writers, inspiring the naming of colonial Jakarta as "<a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a>" in 1619 and the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> of 1795. The term "Batavian" is occasionally used to describe the Dutch today, similar to how "Gallic" describes the French.<sup id="cite_ref-Marnix_Beyen_1850_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marnix_Beyen_1850-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a> identity emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Rhine" title="Lower Rhine">lower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Rhine" title="Middle Rhine">middle</a> Rhine valley during the first half of the 3rd century, forming a confederation of smaller <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> groups<sup id="cite_ref-Previté-Orton_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Previté-Orton-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the descendants of the Batavian rebels. The Frisii probably <a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_the_Frisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Disappearance of the Frisii">disappeared</a> from the northern Netherlands with the last reference to them in c. 296,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likely due to <a href="/wiki/Laeti" title="Laeti">resettlement</a> to other areas of Roman control<sup id="cite_ref-Ejstrud_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ejstrud-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and coastal flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-Ejstrud_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ejstrud-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Issar_2003_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Issar_2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Louwe_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Louwe-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages_(411–1000)"><span id="Early_Middle_Ages_.28411.E2.80.931000.29"></span>Early Middle Ages (411–1000)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages (411–1000)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Netherlands in the Early Middle Ages">Netherlands in the Early Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frisians">Frisians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Frisians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frisia_716-la.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Frisia_716-la.svg/220px-Frisia_716-la.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Frisia_716-la.svg/330px-Frisia_716-la.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Frisia_716-la.svg/440px-Frisia_716-la.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Map showing roughly the distribution of Franks and Frisians c. 716</figcaption></figure> <p>As climatic conditions improved, there was another mass migration of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic</a> peoples into the area from the east. This is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>" (<i>Volksverhuizingen</i>). The northern Netherlands received an influx of new migrants and settlers, mostly <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a>. Many of these migrants did not stay in the northern Netherlands but moved on to England and are known today as the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>. The newcomers who stayed in the northern Netherlands would eventually be referred to as "Frisians", although they were not descended from the ancient <a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>. These new Frisians settled in the northern Netherlands and would become the ancestors of the modern <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Because the early Frisians and Anglo-Saxons were formed from largely identical tribal confederacies, their respective languages were very similar. <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> is the most closely related language to <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the modern Frisian dialects are in turn the closest related languages to contemporary English.) By the end of the 6th century, the Frisian territory in the northern Netherlands had expanded west to the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast and, by the 7th century, south to <a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a>. During this period most of the northern Netherlands was known as <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a>. This extended Frisian territory is sometimes referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisia Magna</a></i> (or <a href="/wiki/Greater_Frisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Frisia">Greater Frisia</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dorestad_and_trade_routes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Dorestad_and_trade_routes.jpg/220px-Dorestad_and_trade_routes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Dorestad_and_trade_routes.jpg/330px-Dorestad_and_trade_routes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Dorestad_and_trade_routes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="415" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>Dorestad and main trade routes</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 7th and 8th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> chronologies mention this area as the <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">kingdom of the Frisians</a>. This kingdom comprised the coastal provinces of the Netherlands and the German North Sea coast. During this time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. The 7th-century <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a> (650–734) under King <a href="/wiki/Aldegisel" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldegisel">Aldegisel</a> and King <a href="/wiki/Redbad,_King_of_the_Frisians" class="mw-redirect" title="Redbad, King of the Frisians">Redbad</a>, had its centre of power in <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a>. </p><p>Dorestad was the largest settlement (<a href="/wiki/Emporia_(early_medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emporia (early medieval)">emporia</a>) in northwestern Europe. It had grown around a former Roman fortress. It was a large, flourishing trading place, three kilometers long and situated where the rivers <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lek_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Lek river">Lek</a> diverge southeast of <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a> near the modern town of <a href="/wiki/Wijk_bij_Duurstede" title="Wijk bij Duurstede">Wijk bij Duurstede</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atlas_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlas-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although inland, it was a North Sea trading centre that primarily handled goods from the Middle <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlas_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlas-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MC&OE_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MC&OE-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wine was among the major products traded at Dorestad, likely from vineyards south of <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MC&OE_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MC&OE-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also widely known because of its <a href="/wiki/Mint_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint (coin)">mint</a>. Between 600 and around 719 Dorestad was often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Franks">Franks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Franks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franks_expansion.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franks_expansion.gif/220px-Franks_expansion.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franks_expansion.gif/330px-Franks_expansion.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franks_expansion.gif/440px-Franks_expansion.gif 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> from 481 to 870</figcaption></figure> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> government in the area collapsed, the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> expanded their territories until there were numerous small Frankish kingdoms, especially at <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Le_Mans" title="Le Mans">Le Mans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambrai" title="Cambrai">Cambrai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Previté-Orton_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Previté-Orton-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kings of Tournai eventually came to subdue the other Frankish kings. By the 490s, <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> had conquered and united all the Frankish territories to the west of the <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a>, including those in the southern Netherlands. He continued his conquests into <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. </p><p>After the death of <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> in 511, his four sons partitioned his kingdom amongst themselves, with <a href="/wiki/Theuderic_I_of_Austrasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Theuderic I of Austrasia">Theuderic I</a> receiving the lands that were to become Austrasia (including the southern Netherlands). A line of kings descended from Theuderic ruled <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> until 555, when it was united with the other Frankish kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Chlothar_I" title="Chlothar I">Chlothar I</a>, who inherited all the Frankish realms by 558. He redivided the Frankish territory amongst his four sons, but the four kingdoms coalesced into three on the death of <a href="/wiki/Charibert_I" title="Charibert I">Charibert I</a> in 567. Austrasia (including the southern Netherlands) was given to <a href="/wiki/Sigebert_I" title="Sigebert I">Sigebert I</a>. The southern Netherlands remained the northern part of <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> until the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingians">Carolingians</a>. </p><p>The Franks who expanded south into <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> settled there and eventually adopted the <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> of the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a Germanic language was spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a> as late as the 850s. It completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions during the 10th century.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this expansion to the south, many Frankish people remained in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders and a small part of northern France). A widening cultural divide grew between the Franks remaining in the north and the rulers far to the south in what is now France.<sup id="cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salian Franks continued to reside in their original homeland and the area directly to the south and to speak their original language, <a href="/wiki/Old_Frankish" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Frankish">Old Frankish</a>, which by the 9th century had evolved into <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence (but this was originally south of where it is today).<sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Maas and Rhine areas of the Netherlands, the Franks had political and trading centres, especially at <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Franks remained in contact with the Frisians to the north, especially in places like <a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Utrecht" title="Utrecht">Utrecht</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doubts_over_archaeological_divisions">Doubts over archaeological divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Doubts over archaeological divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Willibrord_e.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Willibrord_e.jpg/220px-Willibrord_e.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Willibrord_e.jpg/330px-Willibrord_e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Willibrord_e.jpg/440px-Willibrord_e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="1059" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Willibrord" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Willibrord">Saint Willibrord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> missionary from <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>, Apostle to the Frisians, first bishop of Utrecht</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th century, Dutch historians believed that the Franks, Frisians, and Saxons had populated and inhabited the Low Countries, but this theory fell out of favour in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Marnix_Beyen_1850_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marnix_Beyen_1850-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the scarcity of written sources, knowledge of this period depends to a large degree on the interpretation of archaeological data. The traditional view of a clear-cut division between Frisians in the north and coast, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> in the south and <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> in the east has proven historically problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archeological evidence suggests dramatically different models for different regions, with demographic continuity for some parts of the country and depopulation and possible replacement in other parts, notably the coastal areas of Frisia and Holland.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_the_Dutch_language">Emergence of the Dutch language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Emergence of the Dutch language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language from which <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a> arose is unknown with certainty, but it is thought to be the language spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a>. Even though the Franks are traditionally categorized as <a href="/wiki/Weser%E2%80%93Rhine_Germanic" title="Weser–Rhine Germanic">Weser–Rhine Germanic</a>, Dutch has a number of <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic">Ingvaeonic</a> characteristics and is classified by modern linguists as an Ingvaeonic language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Dutch also has a number of <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> characteristics. There was a close relationship between Old Dutch, Old Saxon, <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a>. Because texts written in the language spoken by the Franks are almost non-existent, and Old Dutch texts scarce and fragmentary, not much is known about the development of Old Dutch. Old Dutch made the transition to <a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a> around 1150.<sup id="cite_ref-Verhaal_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianization">Christianization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Christianization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Christianity that arrived in the Netherlands with the Romans appears not to have died out completely (in <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a>, at least) after the withdrawal of the Romans in about 411.<sup id="cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> became Christians after their king <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> converted to Catholicism, an event which is traditionally set in 496. Christianity was introduced in the north after the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a> by the Franks. The <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> in the east were converted before the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>, and became Frankish allies. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Hiberno-Scottish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mission" title="Anglo-Saxon mission">Anglo-Saxon</a> missionaries, particularly <a href="/wiki/Willibrord" title="Willibrord">Willibrord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wulfram_of_Sens" title="Wulfram of Sens">Wulfram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boniface" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface">Boniface</a>, played an important role in converting the Frankish and Frisian peoples to Christianity by the 8th century. Boniface was martyred by the Frisians in <a href="/wiki/Dokkum" title="Dokkum">Dokkum</a> (754). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frankish_dominance_and_incorporation_into_the_Holy_Roman_Empire">Frankish dominance and incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Frankish dominance and incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Frisian-Frankish_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Frisian-Frankish Wars">Frisian-Frankish Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radboud_doopvont.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Radboud_doopvont.jpg/220px-Radboud_doopvont.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="403" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Radboud_doopvont.jpg/330px-Radboud_doopvont.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Radboud_doopvont.jpg/440px-Radboud_doopvont.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="1356" /></a><figcaption>An early 16th-century tapestry depicting the near baptism of <a href="/wiki/Redbad,_King_of_the_Frisians" class="mw-redirect" title="Redbad, King of the Frisians">Redbad, King of the Frisians</a>, who died in 719</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 8th century the Frisians came increasingly into conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> to the south, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Frisian%E2%80%93Frankish_wars" title="Frisian–Frankish wars">series of wars</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</a> eventually subjugated Frisia. In 734, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boarn" title="Battle of the Boarn">Battle of the Boarn</a>, the Frisians in the Netherlands were defeated by the Franks, who thereby conquered the area west of the <a href="/wiki/Lauwers" title="Lauwers">Lauwers</a>. The Franks then conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785 when <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/Widukind" title="Widukind">Widukind</a>. </p><p>The linguistic descendants of the Franks, the modern <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">-speakers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, seem to have broken with the <a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">endonym</a> "Frank" around the 9th century. By this time Frankish identity had changed from an ethnic identity to a national identity, becoming localized and confined to the modern <i><a href="/wiki/Franconia" title="Franconia">Franconia</a></i> and principally to the French province of <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the people no longer referred to themselves as "Franks", the Netherlands was still part of the Frankish empire of Charlemagne. Indeed, because of the Austrasian origins of the Carolingians in the area between the Rhine and the Maas, the cities of Aachen, Maastricht, Liège and Nijmegen were at the heart of Carolingian culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charlemagne maintained his <i>palatium</i><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a> at least four times. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian empire">Carolingian empire</a> would eventually include France, Germany, northern Italy and much of Western Europe. In 843, the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, giving rise to <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> in the west, <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a> in the east, and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a> in the centre. Most of what is today the Netherlands became part of Middle Francia; Flanders became part of West Francia. This division was an important factor in the historical distinction between Flanders and the other Dutch-speaking areas. </p><p>Middle Francia (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Francia media</i>) was an ephemeral <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish</a> kingdom that had no historical or ethnic identity to bind its varied peoples. It was created by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a> in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among the sons of <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a>. Situated between the realms of East and West Francia, Middle Francia comprised the Frankish territory between the rivers Rhine and <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisian</a> coast of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, the former <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy" title="Kingdom of Burgundy">Kingdom of Burgundy</a> (except for a western portion, later known as <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy"><i>Bourgogne</i></a>), <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (medieval)">Kingdom of Italy</a>. </p><p>Middle Francia fell to <a href="/wiki/Lothair_I" title="Lothair I">Lothair I</a>, the eldest son and successor of <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a>, after an intermittent civil war with his younger brothers <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_German" title="Louis the German">Louis the German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a>. In acknowledgement of Lothair's <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Imperial</a> title, Middle Francia contained the imperial cities of <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, the residence of Charlemagne, as well as Rome. In 855, on his deathbed at <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%BCm_Abbey" title="Prüm Abbey">Prüm Abbey</a>, Emperor Lothair I again partitioned his realm amongst his sons. Most of the lands north of the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, including the Netherlands, passed to <a href="/wiki/Lothair_II_of_Lotharingia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lothair II of Lotharingia">Lothair II</a> and consecutively were named <a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a>. After Lothair II died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned by his uncles Louis the German and Charles the Bald in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Meerssen" title="Treaty of Meerssen">Treaty of Meerssen</a> in 870. Although some of the Netherlands had come under Viking control, in 870 it technically became part of East Francia, which became the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in 962. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viking_raids">Viking raids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Viking raids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg/220px-Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg/330px-Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg/440px-Rorik_by_H._W._Koekkoek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rorik_of_Dorestad" title="Rorik of Dorestad">Rorik of Dorestad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> conqueror and ruler of <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a>; a romantic 1912 depiction by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hermanus_Koekkoek" title="Johannes Hermanus Koekkoek">Johannes H. Koekkoek</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Vikings raided the largely defenceless Frisian and <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> towns lying on the coast and along the rivers of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>. Although Vikings never settled in large numbers in those areas, they did set up long-term bases and were even acknowledged as lords in a few cases. In Dutch and Frisian historical tradition, the trading centre of <a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a> declined after Viking raids from 834 to 863; however, since no convincing Viking archaeological evidence has been found at the site (as of 2007), doubts about this have grown in recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most important Viking families in the Low Countries was that of <a href="/wiki/Rorik_of_Dorestad" title="Rorik of Dorestad">Rorik of Dorestad</a> (based in <a href="/wiki/Wieringen" title="Wieringen">Wieringen</a>) and his brother the "younger Harald" (based in <a href="/wiki/Walcheren" title="Walcheren">Walcheren</a>), both thought to be nephews of <a href="/wiki/Harald_Klak" title="Harald Klak">Harald Klak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 850, <a href="/wiki/Lothair_I" title="Lothair I">Lothair I</a> acknowledged Rorik as ruler of most of Friesland. And again in 870, Rorik was received by <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>, to whom he became a vassal. Viking raids continued during that period. Harald's son Rodulf and his men were killed by the people of <a href="/wiki/Oostergo" class="mw-redirect" title="Oostergo">Oostergo</a> in 873. Rorik died sometime before 882. </p><p>Buried Viking treasures consisting mainly of silver have been found in the Low Countries. Two such treasures have been found in Wieringen. A large treasure found in Wieringen in 1996 dates from around 850 and is thought perhaps to have been connected to Rorik. The burial of such a valuable treasure is seen as an indication that there was a permanent settlement in Wieringen.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 879, Godfrid arrived in Frisian lands as the head of a large force that terrorised the Low Countries. Using <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a> as his base, they ravaged Ghent, <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stavelot" title="Stavelot">Stavelot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%BCm" title="Prüm">Prüm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a>. Controlling most of Frisia between 882 and his death in 885, Godfrid became known to history as <a href="/wiki/Godfrid,_Duke_of_Frisia" title="Godfrid, Duke of Frisia">Godfrid, Duke of Frisia</a>. His lordship over Frisia was acknowledged by <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Fat" title="Charles the Fat">Charles the Fat</a>, to whom he became a vassal. Godfried was assassinated in 885, after which <a href="/wiki/Gerolf_of_Holland" title="Gerolf of Holland">Gerolf of Holland</a> assumed lordship and Viking rule of Frisia came to an end. </p><p>Viking raids of the Low Countries continued for over a century. Remains of Viking attacks dating from 880 to 890 have been found in <a href="/wiki/Zutphen" title="Zutphen">Zutphen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deventer" title="Deventer">Deventer</a>. In 920, King <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry I of Germany">Henry</a> of Germany liberated <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a>. According to a number of chronicles, the last attacks took place in the first decade of the 11th century and were directed at <a href="/wiki/Tiel" title="Tiel">Tiel</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These Viking raids occurred about the same time that French and German lords were fighting for supremacy over the middle empire that included the Netherlands, so their sway over this area was weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_and_Late_Middle_Ages_(1000–1433)"><span id="High_and_Late_Middle_Ages_.281000.E2.80.931433.29"></span>High and Late Middle Ages (1000–1433)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: High and Late Middle Ages (1000–1433)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Netherlands">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Holy+Roman+Empire%22+Netherlands">"Holy Roman Empire" Netherlands</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Holy+Roman+Empire%22+Netherlands+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Holy+Roman+Empire%22+Netherlands&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Holy+Roman+Empire%22+Netherlands+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Holy+Roman+Empire%22+Netherlands">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Holy+Roman+Empire%22+Netherlands&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Part_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire">Part of the Holy Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Part of the Holy Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The German kings and emperors ruled the Netherlands in the 10th and 11th century, with the assistance of the <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Lotharingia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Lotharingia">Dukes of Lotharingia</a>, and the bishops of Utrecht and Liège. Germany was called the Holy Roman Empire after the coronation of <a href="/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor">King Otto the Great</a> as emperor. The Dutch city of <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a> used to be the spot of an important domain of the German emperors. Several German emperors were born and died there, including for example <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> empress <a href="/wiki/Theophanu" title="Theophanu">Theophanu</a>, who died in Nijmegen. Utrecht was also an important city and trading port at the time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_disunity">Political disunity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Political disunity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Valkhofkapel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Valkhofkapel.JPG/220px-Valkhofkapel.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Valkhofkapel.JPG/330px-Valkhofkapel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Valkhofkapel.JPG/440px-Valkhofkapel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2228" data-file-height="2971" /></a><figcaption>Chapel of St Nicholas (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sint-Nicolaaskapel_(Nijmegen)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sint-Nicolaaskapel (Nijmegen) (page does not exist)">Sint-Nicolaaskapel (Nijmegen)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint-Nicolaaskapel_(Nijmegen)" class="extiw" title="nl:Sint-Nicolaaskapel (Nijmegen)">nl</a>]</span> or Valkhofkapel) in <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>, one of the oldest buildings in the Netherlands</figcaption></figure> <p>The Holy Roman Empire was not able to maintain political unity. In addition to the growing independence of the towns, local rulers turned their counties and duchies into private kingdoms and felt little sense of obligation to the emperor who reigned over large parts of the nation in name only. Large parts of what now comprise the Netherlands were governed by the Count of Holland, the Duke of <a href="/wiki/Gelre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelre">Gelre</a>, the Duke of Brabant and the Bishop of Utrecht. <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groningen_(province)" title="Groningen (province)">Groningen</a> in the north maintained their independence and were governed by the lower nobility. </p><p>The various feudal states were in a state of almost continual war. <a href="/wiki/Gelre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelre">Gelre</a> and Holland fought for control of <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(province)" title="Utrecht (province)">Utrecht</a>. Utrecht, whose bishop had in 1000 ruled over half of what is today the Netherlands, was marginalised as it experienced continuing difficulty in electing new bishops. At the same time, the dynasties of neighbouring states were more stable. Groningen, <a href="/wiki/Drenthe" title="Drenthe">Drenthe</a> and most of Gelre, which used to be part of Utrecht, became independent. Brabant tried to conquer its neighbours, but was not successful. Holland also tried to assert itself in Zeeland and Friesland, but its attempts failed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Frisians">The Frisians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The Frisians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the area that is now Holland were originally <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisian</a>. The sparsely populated area was known as "West Friesland" (<i>Westfriesland</i>). A common theory states that Frankish migration from either Flanders, Utrecht or both displaced the Frisians in Holland, however no evidence has been found in support of this theory and more recent studies have suggested that Frisians from the mouth of the Rhine adopted the Franconian language, feudal system and religion,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> spreading this new 'Hollandic' identity northward over the centuries (the part of North Holland situated north of <a href="/wiki/Alkmaar" title="Alkmaar">Alkmaar</a> is still colloquially known as West Friesland). </p><p>The rest of <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a> in the north continued to maintain its independence during this time. It had its own institutions (collectively called the "<a href="/wiki/Frisian_freedom" title="Frisian freedom">Frisian freedom</a>") and resented the imposition of the feudal system and the patriciate found in other European towns. They regarded themselves as allies of Switzerland. The Frisian battle cry was "better dead than a slave". They later lost their independence when they were defeated in 1498 by the German <a href="/wiki/Landsknecht" title="Landsknecht">Landsknecht</a> mercenaries of <a href="/wiki/Albert_III,_Duke_of_Saxony" title="Albert III, Duke of Saxony">Duke Albrecht of Saxony-Meissen</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_rise_of_Holland">The rise of Holland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The rise of Holland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rochussen_Egmond.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Rochussen_Egmond.jpg/220px-Rochussen_Egmond.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Rochussen_Egmond.jpg/330px-Rochussen_Egmond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Rochussen_Egmond.jpg/440px-Rochussen_Egmond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2172" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dirk_VI,_Count_of_Holland" title="Dirk VI, Count of Holland">Dirk VI, Count of Holland</a>, 1114–1157, and his mother Petronella visiting the work on the <a href="/wiki/Egmond_Abbey" title="Egmond Abbey">Egmond Abbey</a>, Charles Rochussen, 1881. The sculpture is the <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egmond_tympanum.jpg" class="extiw" title="commons:File:Egmond tympanum.jpg">Egmond Tympanum</a>, depicting the two visitors on either side of Saint Peter.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg/220px-The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg/330px-The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg/440px-The_Saint_Elizabeth%E2%80%99s_Day_Flood_by_Master_of_the_St_Elizabeth_Panels_c1490-1495.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10783" data-file-height="6084" /></a><figcaption>Two wings of an altar piece, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span>, depicting the <a href="/wiki/St._Elizabeth%27s_flood_(1421)" title="St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)">St Elizabeth Flood</a> of 18–19 November 1421, with Dordrecht at the front left</figcaption></figure> <p>The center of power in these emerging independent territories was in the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">County of Holland</a>. Originally granted as a fief to the Danish chieftain <a href="/wiki/Rorik_of_Dorestad" title="Rorik of Dorestad">Rorik</a> in return for loyalty to the emperor in 862, the region of <a href="/wiki/Kennemerland" title="Kennemerland">Kennemara</a> (the region around modern <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a>) rapidly grew under Rorik's descendants in size and importance. By the early 11th century, <a href="/wiki/Dirk_III,_Count_of_Holland" title="Dirk III, Count of Holland">Dirk III, Count of Holland</a> was levying tolls on the Meuse estuary and was able to resist military intervention from his overlord, the Duke of Lower Lorraine. </p><p>In 1083, the name "Holland" first appears in a deed referring to a region corresponding more or less to the current province of South Holland and the southern half of what is now North Holland. Holland's influence continued to grow over the next two centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Counts_of_Holland" class="mw-redirect" title="Counts of Holland">counts of Holland</a> conquered most of <a href="/wiki/Zeeland" title="Zeeland">Zeeland</a> but it was not until 1289 that Count <a href="/wiki/Floris_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Floris V">Floris V</a> was able to subjugate the Frisians in West Friesland (that is, the northern half of North Holland). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_and_growth">Expansion and growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Expansion and growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_centers_in_the_Dutch_Low_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="History of urban centers in the Dutch Low Countries">History of urban centers in the Dutch Low Countries</a></div> <p>Around 1000 C.E. there were several agricultural developments (described sometimes as an agricultural revolution) that resulted in an increase in production, especially food production. The economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Draining of low-lying swampy areas and flood control was expanded significantly after 1200 CE. Before that, towns were built north of the major rivers, Utrecht, Kampen, Deventer, Zwolle, Nijmegen, and Zutphen, but with the expansion of dikes and drainage, cultivable land was created and population expanded. In this period, Holland expanded relative to the other regions. From the thirteenth century onwards, the necessity of controlling water in this northern was a given, transforming the physical environment, but also requiring institutions and cooperation between areas for water management. Drainage boards (<i>heemraadschappen</i>) were established and the "dike count", took on responsibilities not only for water management issues, but also fiscal, policing, and judicial functions. By the end of the thirteenth century, Holland emerged in the dominant position of the northern region.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southern Low Countries remained highly populous and developed and was among the most highly urbanized areas in Europe. Because of the east–west flow of the Low Countries' large rivers, they were a military and political barrier between north and south. The southern Low Countries could not exert influence over the north. This division meant that the counts of Holland became politically important in the north. Holland extended its political power over Zeeland.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">Guilds</a> were established and markets developed as production exceeded local needs. Also, the introduction of currency made trading a much easier affair than it had been before. Existing towns grew and new towns sprang into existence around <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castles" class="mw-redirect" title="Castles">castles</a>, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas. Commerce and town development increased as the population grew. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">Crusades</a> were popular in the Low Countries and drew many to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>. At home, there was relative peace. Viking pillaging had stopped. Both the Crusades and the relative peace at home contributed to trade and the growth in commerce. </p><p>Cities arose and flourished, especially in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>. As the cities grew in wealth and power, they started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">sovereign</a>, including <a href="/wiki/City_rights_in_the_Low_Countries" title="City rights in the Low Countries">city rights</a>, the right to self-government and the right to pass laws. In practice, this meant that the wealthiest cities became quasi-independent republics in their own right. Two of the most important cities were <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>) which would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hook_and_Cod_Wars">Hook and Cod Wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hook and Cod Wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hook_and_Cod_wars" title="Hook and Cod wars">Hook and Cod wars</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacoba_van_Beieren_(1401-1436),_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Jacoba_van_Beieren_%281401-1436%29%2C_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg/220px-Jacoba_van_Beieren_%281401-1436%29%2C_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Jacoba_van_Beieren_%281401-1436%29%2C_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg/330px-Jacoba_van_Beieren_%281401-1436%29%2C_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Jacoba_van_Beieren_%281401-1436%29%2C_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg/440px-Jacoba_van_Beieren_%281401-1436%29%2C_gravin_van_Holland_en_Zeeland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline,_Countess_of_Hainaut" title="Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut">Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut</a>, 1401–1436, known to the Dutch as "Jacoba of Bavaria"</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hook_and_Cod_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Hook and Cod Wars">Hook and Cod Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten</i>) were a series of wars and battles in the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">County of Holland</a> between 1350 and 1490. Most of these wars were fought over the title of <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Holland" title="Count of Holland">count of Holland</a>, but some have argued that the underlying reason was because of the power struggle of the traders in the cities against the ruling nobility. </p><p>The Cod faction generally consisted of the more progressive cities of <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>. The Hook faction consisted for a large part of the conservative noblemen. Some of the main figures in this multi-generational conflict were <a href="/wiki/William_IV,_Count_of_Holland" class="mw-redirect" title="William IV, Count of Holland">William IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_II,_Countess_of_Hainaut" title="Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut">Margaret</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_V,_Count_of_Hainaut" class="mw-redirect" title="William V, Count of Hainaut">William V</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_VI,_Count_of_Holland" class="mw-redirect" title="William VI, Count of Holland">William VI, Count of Holland</a> and Hainaut, <a href="/wiki/John,_Duke_of_Bavaria-Straubing" class="mw-redirect" title="John, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing">John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_III,_Duke_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip III, Duke of Burgundy">Philip the Good</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Duke of Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a>. But perhaps the most well known is <a href="/wiki/Jacqueline,_Countess_of_Hainaut" title="Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut">Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut</a>. </p><p>The conquest of the county of Holland by the Duke <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Good" title="Philip the Good">Philip the Good</a> of Burgundy was an odd affair. Leading noblemen in Holland invited the duke to conquer Holland, even though he had no historical claim to it. Some historians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2010)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> say that the ruling class in Holland wanted Holland to integrate with the <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flemish</a> economic system and adopt Flemish legal institutions. Europe had been wracked by many civil wars in the 14th and 15th centuries, while Flanders had grown rich and enjoyed peace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Burgundian_and_Habsburg_period_(1433–1567)"><span id="Burgundian_and_Habsburg_period_.281433.E2.80.931567.29"></span>Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Netherlands">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+the+Netherlands%22">"History of the Netherlands"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+the+Netherlands%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+the+Netherlands%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+the+Netherlands%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+the+Netherlands%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+the+Netherlands%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_(1350)-NL.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_%281350%29-NL.svg/220px-Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_%281350%29-NL.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_%281350%29-NL.svg/330px-Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_%281350%29-NL.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_%281350%29-NL.svg/440px-Political_map_of_the_Low_Countries_%281350%29-NL.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2818" data-file-height="3608" /></a><figcaption>The Low Countries in the late 14th century CE</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burgundian_period">Burgundian period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Burgundian period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></div> <p>Most of what is now the Netherlands and Belgium was eventually united by the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Duke of Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Good" title="Philip the Good">Phillip the Good</a> (1396–1467).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in, their local duchy or county or as subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. These collections of fiefs were ruled under the personal union of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois-Burgundy" title="House of Valois-Burgundy">House of Valois-Burgundy</a>. </p><p>Trade in the region developed rapidly, especially in the areas of shipping and transport. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital to the people of the region as they could no longer produce enough grain to feed themselves. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a> to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habsburg_rule_from_Spain">Habsburg rule from Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Habsburg rule from Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_(Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden)_1626.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_%28Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden%29_1626.jpg/220px-Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_%28Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden%29_1626.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_%28Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden%29_1626.jpg/330px-Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_%28Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden%29_1626.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_%28Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden%29_1626.jpg/440px-Map_of_Seventeen_Provinces_of_Low_Germanie_%28Zeventien_Provincien_der_Nederlanden%29_1626.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10000" data-file-height="7836" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> (Low Germania)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_(after_Jan_van_Scorel).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_%28after_Jan_van_Scorel%29.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_%28after_Jan_van_Scorel%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_%28after_Jan_van_Scorel%29.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_%28after_Jan_van_Scorel%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_%28after_Jan_van_Scorel%29.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Pope_Adrian_VI_%28after_Jan_van_Scorel%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3020" data-file-height="3848" /></a><figcaption>Influential <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a> theologian Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, 1459–1523, was an advisor to Charles; in the last year of his life he became pope as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Adrian_VI" title="Pope Adrian VI">Adrian VI</a> (1522–1523).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> (1500–1558) was born and raised in the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flemish</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>; he spoke French. Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a>, Artois, <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(province)" title="Utrecht (province)">Utrecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groningen_(province)" title="Groningen (province)">Groningen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Guelders</a> to create the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a>. The towns of the region had already been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but were nominally fiefs of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. When he was a minor, his aunt <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Austria,_Duchess_of_Savoy" title="Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy">Margaret</a> acted as regent until 1515. France relinquished its ancient claim on <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> in 1528.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg/220px-Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg/330px-Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg/440px-Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2679" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a>, 1466–1536, <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a> Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest and theologian, by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger" title="Hans Holbein the Younger">Hans Holbein the Younger</a>, 1523</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands had to contend with the rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Arumer_Zwarte_Hoop" title="Arumer Zwarte Hoop">Frisian peasants</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Pier_Gerlofs_Donia" title="Pier Gerlofs Donia">Pier Gerlofs Donia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wijard_Jelckama" class="mw-redirect" title="Wijard Jelckama">Wijard Jelckama</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gelre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelre">Gelre</a> attempted to build up its own state in northeast Netherlands and northwest Germany. Lacking funds in the 16th century, Gelre had soldiers provide for themselves by pillaging enemy lands. These soldiers were a great menace to the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a>, as when they pillaged <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>. </p><p>The dukes of Burgundy over the years through astute marriages, purchases and wars, had taken control of the Seventeen Provinces that made up the Low Countries. They are now the Netherlands in the north, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a> (now Belgium) in the south, and Luxemburg in the southeast. Known as the "Burgundian Circle", these lands came under the control of the Habsburg family. </p><p>Charles became the ruler in 1506, but in 1515 he left the territory to become king of Spain and later Holy Roman Emperor. Charles turned over control to regents (his close relatives), and in practice the rule over the Low Countries were exercised by the Spaniards under his authority. The provinces each had their own governments and courts, controlled by the local nobility, and their own traditions and rights ("liberties") dating back centuries. Likewise the numerous cities had their own legal rights and local governments, usually controlled by the merchants. On top of this the Spanish had imposed a somewhat centralized government, the Estates General of the Netherlands, with its own officials and courts.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish officials sent by Charles ignored traditions and the Dutch nobility as well as local officials, inciting an anti-Spanish sense of nationalism which led to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a>. With the emergence of the Protestant Reformation, Charles—now the Emperor—was determined to crush Protestantism. Unrest began in the south, centered in the large rich metropolis of Antwerp. The Netherlands was an especially rich unit of the Spanish realm, especially after the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" title="Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis">Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis</a> of 1559; it ended four decades of warfare between France and Spain and allowed Spain to reposition its army.<sup id="cite_ref-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1548, Charles granted the Netherlands status as an entity in which many of the laws of the Holy Roman Empire became obsolete. The "Transaction of Augsburg"<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> created the Burgundian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire, which comprised the Netherlands and Franche-Comté. A year later the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_Sanction_of_1549" title="Pragmatic Sanction of 1549">Pragmatic Sanction of 1549</a> stated that the Seventeen Provinces could only be passed on to his heirs as a composite entity.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamen_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamen-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Reformation">The Reformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg/220px-Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg/330px-Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg/440px-Statenvertaling_title_page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="1403" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the 1637 <a href="/wiki/Statenvertaling" title="Statenvertaling">Statenvertaling</a>, the first Bible translated from the original Hebrew and Greek into Dutch, commissioned by the Calvinist <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Synod of Dort</a>, used well into the 20th century</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> rapidly gained ground in northern Europe, especially in its <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> forms.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a>, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities. By the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995104_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995104-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a society dependent on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential. Nevertheless, the Catholic rulers Charles V, and later <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a>, made it their mission to defeat Protestantism, which was considered a heresy by the Catholic Church and a threat to the stability of the whole hierarchical political system. On the other hand, the intensely moralistic Dutch Protestants insisted their Biblical theology, sincere piety and humble lifestyle was morally superior to the luxurious habits and superficial religiosity of the ecclesiastical nobility.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rulers' harsh punitive measures led to increasing grievances in the Netherlands, where the local governments had embarked on a course of peaceful coexistence. In the second half of the century, the situation escalated. Philip sent troops to crush the rebellion and make the Netherlands once more a Catholic region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995155_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995155-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first wave of the Reformation, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> won over the elites in Antwerp and the South. The Spanish successfully suppressed it there, and Lutheranism only flourished in east Friesland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995374–375_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995374–375-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second wave of the Reformation, came in the form of <a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a>, that was popular among ordinary farmers in <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a>. Anabaptists were socially very radical and equalitarian; they believed that the apocalypse was very near. They refused to live the old way, and began new communities, creating considerable chaos. A prominent Dutch Anabaptist was <a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a>, who initiated the <a href="/wiki/Mennonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mennonite">Mennonite</a> church. The movement was allowed in the north, but never grew to a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael199586–91_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael199586–91-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third wave of the Reformation, that ultimately proved to be permanent, was <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>. It arrived in the Netherlands in the 1540s, attracting both the elite and the common population, especially in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>. The Catholic Spanish responded with harsh persecution and introduced the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Inquisition of the Netherlands">Inquisition of the Netherlands</a>. Calvinists rebelled. First there was the <a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">iconoclasm</a> in 1566, which was the systematic destruction of statues of saints and other Catholic devotional depictions in churches. In 1566, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a>, a Calvinist, started the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> to liberate all Dutch of whatever religion from Catholic Spain. Blum says, "His patience, tolerance, determination, concern for his people, and belief in government by consent held the Dutch together and kept alive their spirit of revolt."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The provinces of <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zeeland" title="Zeeland">Zeeland</a>, being mainly Calvinist by 1572, submitted to the rule of William. The other states remained almost entirely Catholic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995361–395_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995361–395-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prelude_to_war">Prelude to war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Prelude to war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg/288px-Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg/432px-Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg/576px-Isaac_Claesz._van_Swanenburg_-_The_Removal_of_the_Wool_from_the_Skins_and_the_Combing_-_WGA21986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1199" data-file-height="801" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">1595 painting by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_van_Swanenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac van Swanenburg">Isaac van Swanenburg</a> illustrating <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> textile workers.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:179px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg/130px-WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg/195px-WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg/260px-WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4876" data-file-height="6728" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">William I, Prince of Orange, called <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:179px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Low_Countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Low_Countries.png/154px-The_Low_Countries.png" decoding="async" width="154" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Low_Countries.png/231px-The_Low_Countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Low_Countries.png/308px-The_Low_Countries.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="1011" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Low countries 1559–1609.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Netherlands was a valuable part of the Spanish Empire, especially after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559. This treaty ended a forty-year period of warfare between France and Spain conducted in Italy from 1521 to 1559.<sup id="cite_ref-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis was somewhat of a watershed—not only for the battleground that Italy had been, but also for northern Europe. Spain had been keeping troops in the Netherlands to be ready to attack France from the north as well as from the south. </p><p>With the settlement of so many major issues between France and Spain by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, there was no longer any reason to keep Spanish troops in the Netherlands. Thus, the people of the Netherlands could get on with their peacetime pursuits. As they did so they found that there was a great deal of demand for their products. Fishing had long been an important part of the economy of the Netherlands. However, now the fishing of herring alone came to occupy 2,000 boats operating out of Dutch ports. Spain, still the Dutch trader's best customer, was buying fifty large ships full of furniture and household utensils from Flanders merchants. Additionally, Dutch woolen goods were desired everywhere. The Netherlands bought and processed enough Spanish wool to sell four million florins of wool products through merchants in Bruges. So strong was the Dutch appetite for raw wool at this time that they bought nearly as much English wool as they did Spanish wool. Total commerce with England alone amounted to 24 million florins. Much of the export going to England resulted in pure profit to the Dutch because the exported items were of their own manufacture. The Netherlands was just starting to enter its "Golden Age." Brabant and Flanders were the richest and most flourishing parts of the Dutch Republic at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Claflin_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claflin-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Netherlands was one of the richest places in the world. The population reached 3 million in 1560, with 25 cities of 10,000 people or more, by far the largest urban presence in Europe; with the trading and financial center of Antwerp being especially important (population 100,000). Spain could not afford to lose this rich land, nor allow it to fall from Catholic control. Thus came 80 years of warfare. </p><p>A devout Catholic, Philip was appalled by the success of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, which had led to an increasing number of <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinists</a>. His attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants, and his centralization of government, law enforcement, and taxes, made him unpopular and led to a <a href="/wiki/Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt">revolt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Alvarez_de_Toledo,_Duke_of_Alba" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba">Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba</a>, was sent with a Spanish Army to punish the unruly Dutch in 1567.<sup id="cite_ref-Motley_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motley-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only opposition the Duke of Alba faced in his march across the Netherlands were the nobles, <a href="/wiki/Lamoral,_Count_of_Egmont" title="Lamoral, Count of Egmont">Lamoral, Count of Egmont</a>; <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Montmorency,_Count_of_Horn" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe de Montmorency, Count of Horn">Philippe de Montmorency, Count of Horn</a> and others. With the approach of Alba and the Spanish army, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a> of Orange fled to Germany with his three brothers and his whole family on 11 April 1567. The Duke of Alba sought to meet and negotiate with the nobles that now faced him with armies. However, when the nobles arrived in Brussels they were all arrested and Egmont and Horn were executed.<sup id="cite_ref-Motley_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motley-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alba then revoked all the prior treaties that Margaret, the <a href="/wiki/Duchess_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchess of Parma">Duchess of Parma</a> had signed with the Protestants of the Netherlands and instituted the Inquisition to enforce the decrees of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Eighty_Years'_War_(1568–1648)"><span id="The_Eighty_Years.27_War_.281568.E2.80.931648.29"></span>The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg/220px-Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg/330px-Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg/440px-Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1708" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau,_Prince_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange">Prince Maurits</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nieuwpoort" title="Battle of Nieuwpoort">Battle of Nieuwpoort</a>, 1600 CE, by Paulus van Hillegaert</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg/220px-Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg/330px-Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg/440px-Sitting_Leo_Belgicus_-_Visscher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2886" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leo_Belgicus" title="Leo Belgicus">Leo Belgicus</a>, a map of the <a href="/wiki/Low_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Low countries">low countries</a> drawn in the shape of a lion, by <a href="/wiki/Claes_Jansz._Visscher" title="Claes Jansz. Visscher">Claes Jansz. Visscher</a> (II), 1611 CE</figcaption></figure> <p>The Dutch War for Independence from Spain is frequently called the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The first fifty years (1568 through 1618) were a war solely between Catholic Spain and the Protestant rebels of the Netherlands. It was a military conflict with integral religious elements. During the last thirty years (1618–1648) the conflict between Spain and the Netherlands was submerged in the general European War that became known as the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seven rebellious provinces of the Netherlands were eventually united by the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht" title="Union of Utrecht">Union of Utrecht</a> in 1579 and formed the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Seven_United_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Seven United Netherlands">Republic of the Seven United Netherlands</a> (also known as the "United Provinces"). The <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration" title="Act of Abjuration">Act of Abjuration</a> or <i>Plakkaat van Verlatinghe</i> was signed on 26 July 1581, and was the formal <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_independence" title="Declaration of independence">declaration of independence</a> of the northern <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> from the Spanish king. <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">Religious toleration</a> was a key element of Protestant ideology. </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William of Orange</a> (1533–1584), the founder of the Dutch royal family, led the Dutch during the first part of the war. The very first years were a success for the Spanish troops. However, the Dutch countered subsequent sieges in <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>. In November and December 1572, all the citizens of <a href="/wiki/Zutphen" title="Zutphen">Zutphen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naarden" title="Naarden">Naarden</a> were slaughtered by the Spanish. From 11 December that year the city of <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> was besieged, holding out for seven months until 13 July 1573. <a href="/wiki/Oudewater" title="Oudewater">Oudewater</a> was conquered by the Spanish on 7 August 1575, and most of its inhabitants were killed. Maastricht was besieged, sacked and destroyed twice in succession (in 1576 and 1579) by the Spanish. </p><p>In a war largely of sieges rather than battles, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Prince_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma">Governor-General Alexander Farnese</a> proved his mettle. His strategy was to offer generous terms for the surrender of a city: there would be no more massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual. Conservative Catholics in the south and east supported the Spanish. Farnese recaptured <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and nearly all of what became Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Dutch-speaking territory in the Netherlands was taken from Spain, but not in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, which to this day remains part of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. Flanders was the most radical anti-Spanish territory. Many Flemish fled to Holland, among them half of the population of Antwerp, 3/4 of Bruges and Ghent and the entire population of Nieuwpoort, Dunkerque and countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His successful campaign gave the Catholics control of the lower half of the Low Countries, and was part of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a>. </p><p>The war dragged on for another half century, but the main fighting was over. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>, signed in 1648, confirmed the independence of the United Provinces from Spain. The Dutch people started to develop a national identity, beginning in the 15th century, but they officially remained a part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1648. National identity was mainly formed by the province people came from. Holland was the most important province by far. </p><p>The Catholics in the Netherlands were an outlawed minority that had been suppressed by the Calvinists. After 1572, however, they made a striking comeback (also as part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation), setting up seminaries, reforming their Church, and sending missionaries into Protestant districts. Laity often took the lead; the Calvinist government often arrested or harassed priests who seemed too effective. Catholic numbers stabilized at about a third of the population in the Netherlands; they were strongest in the southeast.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Golden_Age">Golden Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Golden Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg/180px-Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg/270px-Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg/360px-Meisje_met_de_parel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4095" data-file-height="4794" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Vermeer" title="Johannes Vermeer">Johannes Vermeer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Girl_with_a_Pearl_Earring" title="Girl with a Pearl Earring">Girl with a Pearl Earring</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Dutch Golden Age</i> was a period which roughly lasted from 1588, when the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> was established, to 1672, when the <i><a href="/wiki/Rampjaar" title="Rampjaar">Rampjaar</a></i> occurred. During this period, Dutch <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Netherlands" title="Science and technology in the Netherlands">scientific developments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_art" title="Dutch art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">overseas colonisation</a> was among the most prominent in Europe. The first half of the period spanned from the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> until its conclusion in 1648, with the second half lasting until the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a>. During the period, Dutch colonialists, many of them affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">East India Company</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">West India Company</a>, established trading posts and colonies in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, protected by the powerful <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Navy" title="Dutch States Navy">Dutch States Navy</a>. The Dutch dominated the <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">triangular trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Culture of the Netherlands">Dutch culture</a> experienced a renaissance. However, by the end of the 17th century, conflicts with neighbouring powers as well as a declining economic influence led to waning of Dutch power. The process by which the Dutch Republic became one of the foremost maritime and economic powers of the world during the era has been referred to as the "Dutch Miracle" by historian <a href="/wiki/K._W._Swart" title="K. W. Swart">K. W. Swart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Dutch Golden Age" has been controversial in the 21st century due to the extensive Dutch involvement in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Dutch_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Dutch slavery">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> during the period, and it has been deprecated by several museums in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Museum" title="Amsterdam Museum">Amsterdam Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dutch_Empire">Dutch Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dutch Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Dutch_in_the_Americas">The Dutch in the Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The Dutch in the Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a></div> <p>The Dutch West India Company was a <a href="/wiki/Chartered_company" title="Chartered company">chartered company</a> (known as the "GWC") of Dutch merchants. On 2 June 1621, it was granted a <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Charter_of_the_Dutch_West_India_Company" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Charter of the Dutch West India Company">charter</a> for a trade monopoly in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> (meaning the Caribbean) by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Seven_United_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Seven United Netherlands">Republic of the Seven United Netherlands</a> and given jurisdiction over the <a href="/wiki/African_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="African slave trade">African slave trade</a>, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America. Its area of operations stretched from West Africa to the Americas, and the Pacific islands. The company became instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch colonization of the Americas</a>. The first forts and settlements in <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> date from the 1590s. Actual colonization, with Dutch settling in the new lands, was not as common as with England and France. Many of the Dutch settlements were lost or abandoned by the end of that century, but the Netherlands managed to retain possession of <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> and a number of Dutch Caribbean islands. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrus_(Peter_Pieter)_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Petrus_%28Peter_Pieter%29_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg/220px-Petrus_%28Peter_Pieter%29_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Petrus_%28Peter_Pieter%29_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg/330px-Petrus_%28Peter_Pieter%29_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Petrus_%28Peter_Pieter%29_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg/440px-Petrus_%28Peter_Pieter%29_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1691" data-file-height="2103" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Peter_Stuyvesant" title="Peter Stuyvesant">Peter Stuyvesant</a>, Director-General of <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> (New York). His provincial capital, <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a>, was located at the southern tip of the island of <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The colony was a private business venture to exploit the <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur trade</a> in beaver pelts. New Netherland was slowly settled during its first decades, partially as a result of policy mismanagement by the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> (WIC), and conflicts with Native Americans. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_World" title="Atlantic World">Atlantic World</a>, tolerating a highly diverse ethnic mix. The surrender of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Amsterdam" title="Fort Amsterdam">Fort Amsterdam</a> to the British control in 1664 was formalized in 1667, contributing to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo%E2%80%93Dutch_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo–Dutch War">Second Anglo–Dutch War</a>. In 1673 the Dutch re-took the area, but later relinquished it under the 5 April 1674 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Westminster_(1674)" title="Treaty of Westminster (1674)">Treaty of Westminster</a> ending the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Third Anglo-Dutch War">Third Anglo-Dutch War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in the history of the United States, as typified by the Roosevelt and Vanderbilt families. The Hudson Valley still boasts a Dutch heritage. The concepts of civil liberties and <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism</a> introduced in the province became mainstays of American political and social life.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_trade">Slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Aruba">History of Aruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="History of Curaçao">History of Curaçao</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Martin" title="History of Saint Martin">History of Saint Martin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Suriname" title="History of Suriname">History of Suriname</a></div> <p>Although slavery was illegal inside the Netherlands it flourished in the Dutch Empire, and helped support the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1619 The Netherlands took the lead in building large-scale <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave trading</a> between Africa and Virginia, by 1650 becoming the pre-eminent slave trading country in Europe. It was overtaken by Britain around 1700. Historians agree that in all the Dutch shipped about 550,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on board before reaching their destinations. From 1596 to 1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the Dutch Guianas, 142,000 in the Dutch Caribbean islands, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, tens of thousands of slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and slaves from the East Indies to Africa and the West Indies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Dutch_in_Asia:_The_Dutch_East_India_Company">The Dutch in Asia: The Dutch East India Company</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The Dutch in Asia: The Dutch East India Company"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg/260px-De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg/390px-De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg/520px-De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5972" data-file-height="3808" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> factory in <a href="/wiki/Hugli-Chuchura" title="Hugli-Chuchura">Hugli-Chuchura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Bengal">Mughal Bengal</a>. <i>Hendrik van Schuylenburgh, 1665</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg/250px-Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg/375px-Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg/500px-Andries_Beeckman_-_The_Castle_of_Batavia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7222" data-file-height="5134" /></a><figcaption>Dutch Batavia built in what is now <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Andries_Beeckman" title="Andries Beeckman">Andries Beeckman</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1656 CE</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The Dutch East India Company (also called the VOC) emerged in 1602, when the government gave it a monopoly to trade with Asia, mainly to <a href="/wiki/Mughal_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a>. It had many world firsts—the first <a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">multinational corporation</a>, the first company to issue stock, and the first <a href="/wiki/Megacorporation" title="Megacorporation">megacorporation</a>, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonial settlements.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>England and France soon copied its model but could not match its record. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships. It returned over 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. The VOC was active chiefly in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>, now <a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, where its base was <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>), which remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years; colonized parts of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> between <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Dutch_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan under Dutch rule">1624–1662 and 1664–1667</a> and was the only western trading post in Japan, <a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a>. </p><p>During the period of <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a>, the empire received 50% of textile and 80% of silk imports from the Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tong_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tong-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-esposito_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esposito-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Prakash_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prakash-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG/250px-De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG/375px-De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG/500px-De_Lannoy_Surrender.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eustachius_De_Lannoy" title="Eustachius De Lannoy">Eustachius De Lannoy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> surrenders to Maharaja <a href="/wiki/Marthanda_Varma" title="Marthanda Varma">Marthanda Varma</a> of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Travancore" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Travancore">Kingdom of Travancore</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colachel" title="Battle of Colachel">Battle of Colachel</a>. (Depiction at <a href="/wiki/Padmanabhapuram_Palace" title="Padmanabhapuram Palace">Padmanabhapuram Palace</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malabar" title="Dutch Malabar">Dutch occupied Malabar</a>, leading to <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch settlements and trading posts in India</a>. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colachel" title="Battle of Colachel">Battle of Colachel</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Kingdom of Travancore</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Travancore-Dutch_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Travancore-Dutch War">Travancore-Dutch War</a>. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eventually, the 18th century saw the Dutch East India Company weighted down by corruption, and the VOC eventually went bankrupt in 1800. Its possessions were taken over by the government and turned into the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Dutch_in_Africa">The Dutch in Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The Dutch in Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cape_Colony_before_1806" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Cape Colony before 1806">History of Cape Colony before 1806</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">History of South Africa (1652–1815)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaners" title="Afrikaners">Afrikaners</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg/200px-Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg/300px-Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg/400px-Charles_Bell_-_Jan_van_Riebeeck_se_aankoms_aan_die_Kaap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1059" /></a><figcaption>Painting of an account of the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bell_(surveyor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bell (surveyor)">Charles Bell</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1647, a Dutch vessel was wrecked in the present-day <a href="/wiki/Table_Bay" title="Table Bay">Table Bay</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>. The marooned crew, the first Europeans to attempt settlement in the area, built a <a href="/wiki/Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort">fort</a> and stayed for a year until they were rescued. Shortly thereafter, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (in the Dutch of the day: <i>Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie</i>, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement. The VOC, one of the major European trading houses sailing the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice route</a> to East Asia, had no intention of colonizing the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could shelter, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of meat, fruit, and vegetables. To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a> reached <a href="/wiki/Table_Bay" title="Table Bay">Table Bay</a> on 6 April 1652.<sup id="cite_ref-Noble-141_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noble-141-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (October 2011)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To remedy a labour shortage, the VOC released a small number of VOC employees from their contracts and permitted them to establish farms with which they would supply the VOC settlement from their harvests. This arrangement proved highly successful, producing abundant supplies of fruit, vegetables, wheat, and wine; they also later raised livestock. The small initial group of "free burghers", as these farmers were known, steadily increased in number and began to expand their farms further north and east. </p><p>The majority of burghers had Dutch ancestry and belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Calvinist_Reformed_Church_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist Reformed Church of the Netherlands">Calvinist Reformed Church of the Netherlands</a>, but there were also numerous Germans as well as some Scandinavians. In 1688 the Dutch and the Germans were joined by French <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>, also Calvinists, who were fleeing religious persecution in France under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">King Louis XIV</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">Huguenots in South Africa</a> were absorbed into the Dutch population but they played a prominent role in South Africa's history. </p><p>From the beginning, the VOC used the cape as a place to supply ships travelling between the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies. There was a close association between the cape and these Dutch possessions in the far east. Van Riebeeck and the VOC began to import large numbers of slaves, primarily from <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and Indonesia. These slaves often married Dutch settlers, and their descendants became known as the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Coloureds" title="Cape Coloureds">Cape Coloureds</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Malays" title="Cape Malays">Cape Malays</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay,_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg/200px-Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg/300px-Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg/400px-Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1237" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Table_Bay" title="Table Bay">De Tafelbaai</a> by Aernout Smit, 1683</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 18th century, the Dutch settlement in the area of the cape grew and prospered. By the late 1700s, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> was one of the best developed European settlements outside Europe or the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two bases of the Cape Colony's economy for almost the entirety of its history were shipping and agriculture. Its strategic position meant that almost every ship sailing between Europe and Asia stopped off at the colony's capital <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>. The supplying of these ships with fresh provisions, fruit, and <a href="/wiki/South_African_wine" title="South African wine">wine</a> provided a very large market for the surplus produce of the colony.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some free burghers continued to expand into the rugged hinterlands of the north and east, many began to take up a semi-nomadic <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralist</a> lifestyle, in some ways not far removed from that of the <a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a> they had displaced. In addition to its herds, a family might have a wagon, a tent, a Bible, and a few guns. As they became more settled, they would build a mud-walled cottage, frequently located, by choice, days of travel from the nearest European settlement. These were the first of the <a href="/wiki/Trekboer" class="mw-redirect" title="Trekboer">Trekboers</a> (Wandering Farmers, later shortened to <a href="/wiki/Boer" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer">Boers</a>), completely independent of official controls, extraordinarily self-sufficient, and isolated from the government and the main settlement in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg/200px-TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg/300px-TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg/400px-TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>An account of the first <a href="/wiki/Trekboer" class="mw-redirect" title="Trekboer">trekboers</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> was the official language, but a dialect had formed that was quite distinct from Dutch. The <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> language originated mainly from 17th-century Dutch dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This Dutch dialect sometimes referred to as the "kitchen language" (<i>kombuistaal</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> would eventually in the late 19th century be recognised as a distinct language called <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> and replace Dutch as the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Afrikaners" title="Afrikaners">Afrikaners</a>. </p><p>As the 18th century drew to a close, Dutch mercantile power began to fade and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> moved in to fill the vacuum. They seized the Cape Colony in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands, then briefly relinquished it back to the Dutch (1803), before definitively conquering it in 1806. British sovereignty of the area was recognised at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1815. By the time the Dutch colony was seized by the British in 1806, it had grown into an established settlement with 25,000 slaves, 20,000 white colonists, 15,000 <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>, and 1,000 freed black slaves. Outside Cape Town and the immediate hinterland, isolated black and white <a href="/wiki/Pastoralists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoralists">pastoralists</a> populated the country. </p><p>Dutch interest in South Africa was based chiefly on the strategically located VOC port. Yet in the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch created the foundation of the modern state of South Africa. The Dutch legacy in South Africa is evident everywhere, but particularly in the Afrikaner people and the Afrikaans language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dutch_Republic:_Regents_and_Stadholders_(1649–1784)"><span id="Dutch_Republic:_Regents_and_Stadholders_.281649.E2.80.931784.29"></span>Dutch Republic: Regents and Stadholders (1649–1784)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Dutch Republic: Regents and Stadholders (1649–1784)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg/220px-Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg/330px-Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg/440px-Hendrick_Avercamp_-_A_Scene_on_the_Ice_-_WGA01076.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6315" data-file-height="4003" /></a><figcaption><i>Skating fun</i>, a traditional rural scene by 17th-century Dutch painter <a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Avercamp" title="Hendrick Avercamp">Hendrick Avercamp</a></figcaption></figure><p>The <i>United Provinces of the Netherlands</i>, commonly referred to in <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> as the <i>Dutch Republic</i>, was a <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a> of provinces that existed from 1579 until the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a> in 1795. It was the first independent Dutch state. The republic was established after seven Dutch provinces revolted against <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish rule</a>, declaring their independence in 1581. As the Netherlands was a republic, it was largely governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants called the <a href="/wiki/Regenten" title="Regenten">regents</a>, rather than by a king. Every city and province had its own government and laws, and a large degree of autonomy. After attempts to find a competent sovereign proved unsuccessful, it was decided that sovereignty would be vested in the various provincial Estates, the governing bodies of the provinces. The <a href="/wiki/Estates-General_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Estates-General of the Netherlands">Estates-General</a>, with its representatives from all the provinces, would decide on matters important to the Republic as a whole. Each province was led by an official known as the <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl"><a href="/wiki/Stadtholder" title="Stadtholder">stadtholder</a></i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> for 'steward'); this office was nominally open to anyone, but most provinces appointed a member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Orange">House of Orange</a>. The position gradually became hereditary, with the <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Orange" title="Prince of Orange">Prince of Orange</a> simultaneously holding most or all of the stadtholderships, making him effectively the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>. This created tension between political factions: the <a href="/wiki/Orangism_(Dutch_Republic)" title="Orangism (Dutch Republic)">Orangists</a> favoured a powerful stadtholder, while the Republicans favoured a strong States General. The Republicans forced two <a href="/wiki/Stadtholderless_Period_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Stadtholderless Period (disambiguation)">Stadtholderless Periods</a>, 1650–1672 and 1702–1747, with the latter causing <a href="/wiki/Orangist_revolution" title="Orangist revolution">national instability</a> and the end of <a href="/wiki/Great_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Power">Great Power</a> status. In the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> (1648) the republic gained approximately 20% more territory, located outside the member provinces, which was ruled directly by the States General as <a href="/wiki/Generality_Lands" title="Generality Lands">Generality Lands</a>. </p><p>Although the state was small and had only around 1.5 million inhabitants, it controlled a worldwide network of seafaring <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a>. Through its trading companies, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC) and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> (GWC), it established an empire. These companies were based on the English model and the success of England's joint-stock enterprises and trading guilds.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>  The income from this trade allowed the Dutch Republic to compete militarily against much larger countries. It amassed a huge fleet of 2,000 ships, initially larger than the fleets of England and France combined. Major conflicts were fought in the Eighty Years' War against Spain, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a> (1602–1663), four <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Wars" title="Anglo-Dutch Wars">Anglo-Dutch Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a> (1672–1678), <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a> (1688–1697), the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1702–1713), the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Austrian_Succession" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Austrian Succession">War of Austrian Succession</a> (1744–1748), and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a> (1792–1795) against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a>. </p><p>The republic was more tolerant of different religions and ideas than contemporary states, allowing <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a> to its residents. Artists flourished under this regime, including painters such as Rembrandt. So did scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a>. Dutch trade, science, armed forces, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world during much of the 17th century, a period which became known as the Dutch Golden Age. </p><p>The economy, based on Amsterdam's role as the center of world trade, was strong in the 17th century. In 1670 the Dutch merchant marine totalled 568,000 tons of shipping—about half the European total.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The province of Holland was highly commercial and dominated the country. Its nobility was small and closed and had little influence, for it was numerically small, politically weak, and formed a strictly closed caste. Most land in the province of Holland was commercialized for cash crops and was owned by urban capitalists, not nobles; there were few links between Holland's nobility and the merchants. By 1650 the burgher families which had grown wealthy through commerce and become influential in government controlled the province of Holland, and to a large extent shaped national policies. The other six provinces were more rural and traditional in life style, had an active nobility, and played a small role in commerce and national politics. Instead they concentrated on their flood protections and land reclamation projects.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995277–279,_284_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995277–279,_284-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic decline led to a period of political instability known as the <a href="/wiki/Patriottentijd" title="Patriottentijd">Patriottentijd</a> (1780–1787).<sup id="cite_ref-:022_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This unrest was temporarily suppressed by a <a href="/wiki/Prussian_invasion_of_Holland" title="Prussian invasion of Holland">Prussian invasion</a> in support of the stadtholder. The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a> reignited these tensions. Following military defeat by France, the stadtholder was expelled in the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a> of 1795, ending the Dutch Republic, which was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Batavian_Republic_(1795–1806)"><span id="Batavian_Republic_.281795.E2.80.931806.29"></span>Batavian Republic (1795–1806)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Batavian Republic (1795–1806)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feest_der_Vrijheid_op_de_Dam_te_Amsterdam,_4_maart_1795_Vreugde-Feest,_ter_inwyding_van_de_Vryheids-boom_in_Amsterdam,_Gevierd_den_4.den_Maart_1795._het_eerste_Jaar_der_Bataafsche_Vrijheid_(titel_op_object),_RP-P-OB-86.446.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Feest_der_Vrijheid_op_de_Dam_te_Amsterdam%2C_4_maart_1795_Vreugde-Feest%2C_ter_inwyding_van_de_Vryheids-boom_in_Amsterdam%2C_Gevierd_den_4.den_Maart_1795._het_eerste_Jaar_der_Bataafsche_Vrijheid_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-OB-86.446.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Feest_der_Vrijheid_op_de_Dam_te_Amsterdam%2C_4_maart_1795_Vreugde-Feest%2C_ter_inwyding_van_de_Vryheids-boom_in_Amsterdam%2C_Gevierd_den_4.den_Maart_1795._het_eerste_Jaar_der_Bataafsche_Vrijheid_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-OB-86.446.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Feest_der_Vrijheid_op_de_Dam_te_Amsterdam%2C_4_maart_1795_Vreugde-Feest%2C_ter_inwyding_van_de_Vryheids-boom_in_Amsterdam%2C_Gevierd_den_4.den_Maart_1795._het_eerste_Jaar_der_Bataafsche_Vrijheid_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-OB-86.446.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6170" data-file-height="5508" /></a><figcaption>Liberty tree erected in Dam Square in Amsterdam, 1795 by H. Numan</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when in January 1795 the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries_theatre_of_the_War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition">French army invaded</a>. The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial governments, and proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Bataafse Republiek</i>) <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution_in_Amsterdam" title="Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam">in Amsterdam</a>. Stadtholder William V fled to England and the States General dissolved itself. The new government was virtually a puppet of France.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Batavian Republic enjoyed widespread support and sent soldiers to fight in the French armies. The 1799 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_invasion_of_Holland" title="Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland">Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland</a> was repulsed by Batavian–French forces. Nevertheless, Napoleon replaced it because the regime of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Pensionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Pensionary">Grand Pensionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Rutger_Jan_Schimmelpenninck" title="Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck">Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck</a> (1805–1806) was insufficiently docile.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The confederal structure of the old Dutch Republic was permanently replaced by a unitary state. The 1798 constitution had a genuinely democratic character, though a coup d'état of 1801 put an authoritarian regime in power. Ministerial government was introduced for the first time in Dutch history and many of the current government departments date their history back to this period. </p><p>The exiled stadholder <a href="/wiki/Kew_Letters" title="Kew Letters">handed over the Dutch colonies</a> in "safekeeping" to Great Britain and ordered the colonial governors to comply. This permanently ended the colonial Dutch empire in Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony. The Dutch East Indies was returned to the Netherlands under the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kingdom_of_Holland_to_William_I_(1806–1815)"><span id="Kingdom_of_Holland_to_William_I_.281806.E2.80.931815.29"></span>Kingdom of Holland to William I (1806–1815)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Holland to William I (1806–1815)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg/220px-Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg/330px-Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg/440px-Map_administrative_divisions_of_the_First_French_Empire_1812-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2052" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Administrative divisions of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> in 1812, illustrating the incorporation of the Netherlands and its internal reorganisation</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1806 Napoleon transformed the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a>, putting his brother <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bonaparte" title="Louis Bonaparte">Louis Bonaparte</a> (1778–1846), on the throne. The new king was unpopular, but he was willing to cross his brother for the benefit of his new kingdom. Napoleon forced his abdication in 1810 and <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Netherlands)" title="Incorporation (Netherlands)">incorporated</a> the Netherlands directly into the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French empire</a>, imposing economic controls and conscription of all young men as soldiers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png/220px-Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png/330px-Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png/440px-Landing_Willem_Frederik_Scheveningen_1813.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="778" /></a><figcaption><i>Landing of the future king <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I</a> at <a href="/wiki/Scheveningen" title="Scheveningen">Scheveningen</a> on 30 November 1813</i></figcaption></figure> <p>When the French retreated from the northern provinces in 1813, a <a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_of_1813" title="Triumvirate of 1813">Triumvirate</a> took over at the helm of a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">provisional government</a>. Although most members of the provisional government had been among the men who had driven out William V 18 years earlier, the leaders of the provisional government knew that any new regime would have to be headed by his son, <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William Frederick</a>. They also knew that it would be better in the long term if the Dutch people themselves installed the prince, rather than have him imposed on the country by the anti-French alliance. Accordingly, the Triumvirate called William Frederick back on 30 November and offered him the crown. He refused, but instead proclaimed himself "<a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">hereditary sovereign prince</a>" on 6 December. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Powers">Great Powers</a> had <a href="/wiki/Eight_Articles_of_London" title="Eight Articles of London">secretly agreed</a> to merge the northern Netherlands with the more populated <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a> and the smaller <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a> into a single constitutional monarchy. Having a stronger country on France's northern border was considered (especially by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Tsar Alexander</a>) to be an important part of the strategy to keep France's power in check. In 1814, William Frederick gained sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands and Liège as well. Thus, William Frederick had fulfilled his family's three-century quest to unite the Low Countries under a single rule. </p><p>On 15 March 1815; with the encouragement of the powers gathered at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>, William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">King William I</a>. This was made official later in 1815, when the Low Countries were formally recognized as the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a>. The crown was made a hereditary office of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">House of Orange-Nassau</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1839)"><span id="United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_.281815.E2.80.931839.29"></span>United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg/220px-Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg/330px-Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg/440px-Nieuwe_Kaart_Koningrijk_der_Nederlanden_en_Hertogdom_Luxemburg_C_van_Baarsel_1815.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4711" data-file-height="6105" /></a><figcaption>Map of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and Luxembourg, 1815</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch monarchy">Dutch monarchy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I</a> became king and also became the hereditary <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duke of Luxembourg">Grand Duke of Luxembourg</a>, that was part of the Netherlands but at the same time part of the German Confederation. The newly created country had two capitals: <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>. The new nation had two equal parts. The north (Netherlands proper) had 2 million people. They spoke chiefly Dutch but were divided religiously between a Protestant majority and a large Catholic minority. The south (which would be known as "Belgium" after 1830) had a population of 3.4 million people. Nearly all were Catholic, but it was divided between French-speaking Walloons and Dutch-speaking Flemings. The upper and middle classes in the south were mostly French-speaking. About 60,000 Belgians were eligible to vote, compared to about 80,000 Dutchmen. Officially Amsterdam was the capital, but in a compromise the government met alternately in Brussels and The Hague.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978112–133_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978112–133-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a> (1796–1874), the great Belgian statistician, calculated that the new nation was significantly better off than other states. Mortality was low, the food supply was good, education was good, public awareness was high and the charity rate was the highest in the world. The best years were in the mid-1820s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978115–116_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978115–116-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The quality of schooling was dismal, however. According to Schama, about 1800 the local school teacher was the "humble auxiliary of the local priest. Despised by his co-villagers and forced to subsist on the gleanings of the peasants, he combined drumming the catechism into the heads of his unruly charges with the duties of winding the town clock, ringing the church bells or digging its graves. His principal use to the community was to keep its boys out of mischief when there was no labour for them in the fields, or setting the destitute orphans of the town to the 'useful arts' of picking tow or spinning crude flax. As one would expect, standards in such an occupation were dismal."<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But in 1806 the Dutch, led by Adriaan van den Ende, energetically set out to modernise education, focusing on a new system for advanced training of teachers with an elaborate system of inspectors, training courses, teacher examinations and teaching societies. By 1826, although much smaller than France, the Dutch national government was spending 12 times more than Paris on education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama197284–85_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama197284–85-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Constitutional monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_(tot_1830).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_%28tot_1830%29.png/220px-Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_%28tot_1830%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_%28tot_1830%29.png/330px-Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_%28tot_1830%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_%28tot_1830%29.png/440px-Verenigd_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden_%28tot_1830%29.png 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption><b>The <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg_(1839%E2%80%931867)" title="Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)">Limburg</a> in 1839</b><br /><b>1</b>, <b>2</b> and <b>3</b> United Kingdom of the Netherlands (until 1830)<br /><b>1</b> and <b>2</b> <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> (after 1839)<br /><b>2</b> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg_(1839%E2%80%931867)" title="Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)">Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867)</a> (in the German Confederacy after 1839 as compensation for Waals-Luxemburg)<br /><b>3</b> and <b>4</b> <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Kingdom of Belgium</a> (after 1839)<br /><b>4</b> and <b>5</b> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Luxembourg">Grand Duchy of Luxembourg</a> (borders until 1839) <br /><b>4</b> <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_(Belgium)" title="Luxembourg (Belgium)">Province of Luxembourg</a> (Waals-Luxemburg, to Belgium in 1839)<br /><b>5</b> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Luxembourg">Grand Duchy of Luxembourg</a> (German Luxemburg; borders after 1839)<br />In blue, the borders of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>William I, who reigned from 1815 to 1840, had great constitutional power. An <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_despot" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened despot">enlightened despot</a>, he accepted the modernizing transformations of the previous 25 years, including equality of all before the law. However, he resurrected the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates</a> as a political class and elevated a large number of people to the nobility. Voting rights were still limited, and only the nobility were eligible for seats in the upper house. The old provinces were reestablished in name only. The government was now fundamentally unitary, and all authority flowed from the center. </p><p>William I was a Calvinist and unsympathetic to the religious culture and practices of the Catholic majority. He promulgated the "Fundamental Law of Holland", with some modifications. This entirely overthrew the old order of things in the southern Netherlands: it abolished the privileges of the Catholic Church, and guaranteed equal protection to every religious creed and the enjoyment of the same civil and political rights to every subject of the king. It reflected the spirit of the French Revolution and in so doing did not please the Catholic bishops in the south, who had detested the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>William I actively promoted economic modernization. The first 15 years of the Kingdom showed progress and prosperity, as industrialization proceeded rapidly in the south, where the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> allowed entrepreneurs and labor to combine in a new textile industry, powered by local coal mines. There was little industry in the northern provinces, but most overseas colonies were restored, and highly profitable trade resumed after a 25-year hiatus. Economic liberalism combined with moderate monarchical authoritarianism accelerated the adaptation of the Netherlands to the new conditions of the 19th century. The country prospered until a crisis arose in relations with the southern provinces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium_breaks_away">Belgium breaks away</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Belgium breaks away"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></div> <p>William was determined to create a united people, even though the north and south had drifted far apart in the past three centuries. Protestants were the largest denomination in the North (population 2 million), but formed a quarter of the population in the overwhelmingly Catholic South (population 3.5 million). Nevertheless, Protestants dominated William's government and army. The Catholics did not consider themselves an integral part of the United Netherlands, preferring instead to identify with mediaeval Dutch culture. Other factors that contributed to this feeling were economic (the South was industrialising, the North had always been a merchants' nation) and linguistic (French was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a> and a large part of the bourgeoisie in Flemish cities).<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After having been dominant for centuries, the French-speaking elite in the Southern Netherlands now felt like second-class citizens. In the Catholic South,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government, while the population of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> was divided. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect ("Flemish") and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership after having been the state church for centuries in the north. Few Catholics held high office in state or army. Furthermore, political liberals in the south complained about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg/220px-R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg/330px-R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg/440px-R%C3%A9volution_belge_de_1830_-_La_rue_de_Flandre_le_jeudi_23_septembre_1830.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3380" data-file-height="2172" /></a><figcaption>Fighting between Belgian rebels and the Dutch military expedition in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> in September 1830</figcaption></figure> <p>The outbreak of <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">revolution in France</a> in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers. </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/London_Conference_of_1830" title="London Conference of 1830">London Conference of 1830</a>, the chief powers of Europe ordered (in November 1830) an armistice between the Dutch and the Belgians. The first draft for a treaty of separation of Belgium and the Netherlands was rejected by the Belgians. A second draft (June 1831) was rejected by William I, who resumed hostilities. Franco-British intervention forced William to withdraw Dutch forces from Belgium late in 1831, and in 1833 an armistice of indefinite duration was concluded. Belgium was effectively independent but William's attempts to recover Luxembourg and Limburg led to renewed tension. The London Conference of 1838–1839 prepared the final Dutch-Belgian <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">separation treaty of 1839</a>. It divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns. The Kingdom of the Netherlands thereafter was made up of the 11 northern provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Democratic_and_Industrial_Development_(1840–1900)"><span id="Democratic_and_Industrial_Development_.281840.E2.80.931900.29"></span>Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg/220px-Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg/330px-Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg/440px-Anton_Mauve_-_Herderin_met_kudde_schapen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption><i>Shepherdess With a Flock of Sheep</i> by <a href="/wiki/Anton_Mauve" title="Anton Mauve">Anton Mauve</a> (1838–1888), of the <a href="/wiki/Hague_School" title="Hague School">Hague School</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Netherlands did not industrialize as rapidly as Belgium after 1830, but it was prosperous enough. Griffiths argues that certain government policies facilitated the emergence of a national economy in the 19th century. They included the abolition of internal tariffs and guilds, a unified coinage system, modern methods of tax collection, standardized weights and measures, and the building of many roads, canals, and railroads. However, compared to Belgium, which was leading in industrialization on the Continent, the Netherlands moved slowly. Possible explanations for this difference are the higher costs due to geography and high wages, and the emphasis of entrepreneurs on trade rather than industry.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, in the Dutch coastal provinces agricultural productivity was relatively high. Hence, industrial growth arrived relatively late – after 1860 – because incentives to move to labour-intensive industry were quite weak.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the provinces of North Brabant and Overijssel did industrialize, and they became the most economically advanced areas of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in the rest of Europe, the 19th century saw the gradual transformation of the Netherlands into a modern middle-class industrial society. The number of people employed in agriculture decreased, while the country made a strong effort to revive its stake in the highly competitive shipping and trade business. The Netherlands lagged behind Belgium until the late 19th century in industrialization, and caught up around 1920. Major industries included textiles and (later) the great Philips industrial conglomerate. Rotterdam became a major shipping and manufacturing center.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poverty slowly declined as begging largely disappeared along with steadily improving working conditions for the population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1848_Constitutional_reform_and_liberalism">1848 Constitutional reform and liberalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: 1848 Constitutional reform and liberalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin,_sitzend,_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin%2C_sitzend%2C_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg/220px-Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin%2C_sitzend%2C_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin%2C_sitzend%2C_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg/330px-Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin%2C_sitzend%2C_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin%2C_sitzend%2C_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg/440px-Van_Gogh_-_B%C3%A4uerin%2C_sitzend%2C_mit_wei%C3%9Fer_Haube.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1212" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><i>Peasant woman, seated, with a white hood</i>, painted in Nuenen in December 1884 by <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> (1853–1890). Born in <a href="/wiki/Zundert" title="Zundert">Groot-Zundert</a>, van Gogh was a Dutch post-Impressionist painter whose work, notable for its rough beauty, emotional honesty and bold color, had a far-reaching influence on <a href="/wiki/20th-century_art" title="20th-century art">20th-century art</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1840 William I abdicated in favor of his son, <a href="/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands" title="William II of the Netherlands">William II</a>, who attempted to carry on the policies of his father in the face of a powerful liberal movement. In 1848 <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">unrest broke out all over Europe</a>. Although there were no major events in the Netherlands, these foreign developments persuaded King <a href="/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands" title="William II of the Netherlands">William II</a> to agree to liberal and democratic reform. That same year <a href="/wiki/Johan_Rudolf_Thorbecke" class="mw-redirect" title="Johan Rudolf Thorbecke">Johan Rudolf Thorbecke</a>, a prominent liberal, was asked by the king to draft a constitution that would turn the Netherlands into a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. The new constitution was proclaimed on 3 November 1848. It severely limited the king's powers (making the government accountable only to an elected parliament), and it protected <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>. The new liberal constitution, which put the government under the control of the States General, was accepted by the legislature in 1848. The relationship between monarch, government and parliament has remained essentially unchanged ever since. In fact, the current Constitution of the Netherlands is the 1848 Constitution, albeit with amendments. </p><p>William II was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_the_Netherlands" title="William III of the Netherlands">William III</a> in 1849. The new king reluctantly chose Thorbecke to head the new government, which introduced several liberal measures, notably the extension of suffrage. However, Thorbecke's government soon fell, when Protestants rioted against the Vatican's reestablishment of the Catholic episcopate, in abeyance since the 16th century. A conservative government was formed, but it did not undo the liberal measures, and the Catholics were finally given equality after two centuries of subordination. Dutch political history from the middle of the 19th century until the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> was fundamentally one of the extension of liberal reforms in government, the reorganization and modernization of the Dutch economy, and the rise of trade unionism and socialism as working-class movements independent of traditional liberalism. The growth in prosperity was enormous, as real per capita GNP soared from 106 guilders in 1804 to 403 in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978chapter_5_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978chapter_5-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_pillarisation">Religion and pillarisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Religion and pillarisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG/220px-Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG/330px-Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG/440px-Nederlandgodsdienst1849.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1270" data-file-height="1796" /></a><figcaption>Religion in the Netherlands in 1849. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholicism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF0000; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a>)</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Religion was a contentious issue with repeated struggles over the relations of church and state in the field of education. In 1816, the government took full control of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Nederlands Hervormde Kerk</i>). In 1857, all religious instruction was ended in public schools, but the various churches set up their own schools, and even universities. Dissident members broke away from the Dutch Reformed Church in the Secession of 1834. They were harassed by the government under an onerous Napoleonic law prohibiting gatherings of more than 20 members without a permit. After the harassment ended in the 1850s, a number of these dissidents eventually created the Christian Reformed Church in 1869; thousands migrated to Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa in the United States. By 1900, the dissidents represented about 10% of the population, compared to 45% of the population who were in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a>, which continued to be the only church to receive state money.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At mid-century, most Dutch belonged either to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> or dissenter groups that separated from it (around 55%), or the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> (35% to 40%), together with smaller <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>) and Jewish groups. A large and powerful sector of nominal Protestants were in fact secular liberals seeking to minimize religious influence. In reaction a novel alliance developed with Catholics and devout Calvinists joining against secular liberals. The Catholics, who had been loosely allied with the liberals in earlier decades, turned against them on the issue of state support, which the liberals insisted should be granted only to public schools, and joined with Protestant political parties in demanding equal state support to schools maintained by religious groups.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Netherlands remained one of the most tolerant countries in Europe towards religious belief, although conservative Protestants objected to the liberalization of the Dutch Reformed Church during the 19th century and faced opposition from the government when they tried to establish separate communities (Catholics and other non-Protestants were left unmolested by Dutch authorities). Some moved to the United States as a consequence, but as the century drew to a close, religious persecution had totally ceased. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg/150px-Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg/225px-Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg/300px-Old-Amsterdam_1891-street-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Street in Amsterdam in 1891 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vijzelstraat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vijzelstraat (page does not exist)">Vijzelstraat</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijzelstraat" class="extiw" title="nl:Vijzelstraat">nl</a>]</span> looking towards Muntplein)</figcaption></figure> <p>Dutch social and political life became divided by fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three separate parts based on religion. The economy was not affected. One of the people most responsible for designing pillarization was <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Kuyper" title="Abraham Kuyper">Abraham Kuyper</a> (1837–1920), a leading politician, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Calvinist">neo-Calvinist</a> theologian, and journalist. Kuyper established orthodox Calvinist organizations, and also provided a theoretical framework by developing such concepts as "sphere-sovereignty" that celebrated Dutch society as a society of organized minorities. <i>Verzuiling</i> ("pillarization" or "pluralism") after 1850 became the solution to the danger of internal conflict. Everyone was part of one (and only one) pillar (<i>zuil</i>) based chiefly on religion (Protestant, Catholic, secular). The secular pillar eventually split into a socialist/working class pillar and a liberal (pro-business) secular pillar. Each pillar built a full set of its own social organizations, including churches (for the religious pillars), political parties, schools, universities,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> labor unions, sport clubs, boy scout unions and other youth clubs, and newspapers. The members of different <i>zuilen</i> lived in close proximity in cities and villages, spoke the same language, and did business with one another, but seldom interacted informally and rarely intermarried.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In politics Kuyper formed the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Revolutionary_Party" title="Anti-Revolutionary Party">Anti-Revolutionary Party</a> (ARP) in 1879, and headed it until 1905. </p><p>Pillarization was officially recognized in the <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_1917" title="Pacification of 1917">Pacification of 1917</a>, whereby socialists and liberals achieved their goal of universal male suffrage and the religious parties were guaranteed equal funding of all schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann197857_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann197857-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930 radio was organized so that each pillar had full control of its own network. When television began in the late 1940s the pillars divided up time equally on the one station. In politics and civic affairs leaders of the pillar organizations cooperated and they acknowledged the right of the other pillars, so public life generally ran smoothly.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flourishing_of_art,_culture_and_science"><span id="Flourishing_of_art.2C_culture_and_science"></span>Flourishing of art, culture and science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Flourishing of art, culture and science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The late 19th century saw a cultural revival. The <a href="/wiki/Hague_School" title="Hague School">Hague School</a> brought a revival of realist painting, 1860–1890. The world-famous Dutch painter was <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>, but he spent most of his career in France.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literature, music, architecture and science also flourished. A representative leader of science was <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Johannes Diderik van der Waals</a> (1837–1923), a working class youth who taught himself physics, earned a PhD at the nation's leading school Leiden University, and in 1910 won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries in thermodynamics. <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> (1853–1928) and his student <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Pieter Zeeman</a> (1865–1943) shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in physics. Other notable scientists included biologist <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> (1848–1935), who rediscovered Mendelian genetics.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1900_to_present">1900 to present</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: 1900 to present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands_(1900%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Netherlands (1900–present)">History of the Netherlands (1900–present)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_I" title="Netherlands in World War I">Netherlands in World War I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_Netherlands" title="Great Depression in the Netherlands">Great Depression in the Netherlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands in World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_of_the_Netherlands_1900-2000.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Population_of_the_Netherlands_1900-2000.png/220px-Population_of_the_Netherlands_1900-2000.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Population_of_the_Netherlands_1900-2000.png/330px-Population_of_the_Netherlands_1900-2000.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Population_of_the_Netherlands_1900-2000.png 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>Population growth 1900–2000</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1900 to 1940, the Netherlands experienced significant population growth. This era included significant colonial expansion, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>, coupled with the challenges posed by World War I and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. Although the Netherlands maintained neutrality during World War I, its strategic geographic location and colonial resources had profound implications for its economic and political stability. The period saw the rise of socialism and labor unrest, which were partly driven by industrialization and the shifting dynamics of Dutch society. A half-hearted socialist revolution attempt during the <a href="/wiki/Red_Week_(Netherlands)" title="Red Week (Netherlands)">Red Week</a> in November 1918 failed. </p><p>World War II marked a devastating period for the Netherlands, which suffered under German occupation from 1940 until liberation in 1945. The war's impact was severe, with the <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam_Blitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotterdam Blitz">Rotterdam Blitz</a> causing extensive destruction and loss of life. Dutch resistance was significant, though the nation also faced collaboration from within. Post-war, the Netherlands underwent a painful process of recovery and retribution against collaborators. The immediate post-war years were focused on rebuilding and economic stabilization, facilitated by U.S. aid through the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>, which helped to revive the Dutch economy and infrastructure. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_(48317652116).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_%2848317652116%29.jpg/220px-President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_%2848317652116%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_%2848317652116%29.jpg/330px-President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_%2848317652116%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_%2848317652116%29.jpg/440px-President_Trump_Meets_with_the_Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands_%2848317652116%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption>Dutch Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mark_Rutte" title="Mark Rutte">Mark Rutte</a> and U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a> on 18 July 2019</figcaption></figure><p>The post-war period saw significant changes in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch empire">Dutch empire</a>, with Indonesia proclaiming independence in 1945, leading to a violent and tumultuous decolonization process completed in 1949. This era brought about substantial social change within the Netherlands, including the establishment of a welfare state in the subsequent decades. Economic prosperity in the 1960s and 1970s led to social liberalization, culminating in progressive policies on immigration, drugs, and euthanasia. The Netherlands also became a founding member of key international institutions, including the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, reflecting its deepening commitment to international cooperation. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historians">Historians</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Historians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Julia Adams, economic and social history<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Johannes_Blok" title="Petrus Johannes Blok">Petrus Johannes Blok</a>, survey<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Blom_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Blom (historian) (page does not exist)">J. C. H. Blom</a>, survey<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>M. R. Boxell, political history<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_Geyl" title="Pieter Geyl">Pieter Geyl</a>, Dutch revolt; historiography<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Huizinga" title="Johan Huizinga">Johan Huizinga</a> (1872–1945), cultural history<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Jonathan Israel</a>, Dutch Republic,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loe_de_Jong" title="Loe de Jong">Louis De Jong</a>, World War II<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a>, American historian of the Dutch Revolt<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Romein" title="Jan Romein">Jan Romein</a> (1893–1962), theoretical and world history<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(historian)" title="Jan de Vries (historian)">Jan de Vries</a>, economic history<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American <a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a> was the first foreign historian to write a major history of the Dutch Republic. In 3500 pages he crafted a literary masterpiece that was translated into numerous languages; his dramatic story reached a wide audience in the 19th century. Motley relied heavily on Dutch scholarship and immersed himself in the sources. His style no longer attracts readers, and scholars have moved away from his simplistic dichotomies of good versus evil, Dutch versus Spanish, Catholic versus Protestant, freedom versus authoritarianism. His theory of causation overemphasized ethnicity as an unchanging characteristic, exaggerated the importance of William of Orange, and gave undue importance to the issue of religious tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pioneering Dutch cultural historian <a href="/wiki/Johan_Huizinga" title="Johan Huizinga">Johan Huizinga</a>, author of <i>The Autumn of the Middle Ages</i> (1919) (the English translation was called <i>The Waning of the Middle Ages</i>) and <i>Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture</i> (1935), which expanded the field of cultural history and influenced the historical anthropology of younger historians of the French <a href="/wiki/Annales_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Annales School">Annales School</a>. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments".<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "polder model" continues to strongly influence historians as well as Dutch political discussion. The polder model stressed the need for finding consensus and discouraged furious debate and angry dissent in both academia and politics – in contrast to the highly developed, intense debates in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/H-Net" title="H-Net">H-Net</a> list <i>H-Low-Countries</i> is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the region and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries publishes conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After World War II both research-oriented and teaching-oriented historians have been rethinking their interpretive approaches to Dutch history, balancing traditional memories and modern scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of popular history, there has been an effort to ensure greater historical accuracy in museums and historic tourist sites.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once heralded as the leading event of modern Dutch history, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> lasted from 1568 to 1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. In 2007, Laura Cruz explained the major debates among scholars regarding the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While agreeing that the intellectual milieus of late 19th and 20th centuries affected historians' interpretations, Cruz argued that writings about the revolt trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Europe. In recent decades grand theory has fallen out of favor among most scholars, who emphasize the particular over the general. Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 no longer says the revolt was the culmination of an inevitable process leading to independence and freedom. Instead scholars have put the political and economic details of the towns and provinces under the microscope, while agreeing on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most influential new studies have been rooted in demographic and economic history, though scholars continue to debate the relationship between economics and politics. The religious dimension has been viewed in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of Calvinism, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pieter_Geyl" title="Pieter Geyl">Pieter Geyl</a> was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and an influential professor at the University of London (1919–1935) and at the State University of Utrecht (1936–1958). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th-century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by <a href="/wiki/Johan_van_Oldenbarneveldt" class="mw-redirect" title="Johan van Oldenbarneveldt">Johan van Oldenbarneveldt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johan_de_Witt" title="Johan de Witt">Johan de Witt</a>. It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">world history</a> approach of <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jan_Romein" title="Jan Romein">Jan Romein</a> created a "theoretical history" in an attempt to reestablish the relevance of history to public life in the 1930s at a time of immense political uncertainty and cultural crisis, when Romein thought that history had become too inward-looking and isolated from other disciplines. Romein, a Marxist, wanted history to contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Oswald Spengler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_John_Teggart" title="Frederick John Teggart">Frederick John Teggart</a>, and others, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands, to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the university level after the war. Romein used the term integral history as a substitute for cultural history and focused his attention on the period around the turn of the century. He concluded that a serious crisis occurred in European civilization in 1900 because of the rise of anti-Semitism, extreme nationalism, discontent with the parliamentary system, depersonalization of the state, and the rejection of positivism. European civilization waned as the result of this crisis which was accompanied by the rise of the United States, the Americanization of the world, and the emergence of Asia. His interpretation is reminiscent of that of his mentor Johan Huizinga and was criticized by his colleague Pieter Geyl.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_of_the_Netherlands" title="Canon of the Netherlands">Canon of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Culture of the Netherlands">Culture of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Demographics of the Netherlands">Demographics of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_diaspora" title="Dutch diaspora">Dutch diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Economy of the Netherlands">Economy of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_European_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of the European Netherlands">Geography of the European Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of religion in the Netherlands">History of religion in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of prime ministers of the Netherlands">List of prime ministers of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of monarchs of the Netherlands">List of monarchs of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Politics of the Netherlands">Politics of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Netherlands" title="Provinces of the Netherlands">Provinces of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands in World War II</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bodian, Miriam. <i>Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swetchinski, Daniel M. <i>Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam</i>. London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kooijmans1998-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kooijmans1998_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1">Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam</a>", 1998, <i>Spiegel Historiael</i> 33, pp. 423–428</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kooijmans1998quote-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kooijmans1998quote_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leendert Louwe Kooijmans, "It is becoming increasingly clear that the agricultural transformation of prehistoric communities was a purely indigenous process that took place very gradually." Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1">Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam</a>", 1998, <i>Spiegel Historiael</i> 33, pp. 423–428</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volkskrant 24 August 2007, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant">Prehistoric agricultural field found in Swifterbant, 4300–4000 BC</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raemakers-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Raemakers_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raemakers, Daan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf">De spiegel van Swifterbant</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410084410/http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf">Archived</a> 10 April 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, University of Groningen, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArnoldussenHuismanvan_OsSteffens2022" class="citation journal cs1">Arnoldussen, S.; Huisman, D.J.; van Os, B.; Steffens, B.; Theunissen, L.; Amkreutz, L. (December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352409X22003479">"A not so isolated fringe: Dutch later prehistoric (c. 2200 BCE-AD 0) bronze alloy networks from compositional analyses on metals and corrosion layers"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports</i>. <b>46</b>: 103684. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022JArSR..46j3684A">2022JArSR..46j3684A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jasrep.2022.103684">10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103684</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F3564156">1887/3564156</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253318347">253318347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science%3A+Reports&rft.atitle=A+not+so+isolated+fringe%3A+Dutch+later+prehistoric+%28c.+2200+BCE-AD+0%29+bronze+alloy+networks+from+compositional+analyses+on+metals+and+corrosion+layers&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=103684&rft.date=2022-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F3564156&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253318347%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jasrep.2022.103684&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022JArSR..46j3684A&rft.aulast=Arnoldussen&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Huisman%2C+D.J.&rft.au=van+Os%2C+B.&rft.au=Steffens%2C+B.&rft.au=Theunissen%2C+L.&rft.au=Amkreutz%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2352409X22003479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to "Het Archeologisch Basisregister" (ABR), version 1.0 November 1992, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.racm.nl/content/documenten%5Cabr%20website.pdf">[1]</a>, <i>Elp Kümmerkeramik</i> is dated BRONSMA (early MBA) to BRONSL (LBA) and this has been standardized by "De Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten" (RACM) as being at the period starting at 1800 BC and ending at 800 BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (October 2011)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2016">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFnick_xylas2021" class="citation web cs1">nick_xylas (1 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theonlywayiswessex.net/2021/03/01/essential-wessex-wessex-culture/">"Essential Wessex: Wessex Culture"</a>. <i>Wessex Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wessex+Society&rft.atitle=Essential+Wessex%3A+Wessex+Culture&rft.date=2021-03-01&rft.au=nick_xylas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheonlywayiswessex.net%2F2021%2F03%2F01%2Fessential-wessex-wessex-culture%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mallory-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallory, J.P., <i>In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth</i>, London: Thames & Hudson, 1989, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 15th edition, 22:641–642</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Verhaal-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Verhaal_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, <i>Het verhaal van een taal</i>, Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Butler, J.J., <i>Nederland in de bronstijd</i>, Bussum: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1969, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Laet, Gysseling, <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Hachmann" title="Rolf Hachmann">Hachmann</a>, Kossack & Kuhn</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, <i>Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten</i>, 1986, pp. 183–212</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lendering-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lendering_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lendering, Jona, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm">"Germania Inferior"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200607071937/https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm">Archived</a> 7 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Livius.org. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roymans, Nico, <i>Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire</i>, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005, pp. 226–227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marnix_Beyen_1850-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marnix_Beyen_1850_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marnix_Beyen_1850_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beyen, Marnix, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850" in <i>European History Quarterly</i> 2000 30(4):493–532. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0265-6914">0265-6914</a> Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/EBSCO_Information_Services" title="EBSCO Information Services">EBSCO</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Previté-Orton-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Previté-Orton_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Previté-Orton_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Previté-Orton, Charles, <i>The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History</i>, vol. I, pp. 51–52, 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the <i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i> (Manuscript VIII), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrane2007" class="citation cs2">Grane, Thomas (2007), "From Gallienus to Probus – Three decades of turmoil and recovery", <i>The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis)</i>, Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, p. 109</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Gallienus+to+Probus+%E2%80%93+Three+decades+of+turmoil+and+recovery&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+and+Southern+Scandinavia%E2%80%93a+Northern+Connection%21+%28PhD+thesis%29&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=University+of+Copenhagen&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Grane&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ejstrud-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ejstrud_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ejstrud_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEjstrud2008" class="citation cs2">Ejstrud, Bo; et al. (2008), Ejstrud, Bo; Maarleveld, Thijs J. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/14806111/The-Migration-Period-southern-Denmark-and-the-North-Sea"><i>The Migration Period, Southern Denmark and the North Sea</i></a>, Esbjerg: Maritime Archaeology Programme, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-992214-1-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-992214-1-7"><bdi>978-87-992214-1-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Migration+Period%2C+Southern+Denmark+and+the+North+Sea&rft.place=Esbjerg&rft.pub=Maritime+Archaeology+Programme&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-87-992214-1-7&rft.aulast=Ejstrud&rft.aufirst=Bo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F14806111%2FThe-Migration-Period-southern-Denmark-and-the-North-Sea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Issar_2003-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Issar_2003_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIssar2003" class="citation cs2">Issar, Arie S. (2003), <i>Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-06118-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-06118-9"><bdi>978-0-511-06118-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Changes+during+the+Holocene+and+their+Impact+on+Hydrological+Systems&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-511-06118-9&rft.aulast=Issar&rft.aufirst=Arie+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Louwe-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Louwe_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouwe_Kooijmans1974" class="citation cs2">Louwe Kooijmans, L. P. (1974), <i>The Rhine/Meuse Delta. Four studies on its prehistoric occupation and Holocene geology (PhD Dissertation)</i>, Leiden: Leiden University Press, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F2787">1887/2787</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhine%2FMeuse+Delta.+Four+studies+on+its+prehistoric+occupation+and+Holocene+geology+%28PhD+Dissertation%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Leiden+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F2787&rft.aulast=Louwe+Kooijmans&rft.aufirst=L.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazelmans2009" class="citation cs2">Bazelmans, Jos (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194912/http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183">"The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians"</a>, in Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183"><i>Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition</i></a>, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, pp. <span class="nowrap">321–</span>337, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-078-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-078-9"><bdi>978-90-8964-078-9</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321">the original</a> on 30 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+early-medieval+use+of+ethnic+names+from+classical+antiquity%3A+The+case+of+the+Frisians&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Constructs+in+Antiquity%3A+The+Role+of+Power+and+Tradition&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E337&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-8964-078-9&rft.aulast=Bazelmans&rft.aufirst=Jos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfM_cmuhmSbIC%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html">Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (Dutch)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html">Archived</a> 3 October 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Retrieved 6 October 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortlandt1999" class="citation web cs1">Kortlandt, Frederik (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1937/1/344_121.pdf">"The origin of the Old English dialects revisited"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leiden" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leiden">University of Leiden</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+origin+of+the+Old+English+dialects+revisited&rft.pub=University+of+Leiden&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Kortlandt&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenaccess.leidenuniv.nl%2Fbitstream%2F1887%2F1937%2F1%2F344_121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willemsen, A. (2009), <i>Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen,</i> Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5730-627-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5730-627-3">978-90-5730-627-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atlas-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atlas_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atlas_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKayDavid_Ditchburn1997" class="citation book cs1">MacKay, Angus; David Ditchburn (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q50IyzCMQxgC&q=dorestad&pg=PA57"><i>Atlas of Medieval Europe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01923-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01923-1"><bdi>978-0-415-01923-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-01923-1&rft.aulast=MacKay&rft.aufirst=Angus&rft.au=David+Ditchburn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq50IyzCMQxgC%26q%3Ddorestad%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MC&OE-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MC&OE_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MC&OE_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodgesDavid_Whitehouse1983" class="citation book cs1">Hodges, Richard; David Whitehouse (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mohammedcharlema00hodg_0"><i>Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe</i></a></span>. Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mohammedcharlema00hodg_0/page/99">99</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9262-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9262-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-9262-4</bdi></a>. <q>dorestad.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mohammed%2C+Charlemagne+and+the+Origins+of+Europe&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-9262-4&rft.aulast=Hodges&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=David+Whitehouse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmohammedcharlema00hodg_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Milis,_L.J.R._pp._6-18_30-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" in J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts <i>History of the Low Countries</i>, pp. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84545-272-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84545-272-8">978-1-84545-272-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Urban_T._Holmes_Jr." title="Urban T. Holmes Jr.">Holmes, U.T</a> and A. H. Schutz (1938), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjX4ebc2lsC&q=history+of+french+language">A History of the French Language</a></i>, p. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8196-0191-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8196-0191-8">0-8196-0191-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blok, D.P. (1974), <i>De Franken in Nederland</i>, Bussum: Unieboek, 1974, pp. 36–38 on the uncertain identity of the Frisians in early Frankish sources; pp. 54–55 on the problems concerning "Saxon" as a tribal name.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van Eijnatten, J. and F. van Lieburg, <i>Nederlandse religiegeschiedenis</i> (Hilversum, 2006), pp. 42–43, on the uncertain identity of the "Frisians" in early Frankish sources.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">de Nijs, T, E. Beukers and J. Bazelmans, <i>Geschiedenis van Holland</i> (Hilversum, 2003), pp. 31–33 on the fluctuating character of tribal and ethnic distinctions for the early Medieval period.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blok (1974), pp. 117 ff.; de Nijs et al. (2003), pp. 30–33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van der Wal, M., <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlands</i>, 1992 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2012)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106546/Charlemagne/256621/Court-and-administration">"Charlemagne: Court and administration"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 15 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Charlemagne%3A+Court+and+administration&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F106546%2FCharlemagne%2F256621%2FCourt-and-administration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span> ("Charlemagne relied on his palatium, a shifting assemblage of family members, trusted lay and ecclesiastical companions, and assorted hangers-on, which constituted an itinerant court following the king as he carried out his military campaigns and sought to take advantage of the income from widely scattered royal estates.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">More info about Viking raids can be found online at L. van der Tuuk, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.tiscali.nl/gjallar/index.html">Gjallar. Noormannen in de Lage Landen</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, Stephen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2002-09/1031544685">"Danish Haralds in 9th Century Frisia"</a>. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html">Vikingschat van Wieringen"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718064223/http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html">Archived</a> 18 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Museumkennis.nl. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jesch, Judith, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RkNY2KrdvscC&pg=PA82">Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse</a></i>, Boydell & Brewer, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-826-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-826-6">978-0-85115-826-6</a>. p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDijkstra2011" class="citation book cs1">Dijkstra, M.F.P. (2011). <i>Rondom de mondingen van Rijn & Maas: landschap en bewoning tussen de 3e en 9e eeuw in Zuid-Holland, in het bijzonder de Oude Rijnstreek</i>. Sidestone Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rondom+de+mondingen+van+Rijn+%26+Maas%3A+landschap+en+bewoning+tussen+de+3e+en+9e+eeuw+in+Zuid-Holland%2C+in+het+bijzonder+de+Oude+Rijnstreek&rft.pub=Sidestone+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Dijkstra&rft.aufirst=M.F.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaan2017" class="citation book cs1">Vaan, Michiel de (15 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eEVADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42"><i>The Dawn of Dutch: Language contact in the Western Low Countries before 1200</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. <span class="nowrap">42–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027264503" title="Special:BookSources/9789027264503"><bdi>9789027264503</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dawn+of+Dutch%3A+Language+contact+in+the+Western+Low+Countries+before+1200&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E42-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2017-12-15&rft.isbn=9789027264503&rft.aulast=Vaan&rft.aufirst=Michiel+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeEVADwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevelt2011" class="citation book cs1">Levelt, Sjoerd (2011). <i>Jan van Naaldwijk's Chronicles of Holland</i>. Verloren. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jan+van+Naaldwijk%27s+Chronicles+of+Holland&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Verloren&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Levelt&rft.aufirst=Sjoerd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel, Jonathan. <i>The Dutch Republic</i>, pp. 9-11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel, <i>The Dutch Republic</i>, p. 12-14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurth1908" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Godefroid_Kurth" title="Godefroid Kurth">Kurth, Godefroid</a> (1908). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Burgundy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Burgundy">"Burgundy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 3. <q>see para entitled: Effects of Philip's Rule:- The chief work of Philip the Good was to reunite under his authority most of the Netherland provinces</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Burgundy&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Kurth&rft.aufirst=Godefroid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_D._Tracy2002" class="citation book cs1">James D. Tracy (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tXKMvr09dB4C&pg=PA258"><i>Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics</i></a>. Cambridge U.P. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521814317" title="Special:BookSources/9780521814317"><bdi>9780521814317</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperor+Charles+V%2C+Impresario+of+War%3A+Campaign+Strategy%2C+International+Finance%2C+and+Domestic+Politics&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Cambridge+U.P.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521814317&rft.au=James+D.+Tracy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtXKMvr09dB4C%26pg%3DPA258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.G. Koenigsberger, "The Beginnings of the States General of the Netherlands", <i>Parliaments, Estates and Representation</i> (1988) 8#2 pp. 101–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Albert_Guerard_1959_pp._134_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Guerard, <i>France, A Modern History</i>, (1959), pp. 134–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_van_Gelderen2002" class="citation book cs1">Martin van Gelderen (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hXK2fxzn2lAC&pg=PA18"><i>The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt 1555–1590</i></a>. Cambridge U.P. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521891639" title="Special:BookSources/9780521891639"><bdi>9780521891639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Thought+of+the+Dutch+Revolt+1555%E2%80%931590&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cambridge+U.P.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521891639&rft.au=Martin+van+Gelderen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhXK2fxzn2lAC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kamen-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kamen_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2005" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spain14691714soc00kame"><i>Spain, 1469–1714: a society of conflict</i></a> (3rd ed.). Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-78464-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-78464-2"><bdi>978-0-582-78464-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain%2C+1469%E2%80%931714%3A+a+society+of+conflict&rft.place=Harlow%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-582-78464-2&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspain14691714soc00kame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Po-chia Hsia, ed. <i>A Companion to the Reformation World</i> (2006) pp. 118–134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995104-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995104_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hsia, ed. <i>A Companion to the Reformation World</i> (2006) pp. 3–36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995155-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995155_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995374–375-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995374–375_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>, pp. 374–375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael199586–91-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael199586–91_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>, pp. 86–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Blum" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome Blum">Jerome Blum</a>, et al., <i>The European World: A History</i> (1970) pp. 160–161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995361–395-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995361–395_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>, pp. 361–395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diarmaid MacCulloch, <i>The Reformation</i> (2005) pp. 367–372</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Claflin-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Claflin_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Claflin, W. Harold, ed. <i>History of Nations: Holland and Belgium</i>, (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1907), pp. 72–74, 103–105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Motley-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Motley_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Motley_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Lathrop Motley, <i>The Rise of the Dutch Republic</i> (Harper & Bros.: New York, 1855) pp. 106–115, 121, 122, 207, 213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoffrey Parker, ed. <i>The Thirty Years' War</i>, New York: Routledge Press, 1987, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Violet Soen, "Reconquista and Reconciliation in the Dutch Revolt: The Campaign of Governor-General Alexander Farnese (1578–1592)", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Early_Modern_History" title="Journal of Early Modern History">Journal of Early Modern History</a></i> (2012) 16#1 pp. 1–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bart de Groof, "Alexander Farnese and the Origins of Modern Belgium", <i>Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome</i> (1993) Vol. 63, pp. 195–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quirksmode.org/politics/kuyper.html">religion map</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles H. Parker, Charles H. <i>Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age</i> (Harvard University Press, 2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwart1969" class="citation book cs1">Swart, Koenraad Wolter (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dianamuirappelbaum.com/?p=583"><i>The miracle of the Dutch Republic as seen in the seventeenth century</i></a>. London: H.K.Lewis & Co Ltd. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319225519/http://www.dianamuirappelbaum.com/?p=583">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+miracle+of+the+Dutch+Republic+as+seen+in+the+seventeenth+century&rft.place=London&rft.pub=H.K.Lewis+%26+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Swart&rft.aufirst=Koenraad+Wolter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dianamuirappelbaum.com%2F%3Fp%3D583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrouw2019" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Trouw (21 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trouw.nl/opinie/het-debat-over-de-naam-gouden-eeuw-is-waardevol-en-nodig~b64e6ac2/">"Het debat over de naam Gouden Eeuw is waardevol en nodig"</a>. <i>Trouw</i> (in Dutch)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Trouw&rft.atitle=Het+debat+over+de+naam+Gouden+Eeuw+is+waardevol+en+nodig&rft.date=2019-09-21&rft.au=Trouw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trouw.nl%2Fopinie%2Fhet-debat-over-de-naam-gouden-eeuw-is-waardevol-en-nodig~b64e6ac2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historiek.net/amsterdam-museum-gebruikt-term-gouden-eeuw-niet-meer/125421/">"Amsterdam Museum gebruikt term 'Gouden Eeuw' niet meer"</a>. <i>Historiek</i> (in Dutch). 13 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(November 2012)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van Welie, Rik, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/view/3580/4340">"Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison"</a>, <i>NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids,</i> 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96, Table 2 & Table 3. 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(2008). <i>The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">102–</span>103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Globe+Encompassed%3A+The+Age+of+European+Discovery%2C+1500%E2%80%931700&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Ames%2C+Glenn+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tong-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tong_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJunie_T._Tong2016" class="citation book cs1">Junie T. 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CRC Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-13522-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-13522-7"><bdi>978-1-317-13522-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finance+and+Society+in+21st+Century+China%3A+Chinese+Culture+Versus+Western+Markets&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-13522-7&rft.au=Junie+T.+Tong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_UQGDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-esposito-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-esposito_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_L._Esposito2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Esposito" class="mw-redirect" title="John L. 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(October 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKENNARD2023" class="citation web cs1">KENNARD, MATT (18 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.declassifieduk.org/how-the-modern-corporation-was-invented-in-england/">"How the modern corporation was invented in England"</a>. <i>Declassified Media Ltd</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Penguin. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780670063208" title="Special:BookSources/9780670063208"><bdi>9780670063208</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pursuit+of+Glory%3A+Europe%2C+1648%E2%80%931815&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780670063208&rft.au=Tim+William+Blanning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrmkcaEfwcsQC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE.H._Kossmann1961" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kossmann" title="Ernst Kossmann">E.H. Kossmann</a> (1961). Carsten, F. L. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FzQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA275"><i>The Dutch Republic</i></a>. Vol. 5. The Ascendancy of France, <span class="nowrap">1648–</span>88. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">275–</span>276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521045445" title="Special:BookSources/9780521045445"><bdi>9780521045445</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Republic&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E275-%3C%2Fspan%3E276&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780521045445&rft.au=E.H.+Kossmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFzQ9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995277–279,_284-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995277–279,_284_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>, pp. 277–279, 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:022-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:022_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRietbergen2000" class="citation book cs1">Rietbergen, P. J. A. N. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131"><i>A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day</i></a> (4th ed.). Amersfoort: Bekking. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6109-440-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-6109-440-2"><bdi>90-6109-440-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131">52849131</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231126115046/https://search.worldcat.org/title/52849131">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Netherlands%3A+From+Prehistory+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Amersfoort&rft.pages=159&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Bekking&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52849131&rft.isbn=90-6109-440-2&rft.aulast=Rietbergen&rft.aufirst=P.+J.+A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F52849131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Cook & J. Stevenson, <i>The routledge companion to European history since 1763</i> (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005), p. 66; J. Dunn, <i>Democracy: A history</i> (NY: Atlantic Books, 2005), p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/R.R._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="R.R. Palmer">Palmer, R.R.</a> "Much in Little: The Dutch Revolution of 1795", <i>Journal of Modern History</i> (1954) 26#1 pp. 15–35 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874870">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978112–133-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978112–133_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKossmann1978">Kossmann (1978)</a>, pp. 112–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978115–116-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978115–116_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKossmann1978">Kossmann (1978)</a>, pp. 115–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchama1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama, Simon</a> (1972), "The Rights of Ignorance: Dutch Educational Policy in Belgium 1815–30", <i>History of Education</i>, <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">81–</span>89, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0046760720010106">10.1080/0046760720010106</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education&rft.atitle=The+Rights+of+Ignorance%3A+Dutch+Educational+Policy+in+Belgium+1815%E2%80%9330&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E89&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0046760720010106&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama197284–85-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama197284–85_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1972">Schama (1972)</a>, pp. 84–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Godefroid Kurth, "Belgium" in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02395a.htm"><i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i> (1907) online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimes" class="citation web cs1">Times, The Brussels. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brusselstimes.com/45009/how-economics-explains-belgium-s-rifts">"How economics explains Belgium's rifts"</a>. <i>www.brusselstimes.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.brusselstimes.com&rft.atitle=How+economics+explains+Belgium%27s+rifts&rft.aulast=Times&rft.aufirst=The+Brussels&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brusselstimes.com%2F45009%2Fhow-economics-explains-belgium-s-rifts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html">online maps 1830, 1839</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlom1999" class="citation book cs1">Blom, J. C. H. (1999). <i>History of the Low Countries</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">297–</span>312.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Low+Countries&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E297-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Blom&rft.aufirst=J.+C.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. Griffiths, <i>Industrial Retardation in The Netherlands, 1830–1850</i> (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). <i>A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107507180" title="Special:BookSources/9781107507180"><bdi>9781107507180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present.&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107507180&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. Griffiths, "The Creation of a National Dutch Economy: 1795–1909", <i>Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis,</i> 1982, Vol. 95 Issue 4, pp. 513–553 (in English)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joel Mokyr, "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study", <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (1974) 34#2 pp. 365–399 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116987">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoyen,_Reginald2003" class="citation book cs1">Loyen, Reginald; et al. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QG1R4StCc1gC"><i>Struggling for Leadership: Antwerp-Rotterdam Port. Competition 1870–2000</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783790815245" title="Special:BookSources/9783790815245"><bdi>9783790815245</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Struggling+for+Leadership%3A+Antwerp-Rotterdam+Port.+Competition+1870%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9783790815245&rft.au=Loyen%2C+Reginald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQG1R4StCc1gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978chapter_5-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978chapter_5_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKossmann1978">Kossmann (1978)</a>, chapter 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Corwin, "Holland" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.h.ix.html"><i>The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,</i> (1914) 5:319–22</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. <i>History of the Low Countries</i> (1999) pp. 387–403</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The oldest universities, in Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen, had a secular-liberal character. In 1880 Kuyper opened a Protestant university in Amsterdam and in 1923 a Catholic one opened in Nijmegen. The Amsterdam municipal university, which opened in 1877, leaned toward secular-socialism, but was formally neutral.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Dutch rhyme forbade intermarriage thus: <i>Twee geloven op één kussen, daar slaapt de Duivel tussen</i> [Two religions on one pillow, there the Devil sleeps in between.] On the decline of intermarriage see Erik Beekink, et al. "Changes in Choice of Spouse as an Indicator of a Society in a State of Transition: Woerden, 1830–1930." <i>Historical Social Research</i> 1998 23(1–2): 231–253. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0172-6404">0172-6404</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann197857-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann197857_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKossmann1978">Kossmann (1978)</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arend Lijphart, <i>The Politics of Accommodation. Pluralism, and Democracy in the Netherlands</i> (1975) is the standard analysis from a leading political scientist; Michael Wintle, "Pillarisation, Consociation, and Vertical Pluralism in the Netherlands Revisited: a European View." <i>West European Politics</i> 2000 23(3): 139–152, defends the concept; more critical is J. C. H. Blom, "Pillarisation in Perspective." <i>West European Politics</i> (2000) 23(3): 153–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johan Sturm, et al. "Educational Pluralism: A Historical Study of So-Called "Pillarization" in the Netherlands, Including a Comparison with Some Developments in South African Education", <i>Comparative Education</i>, (1998) 34#3 pp. 281–297 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/3099832">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Bionda and <a href="/wiki/Carel_Blotkamp" title="Carel Blotkamp">Carel Blotkamp</a>, eds. <i>The Age of Van Gogh: Dutch Painting 1880–1895</i> (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Beek, <i>Dutch Pioneers of Science</i> (1986)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2005" class="citation cs2">Adams, Julia (2005), <i>The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe</i>, Ithaca: Cornell University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Familial+State%3A+Ruling+Families+and+Merchant+Capitalism+in+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.pub=Ithaca%3A+Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlok" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Johannes_Blok" title="Petrus Johannes Blok">Blok, Petrus Johannes</a>, <i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+People+of+the+Netherlands&rft.aulast=Blok&rft.aufirst=Petrus+Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historypeoplene02blokgoog"><i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i></a>, vol. Part 1. From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Fifteen Century, translated by Oscar A. Bierstadt; Ruth Putnam, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/01029643">01029643</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+People+of+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F01029643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorypeoplene02blokgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_0coOAAAAIAAJ"><i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i></a>, vol. Part 2. From the Beginning of the Fifteenth Century to 1559, translated by Ruth Putnam, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/01029643">01029643</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+People+of+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F01029643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_0coOAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historypeoplene02blokgoog"><i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i></a>, vol. Part 3. The War With Spain, translated by Ruth Putnam, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1900, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/01029643">01029643</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+People+of+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F01029643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorypeoplene02blokgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historypeoplene02blokgoog"><i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i></a>, vol. Part 4. Frederick Henry, John De Witt, William III., translated by Oscar A. Bierstadt, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1907, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/01029643">01029643</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+People+of+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1907&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F01029643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorypeoplene02blokgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historypeoplene02blokgoog"><i>History of the People of the Netherlands</i></a>, vol. Part 5. Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, translated by Oscar A. Bierstadt; Ruth Putnam, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1912, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/01029643">01029643</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+People+of+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F01029643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorypeoplene02blokgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlomLamberts2006" class="citation cs2">Blom, J. C. H.; Lamberts, E., eds. (2006) [1982], <i>History of the Low Countries</i>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84545-272-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84545-272-8"><bdi>978-1-84545-272-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Low+Countries&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84545-272-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBesamuscaVerheul2010" class="citation cs2">Besamusca, Emmeline; Verheul, Jaap, eds. (2010), <i>Discovering the Dutch: on Culture and Society of the Netherlands</i>, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789089647924" title="Special:BookSources/9789089647924"><bdi>9789089647924</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+the+Dutch%3A+on+Culture+and+Society+of+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=Amsterdam%3A+Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789089647924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pieter Geyl, <i>The Revolt of the Netherlands: 1555–1609</i> (1958) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/98720656?title=The%20Revolt%20of%20the%20Netherlands%20(1555-1609)">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110729091303/http://www.questia.com/read/98720656?title=The%20Revolt%20of%20the%20Netherlands%20(1555-1609)">Archived</a> 29 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Burke, "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses.'" <i>History Today</i> 1986 36(Nov): 23–28. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0018-2753">0018-2753</a> Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/EBSCO_Information_Services" title="EBSCO Information Services">EBSCO</a>; William U. Bouwsma, "The <i>Waning of the Middle Ages</i> by Johan Huizinga." <i>Daedalus</i> 1974 103(1): 35–43. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0011-5266">0011-5266</a>; R. L. Colie, "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History." <i>American Historical Review</i> 1964 69(3): 607–630 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1845780">in JSTOR</a>; Robert Anchor, "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics", <i>History and Theory</i>, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Feb. 1978), pp. 63–93 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2504901">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1995_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsrael1995">Israel (1995)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan I. Israel, <i>Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights, 1750–1790</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Democratic-Enlightenment-Philosophy-Revolution-1750-1790/dp/019954820X/">excerpt and text search</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. C. H. Blom, "Ludovico Locuto, Porta Aperta: Enige Notities over Deel XII En XIII Van L. De Jongs Koninkrijk Der Nederlanden in De Tweede Wereldoorlog." [After Louis Spoke, Everything Was Clear: Some Notes on Volumes 12 and 13 of Louis De Jong's Kingdom of the Netherlands in World War II]. <i>Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden</i> 1990 105(2): 244–264. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0165-0505">0165-0505</a>. A review of a great masterpiece. (in Dutch)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Lothrop Motley, <i>The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 1555–84</i> (2 vol. 1856) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4836/4836.txt">Gutenberg editions online</a> and <i>History of the United Netherlands, 1584–1609</i> (4 vol., 1860–1867) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4885/4885.txt">Gutenberg editions online</a> For a criticism of Motler see Robert Wheaton, "Motley and the Dutch Historians." <i>New England Quarterly</i> 1962 35(3): 318–336. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/363823">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. C. Otto, "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein" [Theory and Practice in the "Theoretical History" of Jan Romein]. <i>Theoretische Geschiedenis</i> 1994 21(3): 257–270. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0167-8310">0167-8310</a> (in Dutch).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Arthur van Riel, "Review: Rethinking the Economic History of the Dutch Republic: The Rise and Decline of Economic Modernity Before the Advent of Industrialized Growth", <i>The Journal of Economic History,</i> Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar. 1996), pp. 223–229 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2124027">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheaton1962" class="citation cs2">Wheaton, Robert (1962), "Motley and the Dutch Historians", <i>New England Quarterly</i>, <b>35</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">318–</span>336, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F363823">10.2307/363823</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/363823">363823</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Motley+and+the+Dutch+Historians&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E318-%3C%2Fspan%3E336&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F363823&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F363823%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheaton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1986" class="citation cs2">Burke, Peter (November 1986), "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses", <i>History Today</i> (36): <span class="nowrap">23–</span>28</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Historians+and+Their+Times%3A+Huizinga%2C+Prophet+of+%27Blood+and+Roses&rft.issue=36&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=1986-11&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span>;<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouwsma1974" class="citation cs2">Bouwsma, William U. (1974), "The <i>Waning of the Middle Ages</i> by Johan Huizinga", <i>Daedalus</i>, <b>103</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>43</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daedalus&rft.atitle=The+Waning+of+the+Middle+Ages+by+Johan+Huizinga&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Bouwsma&rft.aufirst=William+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span>;<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColie1964" class="citation cs2">Colie, R. L. (1964), "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History", <i>American Historical Review</i>, <b>69</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">607–</span>630, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1845780">10.2307/1845780</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845780">1845780</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Johan+Huizinga+and+the+Task+of+Cultural+History&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E607-%3C%2Fspan%3E630&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1845780&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1845780%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Colie&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span>;<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnchor1978" class="citation cs2">Anchor, Robert (1978), "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics", <i>History and Theory</i>, <b>17</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">63–</span>93, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2504901">10.2307/2504901</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504901">2504901</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=History+and+Play%3A+Johan+Huizinga+and+His+Critics&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2504901&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2504901%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Anchor&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorenz2005" class="citation cs2">Lorenz, Chris (2005), "Het 'Academisch Poldermodel' En De Westforschung in Nederland", [The Dutch Academic Polder Model and Westforschung in the Netherlands]", <i>Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis</i>, <b>118</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">252–</span>270, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-7518">0040-7518</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tijdschrift+voor+Geschiedenis&rft.atitle=Het+%27Academisch+Poldermodel%27+En+De+Westforschung+in+Nederland%22%2C+%5BThe+Dutch+Academic+Polder+Model+and+Westforschung+in+the+Netherlands%5D&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E252-%3C%2Fspan%3E270&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=0040-7518&rft.aulast=Lorenz&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/~lowc">h-net.org home page, with discussion logs</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbicher2012" class="citation cs2">Albicher, Alexander (2012), "A forced but passionate marriage: The changing relationship between past and present in Dutch history education 1945–1979", <i>Paedagogica Historica</i>, <b>48</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">840–</span>858, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00309230.2012.709526">10.1080/00309230.2012.709526</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145489228">145489228</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paedagogica+Historica&rft.atitle=A+forced+but+passionate+marriage%3A+The+changing+relationship+between+past+and+present+in+Dutch+history+education+1945%E2%80%931979&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E840-%3C%2Fspan%3E858&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00309230.2012.709526&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145489228%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Albicher&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroomhallSpinks2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Broomhall" title="Susan Broomhall">Broomhall, Susan</a>; Spinks, Jennifer (2010), "A Interpreting place and past in narratives of Dutch heritage tourism", <i>Rethinking History</i>, <b>14</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">267–</span>285, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13642521003710854">10.1080/13642521003710854</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145474831">145474831</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rethinking+History&rft.atitle=A+Interpreting+place+and+past+in+narratives+of+Dutch+heritage+tourism&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E285&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13642521003710854&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145474831%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Broomhall&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Spinks%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruz2007" class="citation cs2">Cruz, Laura (2007), "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective", <i>History Compass</i>, <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">914–</span>934, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2007.00400.x">10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00400.x</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=The+80+Years%27+Question%3A+the+Dutch+Revolt+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E914-%3C%2Fspan%3E934&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2007.00400.x&rft.aulast=Cruz&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Three volumes appeared in English translation, <i>The Revolit of the Netherlands (1555–1609)</i> (1932); and <i>The Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century</i> (2 vol 1936, 1964).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowen1965" class="citation cs2">Rowen, Herbert H. (1965), "The Historical Work of Pieter Geyl", <i>Journal of Modern History</i>, <b>37</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>49, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F239563">10.1086/239563</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2801">0022-2801</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874563">1874563</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143576090">143576090</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Work+of+Pieter+Geyl&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=1965&rft.issn=0022-2801&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143576090%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1874563%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F239563&rft.aulast=Rowen&rft.aufirst=Herbert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtto1994" class="citation cs2">Otto, A. C. (1994), "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein [Theory and Practice in the "Theoretical History" of Jan Romein]", <i>Theoretische Geschiedenis</i>, <b>21</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">257–</span>270, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0167-8310">0167-8310</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoretische+Geschiedenis&rft.atitle=Theorie+En+Praktijk+in+De+Theoretische+Geschiedenis+Van+Jan+Romein+%5BTheory+and+Practice+in+the+%22Theoretical+History%22+of+Jan+Romein%5D&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E257-%3C%2Fspan%3E270&rft.date=1994&rft.issn=0167-8310&rft.aulast=Otto&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaas1971" class="citation cs2">Blaas, P. (1971), "An Attempt at Integral History", <i>Acta Historiae Neerlandica</i>, <b>5</b>: <span class="nowrap">271–</span>315, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0065-129X">0065-129X</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Historiae+Neerlandica&rft.atitle=An+Attempt+at+Integral+History&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E315&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=0065-129X&rft.aulast=Blaas&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a> (1995). <i>The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820734-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820734-4"><bdi>978-0-19-820734-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Republic%3A+Its+Rise%2C+Greatness%2C+and+Fall%2C+1477%E2%80%931806&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820734-4&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kennedy, James C. <i>A Concise History of The Netherlands</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521699174" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521699174">978-0521699174</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kossmann" title="Ernst Kossmann">Kossmann, E. H.</a> (1978), <i>The Low Countries 1780–1940</i>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198221081" title="Special:BookSources/9780198221081"><bdi>9780198221081</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Low+Countries+1780%E2%80%931940&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780198221081&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=E.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Netherlands" class="Z3988"></span>, Detailed survey</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Netherlands_topics" title="Template talk:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Netherlands_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Netherlands_articles505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Utrecht" title="Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht">Utrecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_centers_in_the_Low_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="History of urban centers in the Low Countries">Development urban centers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Lower Lorraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frisian Freedom">Frisian Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Guelders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Netherlands)" title="Incorporation (Netherlands)">Incorporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">Nazi invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day_(Netherlands)" title="Liberation Day (Netherlands)">Dutch Liberation Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">Proclamation of Indonesian Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_for_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands">Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_Netherlands" title="Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands">Same-sex marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Netherlands" title="Geography of the Netherlands">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of birds of the Netherlands">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Netherlands_by_province" title="List of cities in the Netherlands by province">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_Works" title="Delta Works">Delta Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of earthquakes in the Netherlands">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of extreme points of the Netherlands">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groningen_gas_field" title="Groningen gas field">Gas field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of islands of the Netherlands">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of lakes of the Netherlands">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of mammals of the Netherlands">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of mountains and hills in the Netherlands">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of regions of the Netherlands">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of rivers of the Netherlands">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine%E2%80%93Meuse%E2%80%93Scheldt_delta" title="Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta">Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of volcanoes in the Netherlands">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Netherlands">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuiderzee_Works" title="Zuiderzee Works">Zuiderzee Works</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Politics of the Netherlands">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Abortion in the Netherlands">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Netherlands" title="Cabinet of the Netherlands">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Netherlands" title="Climate change in the Netherlands">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Netherlands" title="Constitution of the Netherlands">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Netherlands" title="Corruption in the Netherlands">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Demographics of the Netherlands">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Drug policy of the Netherlands">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Netherlands" title="Elections in the Netherlands">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_the_Netherlands" title="Euthanasia in the Netherlands">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_Netherlands" title="Healthcare in the Netherlands">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_Netherlands" title="Homelessness in the Netherlands">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Netherlands" title="Foreign relations of the Netherlands">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Netherlands" title="Human rights in the Netherlands">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Netherlands">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration to the Netherlands">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law of the Netherlands">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Law enforcement in the Netherlands">Enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_firms_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law firms of the Netherlands">Law Firms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_the_Netherlands" title="Municipalities of the Netherlands">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Netherlands" title="Provinces of the Netherlands">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands" title="States General of the Netherlands">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of political parties in the Netherlands">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prime Minister of the Netherlands">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces of the Netherlands">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_board_(Netherlands)" title="Water board (Netherlands)">Water boards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Economy of the Netherlands">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AEX_index" title="AEX index">AEX index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Nederlandsche_Bank" title="De Nederlandsche Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Netherlands" title="Energy in the Netherlands">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext" title="Euronext">Euronext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Polder model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Netherlands" title="Taxation in the Netherlands">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Tourism in the Netherlands">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_Netherlands" title="Trade unions in the Netherlands">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Transport in the Netherlands">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Cycling in the Netherlands">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Public transport in the Netherlands">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Rail transport in the Netherlands">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Road transport in the Netherlands">Road transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Culture of the Netherlands">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Architecture of the Netherlands">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_art" title="Dutch art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_Netherlands" title="Cannabis in the Netherlands">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Netherlands" title="Cinema of the Netherlands">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_cuisine" title="Dutch cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_wine" title="Dutch wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_customs_and_etiquette" title="Dutch customs and etiquette">Customs and etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorations_and_medals_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Decorations and medals of the Netherlands">Decorations and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Irreligion in the Netherlands">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Netherlands" title="Languages of the Netherlands">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the Netherlands">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Netherlands" title="Music of the Netherlands">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_of_knighthood_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders of knighthood in the Netherlands">Orders of knighthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_in_the_Netherlands" title="Pornography in the Netherlands">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Netherlands" title="Prostitution in the Netherlands">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Netherlands" title="Public holidays in the Netherlands">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Sport in the Netherlands">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of the Netherlands">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelmus" title="Wilhelmus">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands" title="Coat of arms of the Netherlands">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Netherlands" title="Flag of the Netherlands">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic_Lion" title="Dutch Republic Lion">Lion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Low_Countries" title="Terminology of the Low Countries">Terminology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Netherlands" title="Outline of the Netherlands">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Netherlands" title="Category:Netherlands">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Netherlands" title="Portal:Netherlands">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Years_in_the_Netherlands_(1815–present)203" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Years_in_the_Netherlands" title="Template:Years in the Netherlands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Years_in_the_Netherlands" title="Template talk:Years in the Netherlands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Years_in_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Years in the Netherlands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Years_in_the_Netherlands_(1815–present)203" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of years in the Netherlands">Years in the Netherlands</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">1815</a>–present)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_of_the_19th_century_in_the_Netherlands" title="Category:Years of the 19th century in the Netherlands">Pre-1815</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1815_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1815 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1815</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1816_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1816 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1816</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1817_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1817 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1817</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1818_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1818 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1818</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1819_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1819 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1819</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1820_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1820 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1821_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1821 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1821</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1822_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1822 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1822</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1823_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1823 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1823</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1824_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1824 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1824</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1825_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1825 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1825</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1826_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1826 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1826</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1827_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1827 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1827</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1828_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1828 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1828</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1829_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1829 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1829</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1830_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1830 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1830</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1831_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1831 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1831</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1832_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1832 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1832</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1833_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1833 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1833</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1834_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1834 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1834</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1835_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1835 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1835</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1836_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1836 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1836</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1837_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1837 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1837</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1838_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1838 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1838</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1839_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1839 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1839</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1840_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1840 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1840</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1841_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1841 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1841</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1842_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1842 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1842</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1843_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1843 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1843</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1844_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1844 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1845_in_the_Netherlands" title="1845 in the Netherlands">1845</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1846_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1846 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1846</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1847_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1847 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1847</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1848_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1848 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1848</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1849_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1849 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1849</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1850_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1850 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1850</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1851_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1851 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1851</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1852_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1852 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1852</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1853_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1853 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1853</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1854_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1854 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1854</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1855_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1855 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1855</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1856_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1856 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1856</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1857_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1857 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1857</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1858_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1858 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1858</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1859_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1859 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1859</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1860_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1860 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1860</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1861_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1861 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1861</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1862_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1862 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1862</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1863_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1863 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1863</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1864_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1864 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1865_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1865 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1865</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1866_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1866 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1866</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1867_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1867 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1867</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1868_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1868 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1868</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1869_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1869 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1869</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1870_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1870 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1870</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1871_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1871 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1871</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1872_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1872 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1872</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1873_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1873 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1873</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1874_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1874 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1874</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1875_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1875 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1875</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1876_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1876 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1876</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1877_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1877 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1877</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1878_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1878 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1878</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1879_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1879 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1879</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1880_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1880 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1880</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1881_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1881 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1881</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1882_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1882 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1882</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1883_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1883 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1883</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1884_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1884 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1884</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1885_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1885 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1885</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1886_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1886 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1886</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1887_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1887 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1887</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1888_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1888 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1888</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1889_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1889 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1889</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1890_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1890 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1890</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1891 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1891</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1892_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1892 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1892</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1893_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1893 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1893</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1894_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1894 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1894</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1895_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1895 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1895</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1896_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1896 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1896</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1897_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1897 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1897</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1898_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1898 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1898</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1899_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1899 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1899</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1900_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1900 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1900</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1901_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1901 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1901</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1902_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1902 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1902</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1903_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1903 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1903</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1904_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1904 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1905_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1905 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1905</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1906_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1906 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1906</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1907_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1907 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1907</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1908_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1908 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1909_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1909 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1910_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1910 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1910</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1911_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1911 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1911</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1912_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1912 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1913_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1913 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_in_the_Netherlands" title="1914 in the Netherlands">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1915_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1915 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1916_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1916 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1917_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1917 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1918_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1918 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1919_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1919 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1919</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1920_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1920 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1921_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1921 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1921</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1922_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1922 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1922</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1923_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1923 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1923</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1924_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1924 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1925_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1925 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1925</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1926_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1926 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1926</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1927_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1927 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1927</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1928_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1928 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1928</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1929_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1929 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1929</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1930_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1930 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1930</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1931_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1931 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1931</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1932_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1932 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1933_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1933 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1934_in_the_Netherlands" title="1934 in the Netherlands">1934</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1935_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1935 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1935</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1936_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1936 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1937_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1937 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1937</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1938_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1938 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1938</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1939_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1939 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1939</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1940_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1940 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1941_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1941 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1941</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1942_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1942 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1942</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1943_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1943 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_in_the_Netherlands" title="1944 in the Netherlands">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1945_in_the_Netherlands" title="1945 in the Netherlands">1945</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1946_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1946 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1947_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1947 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1947</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1948_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1948 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1949_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1949 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_in_the_Netherlands" title="1950 in the Netherlands">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1951_in_the_Netherlands" title="1951 in the Netherlands">1951</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1952_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1952 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1953_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1953 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1953</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1954_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1954 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1955_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1955 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1955</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1956_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1956 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1957_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1957 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1957</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1958_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1958 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1959_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1959 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1960_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1960 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1961_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1961 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1961</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1962_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1962 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1963_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1963 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1963</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1964_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1964 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1965_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1965 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1966_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1966 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1967_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1967 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1968_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1968 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1969_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1969 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1969</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1970_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1970 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1970</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1971_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1971 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_in_the_Netherlands" title="1972 in the Netherlands">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_in_the_Netherlands" title="1973 in the Netherlands">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_in_the_Netherlands" title="1974 in the Netherlands">1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_in_the_Netherlands" title="1975 in the Netherlands">1975</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1976_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1976 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1977_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1977 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1977</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1978 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1978</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1979_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1979 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_the_Netherlands" title="1980 in the Netherlands">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_the_Netherlands" title="1981 in the Netherlands">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_the_Netherlands" title="1982 in the Netherlands">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1983_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1983 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_in_the_Netherlands" title="1984 in the Netherlands">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1985_in_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1985 in the Netherlands (page does not exist)">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_the_Netherlands" title="1986 in the Netherlands">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_in_the_Netherlands" title="1987 in the Netherlands">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_the_Netherlands" title="1988 in the Netherlands">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_the_Netherlands" title="1989 in the Netherlands">1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_in_the_Netherlands" title="1990 in the Netherlands">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_in_the_Netherlands" title="1991 in the Netherlands">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_in_the_Netherlands" title="1992 in the Netherlands">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_in_the_Netherlands" title="1993 in the Netherlands">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_in_the_Netherlands" title="1994 in the Netherlands">1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1995_in_the_Netherlands" title="1995 in the Netherlands">1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_in_the_Netherlands" title="1996 in the Netherlands">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_in_the_Netherlands" title="1997 in the Netherlands">1997</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_in_the_Netherlands" title="1998 in the Netherlands">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_in_the_Netherlands" title="1999 in the Netherlands">1999</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_in_the_Netherlands" title="2000 in the Netherlands">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_in_the_Netherlands" title="2001 in the Netherlands">2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_in_the_Netherlands" title="2002 in the Netherlands">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_in_the_Netherlands" title="2003 in the Netherlands">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_in_the_Netherlands" title="2004 in the Netherlands">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_the_Netherlands" title="2005 in the Netherlands">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_the_Netherlands" title="2006 in the Netherlands">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_the_Netherlands" title="2007 in the Netherlands">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_in_the_Netherlands" title="2008 in the Netherlands">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_in_the_Netherlands" title="2009 in the Netherlands">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_in_the_Netherlands" title="2010 in the Netherlands">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_in_the_Netherlands" title="2011 in the Netherlands">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_in_the_Netherlands" title="2012 in the Netherlands">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_in_the_Netherlands" title="2013 in the Netherlands">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_in_the_Netherlands" title="2014 in the Netherlands">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_in_the_Netherlands" title="2015 in the Netherlands">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_the_Netherlands" title="2016 in the Netherlands">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_in_the_Netherlands" title="2017 in the Netherlands">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_in_the_Netherlands" title="2018 in the Netherlands">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_the_Netherlands" title="2019 in the Netherlands">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_the_Netherlands" title="2020 in the Netherlands">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_the_Netherlands" title="2021 in the Netherlands">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_the_Netherlands" title="2022 in the Netherlands">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_the_Netherlands" title="2023 in the Netherlands">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_the_Netherlands" title="2024 in the Netherlands">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_in_the_Netherlands" title="2025 in the Netherlands">2025</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_current_European_countries159" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Template:European history by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_history_by_country" title="Template talk:European history by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European history by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_current_European_countries159" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of current European countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a 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navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" 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