CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Universal jurisdiction - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ffd4da7d-7536-446b-84c4-35afbfb7e981","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Universal_jurisdiction","wgTitle":"Universal jurisdiction","wgCurRevisionId":1254176603,"wgRevisionId":1254176603,"wgArticleId":48640,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from July 2024","Articles with permanently dead external links","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Articles with dead external links from June 2024","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from April 2023","All articles with unsourced statements", "Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007","Articles containing German-language text","Articles containing Latin-language text","Universal jurisdiction","Human rights instruments","Human rights","International criminal law","Legal doctrines and principles","Globalization","Extraterritorial jurisdiction"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Universal_jurisdiction","wgRelevantArticleId":48640,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true}, "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q928801","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready", "ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Universal jurisdiction - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Universal_jurisdiction rootpage-Universal_jurisdiction skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Universal+jurisdiction" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Universal+jurisdiction" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Universal+jurisdiction" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Universal+jurisdiction" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_universal_jurisdiction_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_universal_jurisdiction_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory of universal jurisdiction application</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_universal_jurisdiction_application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universal_distinct_from_extraterritorial_jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universal_distinct_from_extraterritorial_jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Universal distinct from extraterritorial jurisdiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universal_distinct_from_extraterritorial_jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_tribunals_invoking_universal_jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_tribunals_invoking_universal_jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>International tribunals invoking universal jurisdiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_tribunals_invoking_universal_jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particular_states_invoking_universal_jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particular_states_invoking_universal_jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Particular states invoking universal jurisdiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particular_states_invoking_universal_jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunity_for_state_officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunity_for_state_officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Immunity for state officials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunity_for_state_officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universal_jurisdiction_enforcement_around_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universal_jurisdiction_enforcement_around_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Universal jurisdiction enforcement around the world</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Universal_jurisdiction_enforcement_around_the_world-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Universal jurisdiction enforcement around the world subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Universal_jurisdiction_enforcement_around_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Belgium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9</span> <span>Malaysia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.10</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Senegal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Senegal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.11</span> <span>Senegal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Senegal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.12</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.13</span> <span>Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.14</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.15</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.16</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.17</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_event" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_event"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>By event</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_event-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By event subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_event-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Critiques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critiques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accessibility_of_witnesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accessibility_of_witnesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Accessibility of witnesses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accessibility_of_witnesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Universal jurisdiction</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A" title="القضاء العالمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="القضاء العالمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_yurisdiksiya" title="Universal yurisdiksiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Universal yurisdiksiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdicci%C3%B3_universal" title="Jurisdicció universal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jurisdicció universal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universel_jurisdiktion" title="Universel jurisdiktion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Universel jurisdiktion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltrechtsprinzip" title="Weltrechtsprinzip – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Weltrechtsprinzip" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principio_de_justicia_universal" title="Principio de justicia universal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Principio de justicia universal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="صلاحیت قضایی جهانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صلاحیت قضایی جهانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comp%C3%A9tence_universelle" title="Compétence universelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Compétence universelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%B4%ED%8E%B8%EA%B4%80%ED%95%A0%EA%B6%8C" title="보편관할권 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="보편관할권" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Միջազգային իրավարարություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջազգային իրավարարություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op%C4%87a_nadle%C5%BEnost" title="Opća nadležnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Opća nadležnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurisdiksi_universal" title="Yurisdiksi universal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Yurisdiksi universal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giurisdizione_universale" title="Giurisdizione universale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Giurisdizione universale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="סמכות שיפוט אוניברסלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סמכות שיפוט אוניברסלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universell_jurisdiksjon" title="Universell jurisdiksjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Universell jurisdiksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%93%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_(%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A)" title="نړیوال صلاحیت (واکمني) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نړیوال صلاحیت (واکمني)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zasada_represji_wszech%C5%9Bwiatowej" title="Zasada represji wszechświatowej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zasada represji wszechświatowej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_universal" title="Jurisdição universal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Jurisdição universal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Универсальная юрисдикция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Универсальная юрисдикция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%98%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Универзална јурисдикција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Универзална јурисдикција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerzalna_jurisdikcija" title="Univerzalna jurisdikcija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Univerzalna jurisdikcija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universell_jurisdiktion" title="Universell jurisdiktion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Universell jurisdiktion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Універсальна юрисдикція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Універсальна юрисдикція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E7%AE%A1%E8%BE%96%E6%9D%83" title="普遍管辖权 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="普遍管辖权" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q928801#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Universal_jurisdiction" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Universal_jurisdiction" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Universal_jurisdiction" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&oldid=1254176603" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Universal_jurisdiction&id=1254176603&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FUniversal_jurisdiction"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FUniversal_jurisdiction"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Universal_jurisdiction&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q928801" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Legal principle</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Universal jurisdiction</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Legal_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal principle">legal principle</a> that allows <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">states</a> or <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a> to prosecute individuals for serious crimes, such as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, regardless of where the crime was committed and irrespective of the accused's nationality or <a href="/wiki/Residency_(domicile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Residency (domicile)">residence</a>. Rooted in the belief that certain offenses are so heinous that they threaten the international community as a whole, universal jurisdiction holds that such acts are beyond the scope of any single nation's laws. Instead, these crimes are considered to violate norms owed to the global community (<a href="/wiki/Erga_omnes" title="Erga omnes"><i>erga omnes</i></a>) and fundamental principles of international law (<i><a href="/wiki/Jus_cogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus cogens">jus cogens</a></i>), making them prosecutable in any court that invokes this principle. </p><p>While universal jurisdiction has been championed by organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> for ensuring that perpetrators of grave crimes find no refuge, it remains controversial. Critics, like former U.S. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a>, argue that it undermines <a href="/wiki/National_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="National sovereignty">national sovereignty</a> and risks turning judicial proceedings into politically motivated trials. The principle gained prominence following the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg trials</a> after World War II, which prosecuted Nazi officials for crimes against humanity, even when such acts were legal under German law at the time. Since then, it has been invoked in various international tribunals and national courts to address impunity for crimes committed in conflict zones or under repressive regimes. </p><p>Notably, universal jurisdiction has been applied in cases like <a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Israel’s prosecution of Adolf Eichmann</a> in 1961, the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">trials of Rwandan genocide perpetrators</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indictment_and_arrest_of_Augusto_Pinochet" title="Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet">prosecution of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet</a>. The establishment of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> (ICC) further strengthened this concept, though its use remains contentious, often constrained by political considerations and the practical challenges of enforcing extraterritorial justice. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg/220px-381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg/330px-381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg/440px-381px-Grotius_de_jure_1631.jpg 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>Title page from the second edition (Amsterdam 1631) of <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure_belli_ac_pacis" title="De jure belli ac pacis">De jure belli ac pacis</a></i>. First published in 1625, Grotius advances a system of principles of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, which are held to be binding on all people and nations regardless of local custom.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/220px-The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/330px-The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/440px-The_defendants_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Defendants at the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> listening to translated evidence through headphones</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutes of Justinian">Institutes of Justinian</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> echoing the <i>Commentaries</i> of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> says that "All nations ... are governed partly by their own particular laws, and partly by those laws which are common to all, [those that] natural Reason appoints for all mankind."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expanding on the classical understanding of universal law accessible by reason, in the seventeenth century, the Dutch jurist <a href="/wiki/Grotius" class="mw-redirect" title="Grotius">Grotius</a> laid the foundations for universal jurisdiction in modern international law, promulgating in his <i>De Jure Praedae</i> (<i>Of the Law of Captures</i>) and later <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure_belli_ac_pacis" title="De jure belli ac pacis">Dē jūre bellī ac pācis</a></i> (<i>Of the Law of War and Peace</i>) the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> view that there are universal principles of right and wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a>, at about the same time, international law came to recognize the analogous concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Hostes_humani_generis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hostes humani generis">hostēs hūmānī generis</a></i> ("enemies of the human race") applying to pirates or hijackers whose crimes took place outside of nation-state territories, while universal jurisdiction subjecting senior officials or heads of states as criminal subjects was new.<sup id="cite_ref-HK-2001_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HK-2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From these premises, representing the Enlightenment belief in trans-territorial, trans-cultural standards of right and wrong, derives universal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the most notable and influential precedent for universal jurisdiction were the mid-20th century <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a>. U.S. Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> then chief prosecutor, famously stated that an <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="International Military Tribunal">International Military Tribunal</a> enforcing universal principles of right and wrong could prosecute acts without a particular geographic location, Nazi "crimes against the peace of the world"—even if the acts were perfectly legal at the time in Fascist Germany. Indeed, one charge was Nazi law itself became a crime, law distorted into a bludgeon of oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nuremberg trials supposed universal standards by which one nation's laws, and acts of its officials, can be judged; an international rule of law unbound by national borders.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, even at the time, the Nuremberg trials were criticized as <a href="/wiki/Victor%27s_justice" title="Victor's justice">victor's justice</a>, revenge papered over with legal <a href="/wiki/Simulacrum" title="Simulacrum">simulacra</a>. US Supreme Court Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</a> remarked that his colleague Justice Jackson acting as Nuremberg Chief prosecutor was "conducting his high-grade lynching party in Nuremberg. I don't mind what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law. This is a little too sanctimonious a fraud to meet my old-fashioned ideas."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Roth" title="Kenneth Roth">Kenneth Roth</a>, the executive director of <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, argues that universal jurisdiction allowed Israel to try <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a> in Jerusalem in 1961. Roth also argues that clauses in treaties such as the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention">Geneva Conventions</a> of 1949 and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">United Nations Convention Against Torture</a> of 1984, which requires signatory states to pass <a href="/wiki/Municipal_law" title="Municipal law">municipal laws</a> that are based on the concept of universal jurisdiction, indicate widespread international acceptance of the concept.<sup id="cite_ref-KR-2001_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KR-2001-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_of_universal_jurisdiction_application">Theory of universal jurisdiction application</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theory of universal jurisdiction application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amongst the vast spread of literature surrounding the theory, application, and history of Universal Jurisdiction, there are two approaches: the "global enforcer" and the "no safe haven". "Global enforcer" refers to the usage of Universal Jurisdiction as an active way of preventing and punishing international crimes committed anywhere while "no safe haven" takes on a more passive tone, referring to the usage of this principle to ensure that the specific country is not a territorial refuge for any suspects of international crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universal_distinct_from_extraterritorial_jurisdiction">Universal distinct from extraterritorial jurisdiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Universal distinct from extraterritorial jurisdiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Universal jurisdiction differs from a state's prosecuting crimes under its own laws, whether on its own territory (<a href="/wiki/Territorial_jurisdiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial jurisdiction">territorial jurisdiction</a>) or abroad (<a href="/wiki/Extraterritorial_jurisdiction" title="Extraterritorial jurisdiction">extraterritorial jurisdiction</a>). As an example, the United States asserts jurisdiction over stateless vessels carrying illicit drugs on international waters—but here the US reaches across national borders to enforce its own law, rather than invoking universal jurisdiction and trans-national standards of right and wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>States attempting to police acts committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory tends to be more controversial than a state prosecuting its own citizens wherever they may be found. Bases on which a state might exercise jurisdiction in this way include the following: </p> <ul><li>A state can exercise jurisdiction over acts that affect the fundamental interests of the state, such as <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">spying</a>, even if the act was committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory. For example, the Indian <a href="/wiki/Information_Technology_Act_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Technology Act 2000">Information Technology Act 2000</a> largely supports the extraterritoriality of the said Act. The law states that a contravention of the Act that affects any computer or computer network situated in India will be punishable by India irrespective of the culprit's location and nationality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>A state may try its own nationals for crimes committed abroad. France and some other nations will refuse to <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradite</a> their own citizens as a matter of law, but will instead try them on their own territory for crimes committed abroad.</li> <li>More controversial is the exercise of jurisdiction where the victim of the crime is a national of the state exercising jurisdiction. In the past some states have claimed this jurisdiction (e.g., Mexico, <i>Cutting Case</i> (1887)), while others have been strongly opposed to it (e.g., the United States, except in cases in which an American citizen is a victim: <i>US v Yunis</i> (1988)). In more recent years, however, a broad global consensus has emerged in permitting its use in the case of torture, "forced disappearances" or terrorist offences (due in part to it being permitted by the various United Nations conventions on terrorism); but its application in other areas is still highly controversial. For example, former dictator of Chile <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Augusto Pinochet</a> was arrested in London in 1998, on Spanish judge <a href="/wiki/Baltazar_Garzon" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltazar Garzon">Baltazar Garzon</a>'s demand, on charges of human rights abuses, not on the grounds of universal jurisdiction but rather on the grounds that some of the victims of the abuses committed in Chile were Spanish citizens. Spain then sought his <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradition</a> from Britain, again, not on the grounds of universal jurisdiction, but by invoking the law of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> regarding extradition; and he was finally released on grounds of health. Argentinian <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Astiz" title="Alfredo Astiz">Alfredo Astiz</a>'s sentence is part of this juridical frame.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_tribunals_invoking_universal_jurisdiction">International tribunals invoking universal jurisdiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: International tribunals invoking universal jurisdiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ICC_member_states.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/ICC_member_states.svg/220px-ICC_member_states.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/ICC_member_states.svg/330px-ICC_member_states.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/ICC_member_states.svg/440px-ICC_member_states.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>States parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00aa00; color:black;"> </span> Parties</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:purple; color:white;"> </span> Parties who have subsequently withdrawn</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#eeee00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Unratified</a> signatories</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:orange; color:black;"> </span> Signatories who have subsequently withdrawn</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff1111; color:black;"> </span> UN member states and observers that have neither signed nor acceded to the Statute</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Established in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> in 2002, the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> (ICC) is an international tribunal of general jurisdiction (defined by treaty) to prosecute state-members' citizens for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression, as specified by several international agreements, most prominently the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</a> signed in 1998. A serious international crime is outlined in Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal court as a serious criminal act committed as part of a "widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack", including murder, rape, slavery, persecution, extermination, and torture.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Universal jurisdiction over the crimes enumerated in the Rome Statute was rejected by the signing parties, however universal jurisdiction is what allows the United Nations Security Council to refer specific situations to the ICC.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has only happened with Darfur (2005) and Libya (2011). </p><p>In addition the United Nations has set up geographically specific courts to investigate and prosecute crimes against humanity under a theory of universal jurisdiction, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (1994), and the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_Former_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia</a> (1993). </p><p>The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia investigates war crimes that took place in the Balkans in the 1990s. It convicted former Bosnian Serb leader <a href="/wiki/Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Radovan Karadžić">Radovan Karadžić</a> on 10 charges relating to directing murders, purges and other abuses against civilians, including genocide in connection with the 1995 massacre of 8,000 Muslim men and boys in Srebrenica; he was sentenced to 40 years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Particular_states_invoking_universal_jurisdiction">Particular states invoking universal jurisdiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Particular states invoking universal jurisdiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Universal jurisdiction may be asserted by a particular nation as well as by an international tribunal. The result is the same: individuals become answerable for crimes defined and prosecuted regardless of where they live, or where the conduct occurred; crimes said to be so grievous as to be universally condemned. </p><p>Amnesty International argues that since the end of the Second World War over fifteen states have conducted investigations, commenced prosecutions and completed trials based on universal jurisdiction for the crimes or arrested people with a view to extraditing the persons to a state seeking to prosecute them. These states include: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Mexico, Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-AI-FAQ_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AI-FAQ-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amnesty writes: </p> <blockquote><p> All states parties to the <a href="/wiki/UN_Convention_Against_Torture" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Convention Against Torture">Convention against Torture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Convention_to_Prevent_and_Punish_Torture" title="Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture">Inter-American Convention</a> are obliged whenever a person suspected of torture is found in their territory to submit the case to their prosecuting authorities for the purposes of prosecution, or to extradite that person. In addition, it is now widely recognized that states, even those that are not states parties to these treaties, may exercise universal jurisdiction over torture under customary international law.<sup id="cite_ref-AI-UJ_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AI-UJ-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Examples of particular states invoking universal jurisdiction are Israel's prosecution of Eichmann in 1961 (see <a href="#Israel">§ Israel</a> below) and Spain's prosecution of South American dictators and torturers (see <a href="#Spain">§ Spain</a> below). More recently, the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Constitutional_Rights" title="Center for Constitutional Rights">Center for Constitutional Rights</a> tried first in Switzerland and then in Canada to prosecute former U.S. President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> on behalf of persons tortured in US detention camps, invoking the universal jurisdiction doctrine. Bush cancelled his trip to Switzerland after news of the planned prosecution came to light. Bush has traveled to Canada but the Canadian government shut down the prosecution in advance of his arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-Center_Prosecution_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Center_Prosecution-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The center has filed a grievance with the United Nations for Canada's failure to invoke universal jurisdiction to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Convention_Against_Torture" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a>, a petition on which action is pending.<sup id="cite_ref-Center_Prosecution_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Center_Prosecution-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Immunity_for_state_officials">Immunity for state officials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Immunity for state officials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 14 February 2002, the International Court of Justice in the <a href="/wiki/Case_Concerning_the_Arrest_Warrant_of_11_April_2000_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_v._Belgium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium)"><i>ICJ Arrest Warrant Case</i></a> concluded that state officials may have immunity under international law while serving in office. The court stated that immunity was not granted to state officials for their own benefit, but instead to ensure the effective performance of their functions on behalf of their respective states. The court also stated that when abroad, state officials may enjoy immunity from arrest in another state on criminal charges, including charges of war crimes or crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-ICJ-PR-020214_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICJ-PR-020214-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the ICJ qualified its conclusions, saying that state officers "may be subject to criminal proceedings before certain international criminal courts, where they have jurisdiction. Examples include the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ..., and the future <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-CRAN-2003-fn6_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRAN-2003-fn6-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003, <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles G. Taylor">Charles Taylor</a>, the former president of <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, was served with an arrest warrant by the <a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a> (SCSL) that was set up under the auspices of a treaty that binds only the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone.<sup id="cite_ref-CRAN-2003_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRAN-2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor contested the Special Court's jurisdiction, claiming immunity, but the Special Court for Sierra Leone concluded in 2004 that "the sovereign equality of states does not prevent a head of state from being prosecuted before an international criminal tribunal or court".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Special Court convicted Taylor in 2012 and sentenced him to fifty years' imprisonment, making him the first head of state since the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> after World War II to be tried and convicted by an international court.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In sum, the question whether a former head of state might have immunity depends on which international court or tribunal endeavors to try him, how the court is constituted, and how it interprets its own mandate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universal_jurisdiction_enforcement_around_the_world">Universal jurisdiction enforcement around the world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Universal jurisdiction enforcement around the world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The High Court of Australia confirmed the authority of the Australian Parliament, under the Australian Constitution, to exercise universal jurisdiction over war crimes in the <i><a href="/wiki/Polyukhovich_v_Commonwealth" title="Polyukhovich v Commonwealth">Polyukhovich v Commonwealth</a></i> case of 1991. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium">Belgium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1993, Belgium's Parliament passed a "law of universal jurisdiction" (sometimes referred to as "Belgium's genocide law"), allowing it to judge people accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide. In 2001, four Rwandan citizens were convicted and given sentences from 12 to 20 years' imprisonment for their involvement in 1994 <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a rapid succession of cases: </p> <ul><li>Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Sharon" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a> was accused of involvement in the 1982 <a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a> in Lebanon, conducted by a Christian militia;</li> <li>Israelis filed a case against <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> on grounds of responsibility for terrorist activity;</li> <li>In 2003, Iraqi victims of a <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">1991 Baghdad bombing</a> pressed charges against <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a>.</li></ul> <p>Confronted with this sharp increase in cases, Belgium established the condition that the accused person must be Belgian or present in Belgium. An arrest warrant issued in 2000 under this law, against the then Minister of Foreign Affairs of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> <a href="/wiki/Abdoulaye_Yerodia_Ndombasi" title="Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi">Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi</a>, was challenged before the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> in the case entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Arrest_Warrant_of_11_April_2000_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_v._Belgium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium)">ICJ Arrest Warrant Case</a></i>. The ICJ's decision issued on 14 February 2002 found that it did not have jurisdiction to consider the question of universal jurisdiction, instead deciding the question on the basis of immunity of high-ranking state officials.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the matter was addressed in separate and dissenting opinions,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as that of President Guillaume who concluded that universal jurisdiction exists only in relation to piracy;<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the dissenting opinion of Judge Oda who recognised piracy, hijacking, terrorism and genocide as crimes subject to universal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 August 2003, Belgium repealed the law on universal jurisdiction, and introduced a new law on <a href="/wiki/Extraterritorial_jurisdiction" title="Extraterritorial jurisdiction">extraterritorial jurisdiction</a> similar to or more restrictive than that of most other European countries. However, some cases that had already started continued. These included those concerning the Rwandan genocide, and complaints filed against the Chadian ex-President <a href="/wiki/Hiss%C3%A8ne_Habr%C3%A9" title="Hissène Habré">Hissène Habré</a> (dubbed the "African <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Pinochet</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2005, Habré was indicted for crimes against humanity, torture, war crimes and other human rights violations by a Belgian court. Arrested in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> following requests from Senegalese courts, he was tried and convicted for war crimes by the Special Tribunal in Senegal in 2016 and sentenced to life in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To implement the Rome Statute, Canada passed the <a href="/wiki/Crimes_Against_Humanity_and_War_Crimes_Act" title="Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act">Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act</a>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Byers_(Canadian_author)" title="Michael Byers (Canadian author)">Michael Byers</a>, a <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia" title="University of British Columbia">University of British Columbia</a> law professor, has argued that these laws go further than the Rome Statute, providing Canadian courts with jurisdiction over acts pre-dating the ICC and occurring in territories outside of ICC member-states; "as a result, anyone who is present in Canada and alleged to have committed genocide, torture ... anywhere, at any time, can be prosecuted [in Canada]".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>François Bazaramba was sentenced to life imprisonment in Finland in 2010 for participation in the Rwandan genocide of 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021 a trial for Gibril Massaquoi, charged with murder, aggravated war crimes and aggravated crimes against humanity in <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, started in Finland, with part of the hearings of witnesses to take place in Liberia and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Prosecution_of_Syrian_civil_war_criminals#France" title="Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals">Prosecution of Syrian civil war criminals § France</a></div> <p>The article 689 of the <i>code de procédure pénale</i><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states the infractions that can be judged in France when they were committed outside French territory either by French citizens or foreigners. The following infractions may be prosecuted: </p> <ul><li>Torture</li> <li>Terrorism</li> <li>Nuclear smuggling</li> <li>Naval piracy</li> <li>Airplane hijacking</li></ul> <p>In February 2019, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abdulhamid_Chaban&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdulhamid Chaban (page does not exist)">Abdulhamid Chaban</a>, a former soldier of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a>, was arrested and indicted for complicity in crimes against humanity during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>, whereas <a href="/w/index.php?title=Majdi_Nema&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Majdi Nema (page does not exist)">Majdi Nema</a>, a former spokesperson for <a href="/wiki/Jaysh_al-Islam" title="Jaysh al-Islam">Jaysh al-Islam</a>, was arrested and indicted for war crimes and torture, respectively. In May 2023, the French <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Cassation_(France)" title="Court of Cassation (France)">Court of Cassation</a> ruled that French universal jurisdiction allows for a trial of said individuals, and that it was not obligatory that "the offences of crime against humanity or war crime be identically described by the laws of the foreign country", in this case Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 November 2023, France issued international arrest warrants for Syrian leader <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a> and three other Syrian officials for war crimes perpetrated during the 2013 <a href="/wiki/Ghouta_chemical_attack" title="Ghouta chemical attack">Ghouta chemical attack</a> and the 2018 <a href="/wiki/Douma_chemical_attack" title="Douma chemical attack">Douma chemical attack</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 21 May 2024, a Paris Criminal Court started a trial <i>in absentia</i> of <a href="/wiki/Ali_Mamlouk" title="Ali Mamlouk">Ali Mamlouk</a>, former head of the National Security Bureau, <a href="/wiki/Jamil_Hassan" title="Jamil Hassan">Jamil Hassan</a>, former director of the Air Force intelligence service, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abdel_Salam_Mahmoud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdel Salam Mahmoud (page does not exist)">Abdel Salam Mahmoud</a>, former head of investigations for the service, for the deaths of two French-Syrian citizens during the Syrian civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerstrafgesetzbuch" title="Völkerstrafgesetzbuch">Völkerstrafgesetzbuch</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Jorgi%C4%87" title="Nikola Jorgić">Nikola Jorgić</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ignace_Murwanashyaka" title="Ignace Murwanashyaka">Ignace Murwanashyaka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Raslan" title="Anwar Raslan">Anwar Raslan</a></div> <p>Under the German legal system, international crimes are offenses that require public prosecution (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Offizialdelikte</i></span>) and are not dependent on the victims' individual criminal complaints to initiate the prosecution.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Jorgi%C4%87" title="Nikola Jorgić">Nikola Jorgić</a> on 26 September 1997 was convicted of genocide in Germany and sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment for his involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a>. His appeal following his conviction was rejected by the German <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Justice" title="Federal Court of Justice">Federal Court of Justice</a>, Germany's highest court of appeal for criminal matters, on 30 April 1999. The court stated that genocide is a crime which all nations must prosecute.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since then Germany has implemented the principle of universal jurisdiction for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes into its criminal law through the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><b>Völkerstrafgesetzbuch</b></i></span> or <i><b>VStGB</b></i> ("international criminal code", literally "book of the criminal law of peoples"), which implemented the treaty creating the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> into domestic law. The law was passed in 2002 and up to 2014. It has been used once, in the trial of <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwandan</a> rebel leader <a href="/wiki/Ignace_Murwanashyaka" title="Ignace Murwanashyaka">Ignace Murwanashyaka</a>. In 2015 he was found guilty and sentenced to 13 years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, section 7(2) of German Criminal Code <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Strafgesetzbuch</i></span> (stGB) establishes the principle of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">aut dedere aut judicare</i></span>, stating that German criminal law applies to offenses committed abroad by foreign nationals who currently reside in Germany if there is no criminal law jurisdiction in the foreign country or when no extradition request was made.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extraterritorial_jurisdiction_in_Irish_law" title="Extraterritorial jurisdiction in Irish law">Extraterritorial jurisdiction in Irish law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nazis_and_Nazi_Collaborators_(Punishment)_Law" title="Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law">Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>, along with Kenneth Roth,<sup id="cite_ref-KR-2001_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KR-2001-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has cited Israel's prosecution of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a> in 1961 as an assertion of universal jurisdiction. He claims that while Israel did invoke a statute specific to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi</a> crimes against Jews, its <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel" title="Supreme Court of Israel">Supreme Court</a> claimed universal jurisdiction over crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eichmann's defense lawyer argued that Israel did not have jurisdiction on account of Israel not having come into existence until 1948. The Genocide Convention also did not come into effect until 1951, and the Genocide Convention does not automatically provide for universal jurisdiction. It is also argued that Israeli agents obtained Eichmann illegally, violating international law when they seized and kidnapped Eichmann, and brought him to Israel to stand trial. The Argentinian government settled the dispute diplomatically with Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-EichmannTrial_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EichmannTrial-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Israel argued universal jurisdiction based on the "universal character of the crimes in question" and that the crimes committed by Eichmann were not only in violation of Israel law, but were considered "grave offenses against the law of nations itself".<sup id="cite_ref-EichmannTrial_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EichmannTrial-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also asserted that the crime of genocide is covered under international customary law. As a supplemental form of jurisdiction, a further argument is made on the basis of protective jurisdiction. Protective jurisdiction is a principle that "provides that states may exercise jurisdiction over aliens who have committed an act abroad which is deemed prejudicial to the security of the particular state concerned".<sup id="cite_ref-EichmannTrial_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EichmannTrial-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malaysia">Malaysia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Malaysia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In November 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur_War_Crimes_Commission" title="Kuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission">Kuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission</a> (KLWCC), created in 2007 by former Malaysian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> as a private institution (without the support of any government),<sup id="cite_ref-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exercised what it viewed as universal jurisdiction to <a href="/wiki/Trial_in_absentia" title="Trial in absentia">try and convict <i>in absentia</i></a> former US President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> and former British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> for the invasion of Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2012, the tribunal again under what it saw as universal jurisdiction took testimony from victims of torture at <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ghraib" title="Abu Ghraib">Abu Ghraib</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo" class="mw-redirect" title="Guantanamo">Guantanamo</a>, and convicted <i>in absentia</i> former President Bush, former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a>, former Defense Secretary <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a>, former Deputy Assistant Attorneys General <a href="/wiki/John_Yoo" title="John Yoo">John Yoo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jay_Bybee" title="Jay Bybee">Jay Bybee</a>, former Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Gonzales" title="Alberto Gonzales">Alberto Gonzales</a>, and former counselors <a href="/wiki/David_Addington" title="David Addington">David Addington</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Haynes_II" class="mw-redirect" title="William Haynes II">William Haynes II</a> for conspiracy to commit war crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tribunal referred its findings to the chief prosecutor at the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> in The Hague.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Malaysian human rights group <a href="/wiki/Suara_Rakyat_Malaysia" title="Suara Rakyat Malaysia">SUARAM</a> expressed concern about the KLWCC's procedures, and former <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers, <a href="/wiki/Param_Cumaraswamy" title="Param Cumaraswamy">Param Cumaraswamy</a>, described the KLWCC as having no legal basis, and was sceptical about fair trials taking place <i>in absentia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In January 2024, Mustafa A., a member of <a href="/wiki/Liwa_al-Quds" title="Liwa al-Quds">Liwa al-Quds</a>, was convicted in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> for <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="War crimes in the Syrian civil war">war crimes</a> and crimes against humanity carried out during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a> while fighting on the side of Syrian government forces. He was sentenced to twelve years of imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-AJE_Dutch_court_convicts_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJE_Dutch_court_convicts-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Senegal">Senegal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Senegal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A case against the former dictator of Chad, <a href="/wiki/Hiss%C3%A8ne_Habr%C3%A9" title="Hissène Habré">Hissène Habré</a>, started in 2015 in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spanish law recognizes the principle of universal jurisdiction. Article 23.4 of the Judicial Power Organization Act (LOPJ), enacted on 1 July 1985, establishes that Spanish courts have jurisdiction over crimes committed by Spaniards or foreign citizens outside Spain when such crimes can be described according to Spanish criminal law as genocide, terrorism, or some other, as well as any other crime that, according to international treaties or conventions, must be prosecuted in Spain. On 25 July 2009, the Spanish Congress passed a law that limits the competence of the <a href="/wiki/Audiencia_Nacional_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Audiencia Nacional of Spain">Audiencia Nacional</a> under Article 23.4 to cases in which Spaniards are victims, there is a relevant link to Spain, or the alleged perpetrators are in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law still has to pass the Senate, the high chamber, but passage is expected because it is supported by both major parties.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Associated_Press_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Associated_Press-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1999, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> winner <a href="/wiki/Rigoberta_Mench%C3%BA" title="Rigoberta Menchú">Rigoberta Menchú</a> brought a case against the <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemalan</a> military leadership in a Spanish Court. Six officials, among them <a href="/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn_R%C3%ADos_Montt" title="Efraín Ríos Montt">Efraín Ríos Montt</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%93scar_Humberto_Mej%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Óscar Humberto Mejía">Óscar Humberto Mejía</a>, were formally charged on 7 July 2006 to appear in the Spanish National Court after Spain's Constitutional Court ruled in September 2005, the Spanish Constitutional Court declaration that the "principle of universal jurisdiction prevails over the existence of national interests", following the Menchu suit brought against the officials for atrocities committed in the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2003, Spanish judge <a href="/wiki/Baltasar_Garz%C3%B3n" title="Baltasar Garzón">Baltasar Garzón</a> jailed <a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Miguel_Cavallo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ricardo Miguel Cavallo">Ricardo Miguel Cavallo</a>, a former Argentine naval officer, who was extradited from Mexico to Spain pending his trial on charges of genocide and terrorism relating to the years of Argentina's military dictatorship.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 11 January 2006, the <a href="/wiki/Audiencia_Nacional" title="Audiencia Nacional">Spanish High Court</a> agreed to investigate a case in which seven former Chinese officials, including the former <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of China">Communist Party General Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a> and former <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Premier of the People's Republic of China">Premier</a> <a href="/wiki/Li_Peng" title="Li Peng">Li Peng</a> were alleged to have participated in a genocide in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>. This investigation follows a Spanish Constitutional Court (26 September 2005) ruling that Spanish courts could try genocide cases even if they did not involve Spanish nationals.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China denounced the investigation as an interference in its internal affairs and dismissed the allegations as "sheer fabrication".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case was shelved in 2010, because of a law passed in 2009 that restricted High Court investigations to those "involving Spanish victims, suspects who are in Spain, or some other obvious link with Spain".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Complaints were lodged against former <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Defense_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli Defense Forces">Israeli Defense Forces</a> chief of General Staff Lt.-Gen. (res.) <a href="/wiki/Dan_Halutz" title="Dan Halutz">Dan Halutz</a> and six other senior Israeli political and military officials by pro-Palestinian organizations, who sought to prosecute them in Spain under the principle of universal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-jpost1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jpost1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 29 January 2009, <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Andreu" title="Fernando Andreu">Fernando Andreu</a>, a judge of the Audiencia Nacional, opened preliminary investigations into claims that a <a href="/wiki/Targeted_killing" title="Targeted killing">targeted killing</a> attack in <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza</a> in 2002 warranted the prosecution of Halutz, the former <a href="/wiki/Defense_Minister_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Minister of Israel">Israeli defence minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Binyamin_Ben-Eliezer" title="Binyamin Ben-Eliezer">Binyamin Ben-Eliezer</a>, the former defence chief-of-staff <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Ya%27alon" title="Moshe Ya'alon">Moshe Ya'alon</a>, and four others, for <a href="/wiki/Crime_against_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>. Israeli Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Benjamin Netanyahu</a> strongly criticized the decision, and Israeli officials refused to provide information requested by the Spanish court.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attack killed the founder and leader of the military wing of the Islamic militant organisation <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salah_Shehade" title="Salah Shehade">Salah Shehade</a>, who Israel said was responsible for hundreds of civilian deaths. The attack also killed 14 others (including his wife and 9 children). It had targeted the building where Shahade hid in Gaza City. It also wounded some 150 Palestinians, according to the complaint (or 50, according to other reports).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yoaz_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yoaz-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated7_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated7-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google4_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google4-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2002_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2002-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Israeli chief of operations and prime minister apologized officially, saying they were unaware, due to faulty intelligence, that civilians were in the house.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2002_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2002-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google5_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google5-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google6_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google6-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-boston1_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boston1-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The investigation in the case was halted on 30 June 2009 by a decision of a panel of 18 judges of the Audiencia Nacional. The Spanish Court of Appeals rejected the lower court's decision, and on appeal in April 2010 the Supreme Court of Spain upheld the Court of Appeals decision against conducting an official inquiry into the IDF's targeted killing of Shehadeh.<sup id="cite_ref-jpost1_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jpost1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweden">Sweden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Universal jurisdiction was used in Sweden for the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Hamid_Nouri" title="Trial of Hamid Nouri">trial of Hamid Nouri</a> for involvement in the <a href="/wiki/1988_executions_of_Iranian_political_prisoners" title="1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners">1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners</a>. In 2022, Nouri was sentenced to a life in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2024, a Swedish court started a trial of Syrian <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general" title="Brigadier general">Brigadier general</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamo" title="Mohammed Hamo">Mohammed Hamo</a> for indiscriminate attacks against civilians in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Switzerland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 18 June 2021, former <a href="/wiki/ULIMO" class="mw-redirect" title="ULIMO">ULIMO</a> commander <a href="/wiki/Alieu_Kosiah" title="Alieu Kosiah">Alieu Kosiah</a> was sentenced to 20 years in prison for committing <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War" title="First Liberian Civil War">country's first civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alieu_Kosiah:_Liberian_convicted_of_war_crimes_in_Swiss_court_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alieu_Kosiah:_Liberian_convicted_of_war_crimes_in_Swiss_court-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first time that a Liberian national was tried for war crimes in relation to the Liberian Civil Wars, and the first time that the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Criminal_Court_of_Switzerland" title="Federal Criminal Court of Switzerland">Swiss Federal Criminal Court</a> held a war crimes trial. </p><p>On 18 April 2023, the Swiss Attorney General declared that <a href="/wiki/Ousman_Sonko" title="Ousman Sonko">Ousman Sonko</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_(The_Gambia)" title="Minister of the Interior (The Gambia)">Interior Minister</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">the Gambia</a>, had been charged with <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>. He was accused of "having supported, participated in and failed to prevent 'systematic and generalised attacks' as part of a repressive campaign by security forces against <a href="/wiki/Yahya_Jammeh" title="Yahya Jammeh">Jammeh</a>'s opponents".<sup id="cite_ref-Swiss_charge_exGambian_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swiss_charge_exGambian-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In January 2022, when filing a criminal case in the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_Turkey#Prosecutors" title="Judicial system of Turkey">Istanbul Prosecutor's Office</a> against Chinese officials for torture, rape, crimes against humanity and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">genocide against Uyghurs</a>, lawyer Gulden Sonmez stated that Turkish legislation recognises universal jurisdiction for these offences.<sup id="cite_ref-AJE_Uighurs_Turkey_file_case_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJE_Uighurs_Turkey_file_case-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet%27s_arrest_and_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusto Pinochet's arrest and trial">Augusto Pinochet's arrest and trial</a></div> <p>An offence is generally only triable in the jurisdiction where the offence took place, unless a specific statute enables the UK to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction. This is the case, <i>inter alia</i>, for:<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Torture (s. 134 of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Justice_Act_1988" title="Criminal Justice Act 1988">Criminal Justice Act 1988</a>)</li> <li>Sexual offences against children (s. 72 of the <a href="/wiki/Sexual_Offences_Act_2003" title="Sexual Offences Act 2003">Sexual Offences Act 2003</a>, formerly <a href="/wiki/Sexual_Offences_Act_1956" title="Sexual Offences Act 1956">Sexual Offences Act 1956</a>)</li> <li>Fraud and dishonesty (<a href="/wiki/Criminal_Justice_Act_1993" title="Criminal Justice Act 1993">Criminal Justice Act 1993</a> Part 1)</li> <li>Terrorism (ss. 59, 62–63 of the <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_Act_2000" title="Terrorism Act 2000">Terrorism Act 2000</a>)</li> <li>Bribery (was s. 109 of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-terrorism,_Crime_and_Security_Act_2001" title="Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001">Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001</a>, now s. 12 of the <a href="/wiki/Bribery_Act_2010" title="Bribery Act 2010">Bribery Act 2010</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a> and sexual exploitation (s. 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Slavery_Act_2015" title="Modern Slavery Act 2015">Modern Slavery Act 2015</a>, ss. 52–54 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003, and several earlier acts)</li></ul> <p>In December 2009, <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Magistrates%27_Court" title="Westminster Magistrates' Court">Westminster Magistrates' Court</a> issued an arrest warrant for <a href="/wiki/Tzipi_Livni" title="Tzipi Livni">Tzipi Livni</a> in connection with accusations of <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> in the Gaza Strip during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cast_Lead" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Cast Lead">Operation Cast Lead</a> (2008–2009).<sup id="cite_ref-tzipi_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tzipi-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The warrant was issued on 12 December and revoked on 14 December 2009 after it was revealed that Livni had not entered British territory.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The warrant was later denounced as "cynical" by the Israeli foreign ministry, while Livni's office said she was "proud of all her decisions in Operation Cast Lead".<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Livni herself called the arrest warrant "an abuse of the British legal system".<sup id="cite_ref-UK_warrant_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UK_warrant-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly a January visit to Britain by a team of <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a> (IDF) was cancelled over concerns that arrest warrants would be sought by pro-Palestinian advocates in connection with allegations of <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> under laws of universal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-tzipi_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tzipi-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2013, Nepalese Colonel <a href="/wiki/Kumar_Lama" title="Kumar Lama">Kumar Lama</a> was charged in the UK with torture under universal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Kumar_Lama_charged_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Kumar_Lama_charged-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was acquitted in September 2016, with the jury finding him not guilty on one count, and failing to reach a verdict on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-EJIL_mistrial_Kumar_Lama_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EJIL_mistrial_Kumar_Lama-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> has no formal statute to authorize it. In some cases, however, the federal government has exercised <a href="/wiki/Self-help_(law)" title="Self-help (law)">self-help</a> in the apprehension or killing persons who are suspected of conspiring to commit crimes within the United States from outside of the country or committing crimes against American officials outside of the United States. This has occurred even when the suspect is not a United States person, has never been to the United States, and even when the person has never conspired or assisted in the commission of a crime within the United States, there is a functioning government which could try the person for the crime committed there, and notwithstanding the existence of a proper treaty of extradition between that country and the United States, ignoring the provisions of the treaty and capturing or killing the person directly. </p><p>In 1985, the <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> national <a href="/wiki/Humberto_%C3%81lvarez_Macha%C3%ADn" title="Humberto Álvarez Machaín">Humberto Alvarez-Machain</a> allegedly assisted in the torture and murder of a United States <a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">Drug Enforcement Administration</a> (DEA) agent in Mexico. Mexico declined to extradite a Mexican national for the alleged crime committed in Mexico, despite having a treaty of extradition. The United States then hired a private citizen and some Mexican nationals as <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenaries</a> to kidnap Alvarez-Machain and take him to the United States for trial. The trial court ruled that his arrest was unlawful because it violated the extradition treaty. On appeal, in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alvarez-Machain" title="United States v. Alvarez-Machain">United States v. Alvarez-Machain</a></i>, 504 U.S. 655 (1992), the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> held that, notwithstanding the existence of an extradition treaty with Mexico, it was still legal for the federal government of the United States to exercise self-help by forcibly abducting him on a street in Mexico and bringing him to the United States to stand trial. In Alvarez-Machain's subsequent criminal trial, he was acquitted; he later lost a <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> against the American government over his wrongful apprehension and imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_event">By event</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: By event"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction_investigations_of_war_crimes_in_Ukraine" title="Universal jurisdiction investigations of war crimes in Ukraine">Universal jurisdiction investigations of war crimes in Ukraine</a></div> <p>Universal jurisdiction investigations of <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">war crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> were started under universal jurisdiction legislation of several individual states.<sup id="cite_ref-FletcherSchool_war_crimes_Putin_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FletcherSchool_war_crimes_Putin-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States that started investigations included Germany,<sup id="cite_ref-WSJ_Germany_opens_investigation_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSJ_Germany_opens_investigation-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-LRT_LT_prosecutors_to_probe_filmmaker_s_killing_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LRT_LT_prosecutors_to_probe_filmmaker_s_killing-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spain<sup id="cite_ref-TheLocal_Sweden_launches_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheLocal_Sweden_launches-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-TheLocal_Sweden_launches_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheLocal_Sweden_launches-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques">Critiques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accessibility_of_witnesses">Accessibility of witnesses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Accessibility of witnesses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the major logistical issues a court may run into during an application of universal jurisdiction is the accessibility of witnesses. States do not have the legal authority to summon witnesses who currently reside abroad to appear before their national courts, nor do they always have access to the necessary witnesses or evidence needed to implicate a foreign national of crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actio_popularis" title="Actio popularis">Actio popularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterritorial_jurisdiction" title="Extraterritorial jurisdiction">Extraterritorial jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostis_humani_generis" title="Hostis humani generis">Hostis humani generis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_of_the_International_Court_of_Justice" title="Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice">Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Law_in_Armed_Conflicts_Project_(RULAC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC)">Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_killing" title="Targeted killing">Targeted killing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Institutes of Justinian</i>, Book I, Title II, "Concerning Natural Law, the Law of Nations, and the Civil Law".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaius. <i>Commentaries on the Roman Law</i>, Book I, Chapter I, "De Jure Gentium et Civili".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMaine1861" class="citation book cs1">Maine, Sir Henry Sumner (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ancientlawitsco18maingoog#page/n58/mode/2up"><i>Ancient Law: Its Connection With the Early History of Society and Relation to Modern Ideas</i></a> (1861 first ed.). London: John Murray. p. 46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Law%3A+Its+Connection+With+the+Early+History+of+Society+and+Relation+to+Modern+Ideas&rft.place=London&rft.pages=46&rft.edition=1861+first&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Maine&rft.aufirst=Sir+Henry+Sumner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fancientlawitsco18maingoog%23page%2Fn58%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrotius1604" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Grotius" class="mw-redirect" title="Grotius">Grotius</a> (1604). <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Jure_Praedae_(book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Jure Praedae (book) (page does not exist)">De jure praedae : (Of the Law of Captures)</a></i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. xviii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+jure+praedae+%3A+%28Of+the+Law+of+Captures%29&rft.place=London&rft.pages=xviii&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1604&rft.au=Grotius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span> (discussing in introductory notes Grotius' account of universal principles of right and wrong derived from reason and divine Will, the underpinning of much modern international law).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HK-2001-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HK-2001_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKissinger2001" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Kissinger, Henry</a> (July–August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090114024521/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010701faessay4996/henry-a-kissinger/the-pitfalls-of-universal-jurisdiction.html">"The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010701faessay4996/henry-a-kissinger/the-pitfalls-of-universal-jurisdiction.html">the original</a> on 14 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Pitfalls+of+Universal+Jurisdiction&rft.date=2001-07%2F2001-08&rft.aulast=Kissinger&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.org%2F20010701faessay4996%2Fhenry-a-kissinger%2Fthe-pitfalls-of-universal-jurisdiction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Pagden2013" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Pagden (2013). <i>The Enlightenment, and Why It Still Matters</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6068-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6068-9"><bdi>978-1-4000-6068-9</bdi></a>. <q>[I]f there does exist some concept of universal justice, if even the most powerful states on occasion feel compelled to abide by the demands of international law, that we owe to the Enlightenment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment%2C+and+Why+It+Still+Matters&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6068-9&rft.au=Anthony+Pagden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson,_Robert,_U.S._Supreme_Court_Justice1945" class="citation web cs1">Jackson, Robert, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (21 November 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/nuremberg/jackson.html">"Justice Jackson's Opening statement for the Prosecution"</a>. <i>Proceedings, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal</i>. International Military Tribunal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Proceedings%2C+Trial+of+the+Major+War+Criminals+Before+the+International+Military+Tribunal&rft.atitle=Justice+Jackson%27s+Opening+statement+for+the+Prosecution&rft.date=1945-11-21&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Robert%2C+U.S.+Supreme+Court+Justice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw2.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fnuremberg%2Fjackson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_Goldsmith2012" class="citation news cs1">Jack Goldsmith (20 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/books/review/justice-and-the-enemy-nuremberg-9-11-and-the-trial-of-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-by-william-shawcross-book-review.html">"The Shadow of Nuremberg"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2016</span>. <q>The compromises of 1945 came to be seen as imperfect but essential progress toward international rule of law and the foundation for modern international criminal tribunals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Shadow+of+Nuremberg&rft.date=2012-01-20&rft.au=Jack+Goldsmith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F01%2F22%2Fbooks%2Freview%2Fjustice-and-the-enemy-nuremberg-9-11-and-the-trial-of-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-by-william-shawcross-book-review.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Alpheus_T._Mason" title="Alpheus T. Mason">Alpheus T. Mason</a>, Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law (New York: Viking, 1956), p. 716.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KR-2001-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KR-2001_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KR-2001_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth2001" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Roth" title="Kenneth Roth">Roth, Kenneth</a> (September–October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090121044713/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010901faresponse5577/kenneth-roth/the-case-for-universal-jurisdiction.html">"The Case for Universal Jurisdiction"</a>. <i>Foreign Affairs</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010901faresponse5577/kenneth-roth/the-case-for-universal-jurisdiction.html">the original</a> on 21 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Case+for+Universal+Jurisdiction&rft.date=2001-09%2F2001-10&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.org%2F20010901faresponse5577%2Fkenneth-roth%2Fthe-case-for-universal-jurisdiction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaleckKroker2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kaleck, Wolfgang; Kroker, Patrick (1 March 2018). "Syrian Torture Investigations in Germany and Beyond: Breathing New Life into Universal Jurisdiction in Europe?". <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 165–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqy014">10.1093/jicj/mqy014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=Syrian+Torture+Investigations+in+Germany+and+Beyond%3A+Breathing+New+Life+into+Universal+Jurisdiction+in+Europe%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=165-191&rft.date=2018-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqy014&rft.aulast=Kaleck&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft.au=Kroker%2C+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeil_Boister2012" class="citation book cs1">Neil Boister (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kElWbHK0JF8C&q=us+transnational+criminal+jurisdiction&pg=PA177"><i>An Introduction to Transnational Criminal Law</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960538-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960538-5"><bdi>978-0-19-960538-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Transnational+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-960538-5&rft.au=Neil+Boister&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkElWbHK0JF8C%26q%3Dus%2Btransnational%2Bcriminal%2Bjurisdiction%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UN General Assembly, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3a84.html"><i>Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</i></a> (last amended 2010), 17 July 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-9227-227-6" title="Special:BookSources/92-9227-227-6">92-9227-227-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeyder2006" class="citation journal cs1">Heyder, Corrina (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1120461">"The U.N. Security Council's Referral of the Crimes in Darfur to the International Criminal Court in Light of U.S. Opposition to the Court: Implications for the International Criminal Court's Functions and Status"</a>. <i>Berkeley Journal of International Law</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 650–671. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15779%2FZ385W7H">10.15779/Z385W7H</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berkeley+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+U.N.+Security+Council%27s+Referral+of+the+Crimes+in+Darfur+to+the+International+Criminal+Court+in+Light+of+U.S.+Opposition+to+the+Court%3A+Implications+for+the+International+Criminal+Court%27s+Functions+and+Status&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=650-671&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15779%2FZ385W7H&rft.aulast=Heyder&rft.aufirst=Corrina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawcat.berkeley.edu%2Frecord%2F1120461&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Murphy2016" class="citation news cs1">Brian Murphy (24 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/un-tribunal-finds-former-bosnia-serb-leader-guilty-of-genocide/2016/03/24/1a9f1066-f1c9-11e5-85a6-2132cf446d0a_story.html?hpid=hp_rhp-top-table-main_karadzic_11am%3Ahomepage%2Fstory">"U.N. tribunal finds former Bosnia Serb leader guilty of genocide"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=U.N.+tribunal+finds+former+Bosnia+Serb+leader+guilty+of+genocide&rft.date=2016-03-24&rft.au=Brian+Murphy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2Fun-tribunal-finds-former-bosnia-serb-leader-guilty-of-genocide%2F2016%2F03%2F24%2F1a9f1066-f1c9-11e5-85a6-2132cf446d0a_story.html%3Fhpid%3Dhp_rhp-top-table-main_karadzic_11am%253Ahomepage%252Fstory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AI-FAQ-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AI-FAQ_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior53/020/2001/en/">"UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION: Questions and answers"</a>. December 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNIVERSAL+JURISDICTION%3A+Questions+and+answers&rft.date=2001-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fior53%2F020%2F2001%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AI-UJ-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AI-UJ_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior53/012/2001/en/?OpenDocument">Universal Jurisdiction: The duty of states to enact and implement legislation – Chapter Nine (Torture: The legal basis for universal jurisdiction)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> 1 September 2001. Section II. Universal Jurisdiction over torture</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Center_Prosecution-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Center_Prosecution_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Center_Prosecution_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatt_EisenbrandtKatherine_Gallagher2012" class="citation news cs1">Matt Eisenbrandt; Katherine Gallagher (17 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jurist.org/hotline/2012/01/eisenbrandt-gallagher-bush.php">"Halting Canadian Bush Prosecution Violated International Obligations"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">Jurist</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2016</span>. <q>Canada disregarded an opportunity to shatter the global impunity Bush enjoys and in so doing violated international law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jurist&rft.atitle=Halting+Canadian+Bush+Prosecution+Violated+International+Obligations&rft.date=2012-01-17&rft.au=Matt+Eisenbrandt&rft.au=Katherine+Gallagher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjurist.org%2Fhotline%2F2012%2F01%2Feisenbrandt-gallagher-bush.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICJ-PR-020214-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ICJ-PR-020214_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2002/afr379.html">"ICJ rejects Belgian arrest warrant for foreign ministers of Democratic Republic of Congo"</a>. United Nations Information Service. 14 September 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ICJ+rejects+Belgian+arrest+warrant+for+foreign+ministers+of+Democratic+Republic+of+Congo&rft.date=2002-09-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unis.unvienna.org%2Funis%2Fpressrels%2F2002%2Fafr379.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRAN-2003-fn6-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CRAN-2003-fn6_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cesare P.R. Romano and André Nollkaemper. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh110.htm#_ednref6">The Arrest Warrant Against The Liberian President, Charles Taylor</a></i>, on the website of the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_International_Law" title="American Society of International Law">American Society of International Law</a>, June 2003. Cites in footnote 6: Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, Merits, para. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRAN-2003-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CRAN-2003_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cesare P.R. Romano and André Nollkaemper. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh110.htm">The Arrest Warrant Against The Liberian President, Charles Taylor</a></i>, on the website of the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_International_Law" title="American Society of International Law">American Society of International Law</a>, June 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppellate_Tribunal2004" class="citation web cs1">Appellate Tribunal (31 May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sc-sl.org/CASES/ProsecutorvsCharlesTaylor/tabid/107/Default.aspx">< "Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, Summary of Decision on Immunity From Jurisdiction"</a>. <i>Case Number SCSL-2003-01-I</i>. Special Court of Sierra Leone<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Case+Number+SCSL-2003-01-I&rft.atitle=Prosecutor+v.+Charles+Ghankay+Taylor%2C+Summary+of+Decision+on+Immunity+From+Jurisdiction&rft.date=2004-05-31&rft.au=Appellate+Tribunal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sc-sl.org%2FCASES%2FProsecutorvsCharlesTaylor%2Ftabid%2F107%2FDefault.aspx%3C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimons,_MarliseGoodman,_J._David2004" class="citation news cs1">Simons, Marlise & Goodman, J. David (31 May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/31/world/africa/charles-taylor-sentenced-to-50-years-for-war-crimes.html">"Judge Gives Taylor 50 Years for 'Heinous' Crimes in War"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Judge+Gives+Taylor+50+Years+for+%27Heinous%27+Crimes+in+War&rft.date=2004-05-31&rft.au=Simons%2C+Marlise&rft.au=Goodman%2C+J.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F05%2F31%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2Fcharles-taylor-sentenced-to-50-years-for-war-crimes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/french/press/2003/justice02.htm">"Belgique : Questions et Réponses sur la loi de Compétence Universelle"</a>. Human Rights Watch<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Belgique+%3A+Questions+et+R%C3%A9ponses+sur+la+loi+de+Comp%C3%A9tence+Universelle&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Ffrench%2Fpress%2F2003%2Fjustice02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061002112703/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iCOBE/icobejudgment/icobe_ijudgment_20020214.PDF">ICJ's decision</a> See paragraph 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070313044438/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iCOBE/iCOBEframe.htm">"separate and dissenting opinions"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iCOBE/iCOBEframe.htm">the original</a> on 13 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=separate+and+dissenting+opinions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icj-cij.org%2Ficjwww%2Fidocket%2FiCOBE%2FiCOBEframe.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/121/8128.pdf">separate opinion of President Guillaume</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180619/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/121/8128.pdf">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at paragraph 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020312003750/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iCOBE/icobejudgment/icobe_ijudgment_20020214_oda.PDF">dissenting opinion of Judge Oda</a>, paragraph 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/press/2003/08/belgium080103.htm">"Belgium: Universal Jurisdiction Law Repealed"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. 1 August 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Belgium%3A+Universal+Jurisdiction+Law+Repealed&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=2003-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fpress%2F2003%2F08%2Fbelgium080103.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trial-ch.org/fr/trial-watch/profil/db/facts/hissene_habre_87.html">Trial Watch : Hissène Habré</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090413081352/http://www.trial-ch.org/fr/trial-watch/profil/db/facts/hissene_habre_87.html">Archived</a> 13 April 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Byers2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Byers_(Canadian_author)" title="Michael Byers (Canadian author)">Michael Byers</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/intentfornationw00byer/page/111"><i>Intent for a Nation</i></a></span>. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/intentfornationw00byer/page/111">111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-250-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-250-2"><bdi>978-1-55365-250-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intent+for+a+Nation&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Douglas+%26+McIntyre&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-55365-250-2&rft.au=Michael+Byers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintentfornationw00byer%2Fpage%2F111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10294529">"Finland sentences Rwanda preacher to life for genocide"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 11 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Finland+sentences+Rwanda+preacher+to+life+for+genocide&rft.date=2010-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2F10294529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.africanews.com/2021/02/03/liberia-war-crimes-suspect-gibril-massaquoi-s-trial-begins-in-finland/"><i>Liberia war crimes suspect Gibril Massaquoi's trial begins in Finland</i>, Africanews, 03/02/2021</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do;jsessionid=8D7A735D0F327A8D49651831AD29817E.tpdjo04v_2?idSectionTA=LEGISCTA000006151920&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071154&dateTexte=20090315">"Détail d'un code"</a> (in French). Legifrance.gouv.fr<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=D%C3%A9tail+d%27un+code&rft.pub=Legifrance.gouv.fr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legifrance.gouv.fr%2FaffichCode.do%3Bjsessionid%3D8D7A735D0F327A8D49651831AD29817E.tpdjo04v_2%3FidSectionTA%3DLEGISCTA000006151920%26cidTexte%3DLEGITEXT000006071154%26dateTexte%3D20090315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/05/12/france-court-ruling-win-syrian-victims">"France: Court Ruling Win for Syrian Victims"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a></i>. 12 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=France%3A+Court+Ruling+Win+for+Syrian+Victims&rft.date=2023-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2023%2F05%2F12%2Ffrance-court-ruling-win-syrian-victims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20230513-france-s-highest-court-upholds-right-to-investigate-syrians-on-french-soil-suspected-of-war-crimes">"French court upholds right to investigate Syrians suspected of war crimes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Radio_France_Internationale" title="Radio France Internationale">RFI</a></i>. 13 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RFI&rft.atitle=French+court+upholds+right+to+investigate+Syrians+suspected+of+war+crimes&rft.date=2023-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfi.fr%2Fen%2Ffrance%2F20230513-france-s-highest-court-upholds-right-to-investigate-syrians-on-french-soil-suspected-of-war-crimes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/france-issues-arrest-warrants-against-syrias-president-assad-source-2023-11-15/">"France issues arrest warrant for Syria's President Assad"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. 15 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=France+issues+arrest+warrant+for+Syria%27s+President+Assad&rft.date=2023-11-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Ffrance-issues-arrest-warrants-against-syrias-president-assad-source-2023-11-15%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20240521-senior-syrian-officials-on-trial-in-france-for-war-crimes">"Senior Syrian officials on trial in France for war crimes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Radio_France_Internationale" title="Radio France Internationale">RFI</a></i>. 1 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RFI&rft.atitle=Senior+Syrian+officials+on+trial+in+France+for+war+crimes&rft.date=2024-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfi.fr%2Fen%2Finternational%2F20240521-senior-syrian-officials-on-trial-in-france-for-war-crimes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasRitscher2015" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Beck; Ritscher, Christian (2015). "Do Criminal Complaints Make Sense in (German) International Criminal Law?: A Prosecutor's Perspective". <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 229–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqv010">10.1093/jicj/mqv010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=Do+Criminal+Complaints+Make+Sense+in+%28German%29+International+Criminal+Law%3F%3A+A+Prosecutor%27s+Perspective&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=229-35&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqv010&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Beck&rft.au=Ritscher%2C+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/27/world/german-court-sentences-serb-to-life-for-genocide-in-bosnia.html">"Nikola Jorgić profile at"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 27 September 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nikola+Jorgi%C4%87+profile+at&rft.date=1997-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1997%2F09%2F27%2Fworld%2Fgerman-court-sentences-serb-to-life-for-genocide-in-bosnia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://armedgroups-internationallaw.org/2015/09/28/conviction-of-fdlr-leaders-by-german-court/">"Conviction of FDLR leaders by German Court"</a>. <i>Armed Groups and International Law</i>. 28 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Armed+Groups+and+International+Law&rft.atitle=Conviction+of+FDLR+leaders+by+German+Court&rft.date=2015-09-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farmedgroups-internationallaw.org%2F2015%2F09%2F28%2Fconviction-of-fdlr-leaders-by-german-court%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/05/us-tells-armed-group-drc-surrender-military-option">"US tells armed group in DRC to surrender or face 'military option'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 5 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=US+tells+armed+group+in+DRC+to+surrender+or+face+%27military+option%27&rft.date=2014-08-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2014%2Faug%2F05%2Fus-tells-armed-group-drc-surrender-military-option&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">German Criminal Code <i>Strafgesetzbuch</i> (StGB), in the version published on 13 November 1998 (<i>Federal Law Gazette I</i>, p. 3322), as last amended by Article 2 of the Act of 19 June 2019 (<i>Federal Law Gazette I</i>, p. 844.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer, Peter</a> (2002). <i>One World</i>. Yale University Press. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09686-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09686-0"><bdi>0-300-09686-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+World&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-300-09686-0&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EichmannTrial-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EichmannTrial_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EichmannTrial_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EichmannTrial_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Attorney General of Israel v. Eichmann</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120919100122/http://nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/">Criminal Case 40/61</a> (District Court of Jerusalem 1961), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/">the original</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061001235018/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/"><i>Transcripts</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/">the original</a> on 1 October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transcripts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nizkor.org%2Fhweb%2Fpeople%2Fe%2Feichmann-adolf%2Ftranscripts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BRussellsTrib_MahathirsWarCrimesTribunal_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080704175239/https://www.brusselstribunal.org/KL.htm"><i>Mahathir's war crimes tribunal under fire</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/BRussells_Tribunal" title="BRussells Tribunal">BRussells Tribunal</a>, 13 February 2007, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117832759" class="extiw" title="d:Q117832759">Q117832759</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brusselstribunal.org/KL.htm">the original</a> on 4 July 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mahathir%26%2339%3Bs+war+crimes+tribunal+under+fire&rft.pub=BRussells+Tribunal&rft.date=2007-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brusselstribunal.org%2FKL.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101115154/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-501712_162-57324770/symbolic-war-crimes-tribunal-to-try-bush-blair">"Symbolic 'war crimes' tribunal to try Bush, Blair"</a>. CBS News. 15 November 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-501712_162-57324770/symbolic-war-crimes-tribunal-to-try-bush-blair/">the original</a> on 1 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Symbolic+%27war+crimes%27+tribunal+to+try+Bush%2C+Blair&rft.date=2011-11-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2F8301-501712_162-57324770%2Fsymbolic-war-crimes-tribunal-to-try-bush-blair%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113051951/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/Bush+Blair+guilty+Malaysia+crimes+trial/5748925/story.html#ixzz1eaKHipRQ">"Bush, Blair guilty in Malaysia 'war crimes trial'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Ottawa Citizen</i>. 22 November 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ottawacitizen.com/news/Bush+Blair+guilty+Malaysia+crimes+trial/5748925/story.html">the original</a> on 13 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ottawa+Citizen&rft.atitle=Bush%2C+Blair+guilty+in+Malaysia+%27war+crimes+trial%27&rft.date=2011-11-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fottawacitizen.com%2Fnews%2FBush%2BBlair%2Bguilty%2BMalaysia%2Bcrimes%2Btrial%2F5748925%2Fstory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt,_Bob2012" class="citation web cs1">Holt, Bob (15 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120518234850/http://www.newjerseynewsroom.com/international/are-george-w-bush-and-dick-cheney-war-criminals-malaysian-court-says-yes">"Are George W. Bush and Dick Cheney war criminals? Malaysian court says 'yes'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. NewJerseyNewsroom.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newjerseynewsroom.com/international/are-george-w-bush-and-dick-cheney-war-criminals-malaysian-court-says-yes">the original</a> on 18 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Are+George+W.+Bush+and+Dick+Cheney+war+criminals%3F+Malaysian+court+says+%27yes%27&rft.pub=NewJerseyNewsroom.com&rft.date=2012-05-15&rft.au=Holt%2C+Bob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newjerseynewsroom.com%2Finternational%2Fare-george-w-bush-and-dick-cheney-war-criminals-malaysian-court-says-yes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley,_Yvonne2011" class="citation web cs1">Ridley, Yvonne (12 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2012/05/12/bush-convicted-of-war-crimes-in-absentia/">"Bush Convicted of War Crimes in Absentia"</a>. <i>Foreign Policy Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy+Journal&rft.atitle=Bush+Convicted+of+War+Crimes+in+Absentia&rft.date=2011-05-12&rft.au=Ridley%2C+Yvonne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignpolicyjournal.com%2F2012%2F05%2F12%2Fbush-convicted-of-war-crimes-in-absentia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AJE_Dutch_court_convicts-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AJE_Dutch_court_convicts_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/22/dutch-court-convicts-syrian-fighter-on-war-crimes-charges"><i>Dutch court convicts Syria pro-gov't fighter on war crimes charges</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera English</a>, 22 January 2024, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124343850" class="extiw" title="d:Q124343850">Q124343850</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/2024.01.22-235046/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/1/22/dutch-court-convicts-syrian-fighter-on-war-crimes-charges">archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dutch+court+convicts+Syria+pro-gov%26%2339%3Bt+fighter+on+war+crimes+charges&rft.pub=Al+Jazeera+English&rft.date=2024-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F1%2F22%2Fdutch-court-convicts-syrian-fighter-on-war-crimes-charges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/ex-dictator-of-chad-denies-legitimacy-of-torture-crimes-trial-in-senegal/article25599568/">theglobeandmail.com: "Ex-dictator of Chad denies legitimacy of torture crimes trial in Senegal"</a>, 20 July 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingstone2009" class="citation news cs1">Kingstone, Steve (25 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8119920.stm">"Spain reins in crusading judges"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Spain+reins+in+crusading+judges&rft.date=2009-06-25&rft.aulast=Kingstone&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F8119920.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Associated_Press-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Associated_Press_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g7nVX6JkK9c3ofnkBpgD_5eFF84AD9950VPO0">"Spanish court ends Israel bombing probe"</a>. Associated Press. 30 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spanish+court+ends+Israel+bombing+probe&rft.date=2009-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fap%2Farticle%2FALeqM5g7nVX6JkK9c3ofnkBpgD_5eFF84AD9950VPO0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100306234002/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/07/spain-judge-charges-ex-generals-in.php">"Spain judge charges ex-generals in Guatemala genocide case"</a>. Jurist. 8 July 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/07/spain-judge-charges-ex-generals-in.php">the original</a> on 6 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spain+judge+charges+ex-generals+in+Guatemala+genocide+case&rft.pub=Jurist&rft.date=2006-07-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjurist.law.pitt.edu%2Fpaperchase%2F2006%2F07%2Fspain-judge-charges-ex-generals-in.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/guatemala/doc/stsgtm.html">"Spanish Supreme Court: Guatemala Genocide Case"</a>. Nizkor Project. 25 February 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spanish+Supreme+Court%3A+Guatemala+Genocide+Case&rft.date=2003-02-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.derechos.org%2Fnizkor%2Fguatemala%2Fdoc%2Fstsgtm.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaly2003" class="citation news cs1">Daly, Emma (30 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20A13FD3F5E0C738FDDAF0894DB404482">"Spanish Judge Sends Argentine to Prison on Genocide Charge"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Spanish+Judge+Sends+Argentine+to+Prison+on+Genocide+Charge&rft.date=2003-06-30&rft.aulast=Daly&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF20A13FD3F5E0C738FDDAF0894DB404482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3085482.stm">"Profile: Judge Baltasar Garzon"</a>. BBC. 7 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Profile%3A+Judge+Baltasar+Garzon&rft.date=2010-04-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Feurope%2F3085482.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Spain to investigate 'genocide' in Tibet". <i>The Independent</i>. 11 January 2006. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Spain+to+investigate+%27genocide%27+in+Tibet&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2006-01-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&ObjectID=10363286">"Spanish court to investigate Tibet massacre case"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald" title="The New Zealand Herald">The New Zealand Herald</a></i>. Reuters. 12 January 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Zealand+Herald&rft.atitle=Spanish+court+to+investigate+Tibet+massacre+case&rft.date=2006-01-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fsection%2Fstory.cfm%3Fc_id%3D2%26ObjectID%3D10363286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlesen2006" class="citation news cs1">Olesen, Alexa (7 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060613125127/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/asia/article656410.ece">"China rejects Spain's 'genocide' claim"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.independent.co.uk/world/asia/article656410.ece">the original</a> on 13 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=China+rejects+Spain%27s+%27genocide%27+claim&rft.date=2006-06-07&rft.aulast=Olesen&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.independent.co.uk%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Farticle656410.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110609185339/http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=26740">"Spanish court shelves Tibet human rights case against China"</a>. Madrid: <a href="/wiki/Phayul.com" title="Phayul.com">phayul.com</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Presse-Agentur" title="Deutsche Presse-Agentur">Deutsche Presse-Agentur</a>. 26 February 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=26740">the original</a> on 9 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spanish+court+shelves+Tibet+human+rights+case+against+China&rft.date=2010-02-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phayul.com%2Fnews%2Farticle.aspx%3Fid%3D26740&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jpost1-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jpost1_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jpost1_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIzenberg2010" class="citation web cs1">Izenberg, Dan (19 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=173480">"Universal jurisdiction victory in Spain but battle goes on"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=Universal+jurisdiction+victory+in+Spain+but+battle+goes+on&rft.date=2010-04-19&rft.aulast=Izenberg&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FInternational%2FArticle.aspx%3Fid%3D173480&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2010" class="citation web cs1">Service, Haaretz (20 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/news/spanish-war-crimes-probe-against-israeli-officials-to-go-on-1.271096">"Spanish war crimes probe against Israeli officials to go on"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Spanish+war+crimes+probe+against+Israeli+officials+to+go+on&rft.date=2010-01-20&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Haaretz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fnews%2Fspanish-war-crimes-probe-against-israeli-officials-to-go-on-1.271096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles_Tremlett_in_Madrid2009" class="citation news cs1">Giles Tremlett in Madrid (29 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/29/spain-israel-gaza-crimes-humanity">"Spain investigates claims of Israeli crimes against humanity in Gaza"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Spain+investigates+claims+of+Israeli+crimes+against+humanity+in+Gaza&rft.date=2009-01-29&rft.au=Giles+Tremlett+in+Madrid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2009%2Fjan%2F29%2Fspain-israel-gaza-crimes-humanity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013231/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=31854">"Spanish judge to go ahead with Gaza raid probe"</a>. Middle-east-online.com. 4 May 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=31854">the original</a> on 7 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spanish+judge+to+go+ahead+with+Gaza+raid+probe&rft.pub=Middle-east-online.com&rft.date=2009-05-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middle-east-online.com%2Fenglish%2F%3Fid%3D31854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoaz-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yoaz_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yuval Yoaz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/904552.html">"State commission to examine civilian deaths in 2002 Shahade assassination"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a></i>, 19 September 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated7-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated7_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_Rodgers2002" class="citation news cs1">Walter Rodgers (4 September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080225153307/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/09/04/palestinian.collaborators/index.html">"Palestinians grapple with collaborators"</a>. CNN. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/09/04/palestinian.collaborators/index.html">the original</a> on 25 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Palestinians+grapple+with+collaborators&rft.date=2002-09-04&rft.au=Walter+Rodgers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.cnn.com%2F2002%2FWORLD%2Fmeast%2F09%2F04%2Fpalestinian.collaborators%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google4-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google4_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaacov_Lozowick2003" class="citation book cs1">Yaacov Lozowick (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/righttoexistmora00lozo"><i>Right to exist: a moral defense of Israel's wars</i></a></span>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-50905-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-50905-7"><bdi>0-385-50905-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2010</span>. <q>Salah Shehade precision bomb</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Right+to+exist%3A+a+moral+defense+of+Israel%27s+wars&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-385-50905-7&rft.au=Yaacov+Lozowick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frighttoexistmora00lozo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2002-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2002_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2002_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierre_Klochendler2002" class="citation news cs1">Pierre Klochendler (23 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080213091908/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/07/23/hamas.assassination/index.html">"Israeli general apologizes for civilian deaths"</a>. CNN. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/07/23/hamas.assassination/index.html">the original</a> on 13 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Israeli+general+apologizes+for+civilian+deaths&rft.date=2002-07-23&rft.au=Pierre+Klochendler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.cnn.com%2F2002%2FWORLD%2Fmeast%2F07%2F23%2Fhamas.assassination%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google5-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google5_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSergio_Catignani2008" class="citation book cs1">Sergio Catignani (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C3NcBIl_60C&q=Salah+Shehade+apologized&pg=PA166"><i>Israeli counter-insurgency and the Intifadas: dilemmas of a conventional army</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-93069-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-93069-4"><bdi>978-0-203-93069-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israeli+counter-insurgency+and+the+Intifadas%3A+dilemmas+of+a+conventional+army&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-203-93069-4&rft.au=Sergio+Catignani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2C3NcBIl_60C%26q%3DSalah%2BShehade%2Bapologized%26pg%3DPA166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google6-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google6_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Rudge2002" class="citation news cs1">David Rudge (25 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111174909/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/141530041.html?dids=141530041:141530041&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jul+25%2C+2002&author=DAVID+RUDGE%2C+News+agencies+contributed+to+this+report.&pub=Jerusalem+Post&desc=Peres+apologizes+for+Shehadeh+hit&pqatl=google">"Peres apologizes for Shehadeh hit"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/141530041.html?dids=141530041:141530041&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jul+25%2C+2002&author=DAVID+RUDGE%2C+News+agencies+contributed+to+this+report.&pub=Jerusalem+Post&desc=Peres+apologizes+for+Shehadeh+hit&pqatl=google">the original</a> on 11 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=Peres+apologizes+for+Shehadeh+hit&rft.date=2002-07-25&rft.au=David+Rudge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpqasb.pqarchiver.com%2Fjpost%2Faccess%2F141530041.html%3Fdids%3D141530041%3A141530041%26FMT%3DABS%26FMTS%3DABS%3AFT%26date%3DJul%2B25%252C%2B2002%26author%3DDAVID%2BRUDGE%252C%2BNews%2Bagencies%2Bcontributed%2Bto%2Bthis%2Breport.%26pub%3DJerusalem%2BPost%26desc%3DPeres%2Bapologizes%2Bfor%2BShehadeh%2Bhit%26pqatl%3Dgoogle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boston1-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-boston1_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_B._Green2003" class="citation news cs1">David B. Green (20 April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/packages/iraq/globe_stories/042003_code.htm">"Rebuilding Iraq; Fighting by the book; The Israeli army instructs its soldiers in a stringent ethical code. Can US forces learn from its example?"</a>. <i>Boston Globe</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=Rebuilding+Iraq%3B+Fighting+by+the+book%3B+The+Israeli+army+instructs+its+soldiers+in+a+stringent+ethical+code.+Can+US+forces+learn+from+its+example%3F&rft.date=2003-04-20&rft.au=David+B.+Green&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fpackages%2Firaq%2Fglobe_stories%2F042003_code.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/07/iran-conviction-of-former-iranian-official-over-involvement-in-1988-prison-massacres-landmark-step-towards-justice/">"Iran: Conviction of former Iranian official over involvement in 1988 prison massacres landmark step towards justice"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a></i>. 14 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amnesty+International&rft.atitle=Iran%3A+Conviction+of+former+Iranian+official+over+involvement+in+1988+prison+massacres+landmark+step+towards+justice&rft.date=2022-07-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Flatest%2Fnews%2F2022%2F07%2Firan-conviction-of-former-iranian-official-over-involvement-in-1988-prison-massacres-landmark-step-towards-justice%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/sweden-upholds-life-sentence-in-iran-prison-executions-case/a-67771180">"Sweden upholds life sentence in Iran prison executions case"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a></i>. 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=Sweden+upholds+life+sentence+in+Iran+prison+executions+case&rft.date=2023-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fsweden-upholds-life-sentence-in-iran-prison-executions-case%2Fa-67771180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisato_Tanaka2024" class="citation web cs1">Chisato Tanaka (15 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/sweden-syria-war-crimes-hamo-general-trial-9a80da6fdb7ecaeb1cfe2122bd7ff8f7">"The trial of a former Syrian general over alleged role in war crimes starts in Stockholm"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">AP News</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=The+trial+of+a+former+Syrian+general+over+alleged+role+in+war+crimes+starts+in+Stockholm&rft.date=2024-04-15&rft.au=Chisato+Tanaka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fsweden-syria-war-crimes-hamo-general-trial-9a80da6fdb7ecaeb1cfe2122bd7ff8f7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alieu_Kosiah:_Liberian_convicted_of_war_crimes_in_Swiss_court-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alieu_Kosiah:_Liberian_convicted_of_war_crimes_in_Swiss_court_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57528500">"Alieu Kosiah: Liberian convicted of war crimes in Swiss court"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></i>. 18 June 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20220809140922/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57528500">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Alieu+Kosiah%3A+Liberian+convicted+of+war+crimes+in+Swiss+court&rft.date=2021-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-57528500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swiss_charge_exGambian-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Swiss_charge_exGambian_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/19/swiss-charge-ex-gambian-minister-with-crimes-against-humanity">"Swiss charge ex-Gambian minister with crimes against humanity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera English</a></i>. 19 April 2023. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117832665" class="extiw" title="d:Q117832665">Q117832665</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230422081320/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/19/swiss-charge-ex-gambian-minister-with-crimes-against-humanity">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera+English&rft.atitle=Swiss+charge+ex-Gambian+minister+with+crimes+against+humanity&rft.date=2023-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2023%2F4%2F19%2Fswiss-charge-ex-gambian-minister-with-crimes-against-humanity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AJE_Uighurs_Turkey_file_case-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AJE_Uighurs_Turkey_file_case_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/4/turkey-uighurs-file-criminal-complaint-against-chinese-officials">"Uighurs in Turkey file criminal case against Chinese officials"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera English</a></i>. 4 January 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20220105000528/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/4/turkey-uighurs-file-criminal-complaint-against-chinese-officials">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera+English&rft.atitle=Uighurs+in+Turkey+file+criminal+case+against+Chinese+officials&rft.date=2022-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2022%2F1%2F4%2Fturkey-uighurs-file-criminal-complaint-against-chinese-officials&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170120162515/http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/jurisdiction/">"Jurisdiction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crown_Prosecution_Service" title="Crown Prosecution Service">Crown Prosecution Service</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/jurisdiction/">the original</a> on 20 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jurisdiction&rft.pub=Crown+Prosecution+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cps.gov.uk%2Flegal%2Fh_to_k%2Fjurisdiction%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span> For a list of particular offences with an extra-territorial reach see Archbold 2-36a-2-83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tzipi-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tzipi_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tzipi_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackCobain2009" class="citation news cs1">Black, Ian; Cobain, Ian (14 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/14/tzipi-livni-israel-gaza-arrest">"British court issued Gaza arrest warrant for former Israeli minister Tzipi Livni"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=British+court+issued+Gaza+arrest+warrant+for+former+Israeli+minister+Tzipi+Livni&rft.date=2009-12-14&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Cobain%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2009%2Fdec%2F14%2Ftzipi-livni-israel-gaza-arrest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavid2009" class="citation news cs1">Ravid, Barak (14 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091216153623/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1134978.html">"Foreign Ministry outraged over U.K. arrest warrant against Livni"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1134978.html">the original</a> on 16 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Foreign+Ministry+outraged+over+U.K.+arrest+warrant+against+Livni&rft.date=2009-12-14&rft.aulast=Ravid&rft.aufirst=Barak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fhasen%2Fspages%2F1134978.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8413234.stm">"Israel condemns attempt in a UK court to arrest Livni"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 15 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Israel+condemns+attempt+in+a+UK+court+to+arrest+Livni&rft.date=2009-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fmiddle_east%2F8413234.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UK_warrant-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UK_warrant_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/8415123.stm">"Tzipi Livni: UK warrant a legal 'abuse'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 14 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Tzipi+Livni%3A+UK+warrant+a+legal+%27abuse%27&rft.date=2009-12-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fmiddle_east%2F8415123.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC_Kumar_Lama_charged-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_Kumar_Lama_charged_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20914282">"Nepal's Colonel Kumar Lama charged in UK with torture"</a>. BBC News. 5 January 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150107224138/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20914282">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nepal%27s+Colonel+Kumar+Lama+charged+in+UK+with+torture&rft.date=2013-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-asia-20914282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EJIL_mistrial_Kumar_Lama-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EJIL_mistrial_Kumar_Lama_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHovell2017" class="citation web cs1">Hovell, Devika (6 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-mistrial-of-kumar-lama-problematizing-universal-jurisdiction">"The 'Mistrial' of Kumar Lama: Problematizing Universal Jurisdiction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/European_Journal_of_International_Law" title="European Journal of International Law">European Journal of International Law</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210514131304/https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-mistrial-of-kumar-lama-problematizing-universal-jurisdiction">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+%27Mistrial%27+of+Kumar+Lama%3A+Problematizing+Universal+Jurisdiction&rft.date=2017-04-06&rft.aulast=Hovell&rft.aufirst=Devika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejiltalk.org%2Fthe-mistrial-of-kumar-lama-problematizing-universal-jurisdiction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Sosa_v._Alvarez-Machain" title="Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain">Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FletcherSchool_war_crimes_Putin-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FletcherSchool_war_crimes_Putin_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephensonDannenbaum2022" class="citation web cs1">Stephenson, Heather; Dannenbaum, Tom (29 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.tufts.edu/fletcherrussia/what-are-war-crimes-and-will-putin-be-tried-for-them">"What are War Crimes—and Will Putin Be Tried for Them?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fletcher_School_at_Tufts_University" class="mw-redirect" title="The Fletcher School at Tufts University">The Fletcher School at Tufts University</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220405183346/https://sites.tufts.edu/fletcherrussia/what-are-war-crimes-and-will-putin-be-tried-for-them">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Fletcher+School+at+Tufts+University&rft.atitle=What+are+War+Crimes%E2%80%94and+Will+Putin+Be+Tried+for+Them%3F&rft.date=2022-03-29&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft.au=Dannenbaum%2C+Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.tufts.edu%2Ffletcherrussia%2Fwhat-are-war-crimes-and-will-putin-be-tried-for-them&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WSJ_Germany_opens_investigation-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WSJ_Germany_opens_investigation_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPancevski2022" class="citation news cs1">Pancevski, Bojan (8 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/russia-ukraine-latest-news-2022-03-08/card/germany-opens-investigation-into-suspected-russian-war-crimes-in-ukraine-bNCphaIWE30f2REH8BCi">"Germany Opens Investigation Into Suspected Russian War Crimes in Ukraine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20220405183839/https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/russia-ukraine-latest-news-2022-03-08/card/germany-opens-investigation-into-suspected-russian-war-crimes-in-ukraine-bNCphaIWE30f2REH8BCi">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Germany+Opens+Investigation+Into+Suspected+Russian+War+Crimes+in+Ukraine&rft.date=2022-03-08&rft.aulast=Pancevski&rft.aufirst=Bojan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Flivecoverage%2Frussia-ukraine-latest-news-2022-03-08%2Fcard%2Fgermany-opens-investigation-into-suspected-russian-war-crimes-in-ukraine-bNCphaIWE30f2REH8BCi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LRT_LT_prosecutors_to_probe_filmmaker_s_killing-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LRT_LT_prosecutors_to_probe_filmmaker_s_killing_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/1662906/lithuanian-prosecutors-to-probe-filmmaker-s-killing-in-ukraine-as-war-crime">"Lithuanian prosecutors to probe filmmaker's killing in Ukraine as war crime"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Radio_and_Television" title="Lithuanian National Radio and Television">Lithuanian National Radio and Television</a></i>. 5 April 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20220405222630/https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/1662906/lithuanian-prosecutors-to-probe-filmmaker-s-killing-in-ukraine-as-war-crime">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lithuanian+National+Radio+and+Television&rft.atitle=Lithuanian+prosecutors+to+probe+filmmaker%27s+killing+in+Ukraine+as+war+crime&rft.date=2022-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lrt.lt%2Fen%2Fnews-in-english%2F19%2F1662906%2Flithuanian-prosecutors-to-probe-filmmaker-s-killing-in-ukraine-as-war-crime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheLocal_Sweden_launches-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheLocal_Sweden_launches_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheLocal_Sweden_launches_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelocal.se/20220405/sweden-launches-investigation-into-ukraine-war-crimes">"Sweden launches investigation into Ukraine war crimes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Local" title="The Local">The Local</a> – Sweden</i>. 5 April 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220405183343/https://www.thelocal.se/20220405/sweden-launches-investigation-into-ukraine-war-crimes">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Local+%E2%80%93+Sweden&rft.atitle=Sweden+launches+investigation+into+Ukraine+war+crimes&rft.date=2022-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelocal.se%2F20220405%2Fsweden-launches-investigation-into-ukraine-war-crimes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Der_Wilt2015" class="citation journal cs1">Van Der Wilt, Harmen (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqv007">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Sadder but Wiser?' NGOs and Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes"</a>. <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqv007">10.1093/jicj/mqv007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=%27Sadder+but+Wiser%3F%27+NGOs+and+Universal+Jurisdiction+for+International+Crimes&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=242&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqv007&rft.aulast=Van+Der+Wilt&rft.aufirst=Harmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqv007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelocal.es/20220308/spain-opens-probe-into-serious-violations-by-russia-in-ukraine">"Spain opens probe into 'serious violations' by Russia in Ukraine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Local" title="The Local">The Local</a> – Spain</i>. 8 March 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220327123905/https://www.thelocal.es/20220308/spain-opens-probe-into-serious-violations-by-russia-in-ukraine">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Local+%E2%80%93+Spain&rft.atitle=Spain+opens+probe+into+%27serious+violations%27+by+Russia+in+Ukraine&rft.date=2022-03-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelocal.es%2F20220308%2Fspain-opens-probe-into-serious-violations-by-russia-in-ukraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Archibugi, Daniele</a>, Pease, Alice. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://politybooks.com/bookdetail/?isbn=9781509512614">Crime and Global Justice. The Dynamics of International Punishment</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Polity_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Polity Press">Polity Press</a>, 2018, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-50951-262-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-50951-262-1">978-1-50951-262-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_K%C3%B6chler" title="Hans Köchler">Köchler, Hans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_Justice_or_Global_Revenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Justice or Global Revenge">Global Justice or Global Revenge? International Criminal Justice at the Crossroads</a> (2003)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReydams2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luc_Reydams" title="Luc Reydams">Reydams, Luc</a> (2004). <i>Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspectives</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-927426-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-927426-6"><bdi>0-19-927426-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Universal+Jurisdiction%3A+International+and+Municipal+Legal+Perspectives&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-927426-6&rft.aulast=Reydams&rft.aufirst=Luc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+jurisdiction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyal_Sunga" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyal Sunga">Lyal S. Sunga</a>, <i>The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation</i>. Kluwer, 1997, 508 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-411-0472-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-411-0472-0">90-411-0472-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyal_Sunga" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyal Sunga">Lyal S. Sunga</a>, <i>Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations</i>. Nijhoff, 1992, 252 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-1453-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-1453-0">0-7923-1453-0</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcpa.org/text/universal-jurisdiction.pdf">Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226210155/http://www.jcpa.org/text/universal-jurisdiction.pdf">Archived</a> 26 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Diane Morrison and Justus Reid Weiner <i>Curbing the Manipulation of Universal Jurisdiction</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Macedo, Stephen (project chair and editor). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lapa.princeton.edu/hosteddocs/unive_jur.pdf">The Princeton principles on Universal Jurisdiction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210323022642/http://lapa.princeton.edu/hosteddocs/unive_jur.pdf">Archived</a> 23 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040203104423/http://www.law.uc.edu/morgan2/newsdir/univjuris.html">The Princeton Project on Universal Jurisdiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9711859-0-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-9711859-0-5">0-9711859-0-5</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623044038/http://www.redress.org/publications/LegalRemediesFinal.pdf">Legal Remedies for Victims of "International Crimes": Fostering an EU Approach To Extraterritorial Jurisdiction</a> <a href="/wiki/Redress_(charitable_organisation)" title="Redress (charitable organisation)">The Redress Trust</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Human_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="International Federation of Human Rights">International Federation of Human Rights</a>, March 2004</li> <li>Kissinger, Henry, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/general/2001/07kiss.htm">The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction: Risking Judicial Tyranny</a> –, <i>Foreign Affairs</i>, July/August 2001.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/14984540/The-AUEU-Expert-Report-on-the-Principle-of-Universal-Jurisdiction">The AU-EU Expert Report on the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction</a>, 16 April 2009.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_criminal_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_criminal_law" title="Template:International criminal law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_criminal_law" title="Template talk:International criminal law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_criminal_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International criminal law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_criminal_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">Customary international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">Peremptory norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against<br />international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">Genocidal intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement to genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">International courts</a><br /><span class="nobold">(in order of foundation)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Panels_for_Serious_Crimes_(East_Timor)" title="Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor)">Special Panels of the Dili District Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Residual_Mechanism_for_Criminal_Tribunals" title="International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals">International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_speech_crimes" title="International speech crimes">International speech crimes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&oldid=1254176603">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&oldid=1254176603</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Universal_jurisdiction" title="Category:Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_instruments" title="Category:Human rights instruments">Human rights instruments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights" title="Category:Human rights">Human rights</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:International_criminal_law" title="Category:International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_doctrines_and_principles" title="Category:Legal doctrines and principles">Legal doctrines and principles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Globalization" title="Category:Globalization">Globalization</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extraterritorial_jurisdiction" title="Category:Extraterritorial jurisdiction">Extraterritorial jurisdiction</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from July 2024">Articles with dead external links from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_June_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from June 2024">Articles with dead external links from June 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_April_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from April 2023">Use dmy dates from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2007" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 29 October 2024, at 19:26<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_jurisdiction&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-697b7966c5-jhvvh","wgBackendResponseTime":204,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.080","walltime":"1.277","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6571,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":174874,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6522,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":17,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":308168,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":5,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1165.173 1 -total"," 58.70% 684.004 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.02% 198.347 40 Template:Cite_news"," 11.54% 134.456 4 Template:Lang"," 11.25% 131.036 3 Template:Cite_Q"," 8.98% 104.632 21 Template:Cite_web"," 8.89% 103.583 9 Template:Cite_book"," 7.69% 89.657 1 Template:International_Criminal_Law"," 7.48% 87.165 1 Template:Navbox"," 4.94% 57.514 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.727","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24195690,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-77c8488b9d-6qxdl","timestamp":"20241125143913","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Universal jurisdiction","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_jurisdiction","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q928801","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q928801","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-04-10T22:35:15Z","dateModified":"2024-10-29T19:26:29Z","headline":"legal doctrine that some acts can be tried regardless of where they occurred, particularly applied to war crimes"}</script> </body> </html>