CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Medieval Greek - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"804a3886-c0b8-4a9a-ac68-73ced72a45f4","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Medieval_Greek","wgTitle":"Medieval Greek","wgCurRevisionId":1252247028,"wgRevisionId":1252247028,"wgArticleId":21220008,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Wikipedia articles that are too technical from June 2020","All articles that are too technical","Use British English from December 2017","Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text","Language articles with Linglist code","Articles with unnamed Glottolog code","Languages with ISO 639-2 code","Language articles with unreferenced extinction date", "Articles containing Greek-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020","Pages with plain IPA","Wikipedia articles that are too technical from July 2020","All articles needing expert attention","Articles needing expert attention from July 2020","Pages with Greek IPA","Articles containing Turkish-language text","Pages with Medieval Greek IPA","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing Italian-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Articles containing undetermined-language text","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2020","Articles containing German-language text","Articles containing Russian-language text","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018","Medieval Greek","Languages attested from the 4th century","4th-century establishments","Languages extinct in the 15th century", "15th-century disestablishments in Europe","Languages of Egypt","Languages of Sicily","Languages of ancient Italy"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Medieval_Greek","wgRelevantArticleId":21220008,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Medieval_Greek_language","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Medieval_Greek","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[], "wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q36387","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready", "ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Medieval Greek - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Greek"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Greek"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Medieval_Greek rootpage-Medieval_Greek skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Medieval+Greek" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Medieval+Greek" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Medieval+Greek" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Medieval+Greek" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History and development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History and development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diglossia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diglossia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Diglossia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diglossia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonetics_and_phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonetics_and_phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonetics and phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonetics_and_phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonetics and phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonetics_and_phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intralinguistic_innovations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intralinguistic_innovations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Intralinguistic innovations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intralinguistic_innovations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loanwords_from_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loanwords_from_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Loanwords from other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loanwords_from_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Script</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Script-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Script subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Uncial_and_cursive_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uncial_and_cursive_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Uncial and cursive script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uncial_and_cursive_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minuscule_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minuscule_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Minuscule script</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minuscule_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Influence on other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sample Medieval Greek texts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sample Medieval Greek texts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sample_1_–_Anna_Komnena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_1_–_Anna_Komnena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Sample 1 – Anna Komnena</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_1_–_Anna_Komnena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_2_–_Digenes_Akritas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_2_–_Digenes_Akritas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sample 2 – Digenes Akritas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_2_–_Digenes_Akritas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medieval Greek</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="يونانية العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يونانية العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griego_bizant%C3%ADn" title="Griego bizantín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Griego bizantín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griegu_medieval" title="Griegu medieval – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Griegu medieval" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_yunan_dili" title="Orta yunan dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta yunan dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="بیزانس یونان دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیزانس یونان دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Средногръцки език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средногръцки език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grec_medieval" title="Grec medieval – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Grec medieval" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantsk%C3%A1_%C5%99e%C4%8Dtina" title="Byzantská řečtina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Byzantská řečtina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinsk_gr%C3%A6sk" title="Byzantinsk græsk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Byzantinsk græsk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelgriechische_Sprache" title="Mittelgriechische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelgriechische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Μεσαιωνική ελληνική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσαιωνική ελληνική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griego_medieval" title="Griego medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Griego medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoka_greka_lingvo" title="Mezepoka greka lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoka greka lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdi_Aroko_grekoa" title="Erdi Aroko grekoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erdi Aroko grekoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="زبان یونانی میانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان یونانی میانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grec_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9val" title="Grec médiéval – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grec médiéval" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%EC%96%B4" title="중세 그리스어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 그리스어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yunani_Abad_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Yunani Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Yunani Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_greca_bizantina" title="Lingua greca bizantina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua greca bizantina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="יוונית ביזנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יוונית ביזנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Graeca_media" title="Lingua Graeca media – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Graeca media" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yunani_Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Yunani Zaman Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Yunani Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelgrieks" title="Middelgrieks – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middelgrieks" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="中世ギリシア語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世ギリシア語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysantinsk_gresk" title="Bysantinsk gresk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bysantinsk gresk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelgreeksche_Spraak" title="Middelgreeksche Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Middelgreeksche Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_%C5%9Bredniogrecki" title="Język średniogrecki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język średniogrecki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grego_medieval" title="Grego medieval – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grego medieval" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_greac%C4%83_medieval%C4%83" title="Limba greacă medievală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba greacă medievală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Среднегреческий язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Среднегреческий язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medieval Greek" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredovek%C3%A1_gr%C3%A9%C4%8Dtina" title="Stredoveká gréčtina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredoveká gréčtina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjeve%C5%A1ka_gr%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Srednjeveška grščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Srednjeveška grščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Средњовековни грчки језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњовековни грчки језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovni_gr%C4%8Dki_jezik" title="Srednjovjekovni grčki jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednjovjekovni grčki jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysantin_kreikka" title="Bysantin kreikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bysantin kreikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griyegong_Mediebal" title="Griyegong Mediebal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Griyegong Mediebal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F_Yunancas%C4%B1" title="Orta Çağ Yunancası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ Yunancası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Середньогрецька мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Середньогрецька мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="وسطی یونانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وسطی یونانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E8%AF%AD" title="中古希腊语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中古希腊语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q36387#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Medieval_Greek" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Medieval_Greek" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Medieval_Greek" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&oldid=1252247028" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Medieval_Greek&id=1252247028&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMedieval_Greek"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMedieval_Greek"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Medieval_Greek&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q36387" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek_language&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek language</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Byzantine Greek" redirects here. For the ethnic group, see <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medieval stage of the Greek language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Medieval Greek</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Byzantine Greek, Romaic</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Ῥωμαϊκή</span></span><br /><span title="ISO 843 Greek (Ancient Greek (to 1453) language) transliteration"><i lang="grc-Latn"><i>Rhōmaïkḗ</i></i></span><br /><span title="ISO 843 Greek (Ancient Greek (to 1453) language) transliteration"><i lang="grc-Latn"><i>Romaïkí</i></i></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) : Southern <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimea_in_the_Roman_era" title="Crimea in the Roman era">Byzantine Crimea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600–1500 AD</span>; developed into <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a><sup id="cite_ref-Mackridge_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackridge-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Attic-Ionic" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic-Ionic">Attic-Ionic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Medieval Greek</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg/21px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg/32px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg/42px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="648" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=173">grc</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/grc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:grc">grc</a></code> <span style="font-size:85%;">(i.e. with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/qgk">qgk</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/medi1251">medi1251</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Medieval Greek</b> (also known as <b>Middle Greek</b>, <b>Byzantine Greek</b>, or <b>Romaic</b>) is the stage of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> between the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, conventionally dated to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Ottoman conquest of Constantinople</a> in 1453. </p><p>From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. This stage of language is thus described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a>, the study of the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire. </p><p>The beginning of Medieval Greek is occasionally dated back to as early as the 4th century, either to 330 AD, when the political centre of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was moved to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, or to 395 AD, the division of the empire. However, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political, as opposed to cultural and linguistic, developments. Indeed, by this time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackridge_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackridge-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, had caused Greek to spread to peoples throughout <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and the Eastern Mediterranean, altering the spoken language's pronunciation and structure. </p><p>Medieval Greek is the link between this <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a>. Though Byzantine Greek literature was still strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a>, it was also influenced by vernacular Koine Greek, which is the language of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and the liturgical language of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png/200px-Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png/300px-Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="268" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of Greek dialects from the late <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> through to the early 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek#Demotic" title="Modern Greek">Demotic</a> in yellow, <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic</a> in orange, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian</a> in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek speaking villages in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> (the Great) moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople) in 330. The city, though a major imperial residence like other cities such as <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a>, was not officially a capital until 359. Nonetheless, the imperial court resided there and the city was the political centre of the eastern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> where Greek was the dominant language. At first, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> remained the language of both the court and the army. It was used for official documents, but its influence waned. From the beginning of the 6th century, amendments to the law were mostly written in Greek. Furthermore, parts of the Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Iuris_Civilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Iuris Civilis">Corpus Iuris Civilis</a></i> were gradually translated into Greek. Under the rule of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> (610–641 AD), who also assumed the Greek title <i><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">βασιλεύς</span>, 'monarch') in 610, Greek became the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was in spite of the fact that the inhabitants of the empire still considered themselves <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Rhomaioi</i></span> ('Romans') until its end in 1453,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as they saw their State as the perpetuation of Roman rule. Latin continued to be used on the coinage until the ninth century and in certain court ceremonies for even longer. </p><p>Despite the absence of reliable demographic figures, it has been estimated that less than one third of the inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire, around eight million people, were native speakers of Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of those who were able to communicate in Greek may have been far higher. The native Greek speakers consisted of many of the inhabitants of the southern <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Peninsula">Balkan Peninsula</a>, south of the <a href="/wiki/Jire%C4%8Dek_Line" title="Jireček Line">Jireček Line</a>, and all of the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, where the native tongues (<a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycian_language" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydian_language" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carian_language" title="Carian language">Carian</a> etc.), except <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> in the east, had become extinct and replaced by Greek by the 5th century. In any case, all cities of the Eastern Roman Empire were strongly influenced by the Greek language.<sup id="cite_ref-lombard_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lombard-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the period between 603 and 619, the southern and eastern parts of the empire (<a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa (Roman)">North Africa</a>) were occupied by Persian <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> and, after being recaptured by <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> in the years 622 to 628, were conquered by the Arabs in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> a few years later. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, a centre of Greek culture and language, fell to the Arabs in 642. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek was gradually replaced by Arabic as an official language in conquered territories such as Egypt,<sup id="cite_ref-lombard_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lombard-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as more people learned Arabic. Thus, the use of Greek declined early on in Syria and Egypt. The invasion of the Slavs into the Balkan Peninsula reduced the area where Greek and Latin was spoken (roughly north of a line from <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> to <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>). Sicily and parts of <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, Cyprus, Asia Minor and more generally Anatolia, parts of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimean Peninsula</a> remained Greek-speaking. The southern Balkans which would henceforth be <a href="/wiki/South_Slavs#Relationship_with_Byzantium" title="South Slavs">contested</a> between Byzantium and various Slavic kingdoms or empires. The Greek language spoken by one-third of the population of Sicily at the time of the Norman conquest 1060–1090 remained vibrant for more than a century, but slowly died out (as did Arabic) to a deliberate policy of Latinization in language and religion from the mid-1160s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From the late 11th century onwards, the interior of Anatolia was invaded by <a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Seljuq</a> Turks, who advanced westwards. With the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman</a> conquests of Constantinople in 1453, the Peloponnese in 1459 or 1460, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> in 1461, Athens in 1465, and two centuries later the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Candia" title="Kingdom of Candia">Duchy of Candia</a> in 1669, the Greek language lost its status as a national language until the emergence of modern Greece in the year 1821. Language varieties after 1453 are referred to as Modern Greek. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diglossia">Diglossia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Diglossia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As early as in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, there was a tendency towards a state of <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a> literary language and the constantly developing vernacular <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a>. By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore. In the Byzantine era, written Greek manifested itself in a whole spectrum of divergent <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a>, all of which were consciously archaic in comparison with the contemporary spoken vernacular, but in different degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They ranged from a moderately archaic style employed for most every-day writing and based mostly on the written Koine of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and early Christian literature, to a highly artificial learned style, employed by authors with higher literary ambitions and closely imitating the model of classical Attic, in continuation of the movement of <a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a> in late antiquity. At the same time, the spoken vernacular language developed on the basis of earlier spoken Koine, and reached a stage that in many ways resembles present-day <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> in terms of grammar and phonology by the turn of the first millennium AD. Written literature reflecting this <a href="/wiki/Demotic_Greek" title="Demotic Greek">Demotic Greek</a> begins to appear around 1100. </p><p>Among the preserved literature in the Attic literary language, various forms of historiography take a prominent place. They comprise <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a> as well as classicist, contemporary works of <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, theological documents, and <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">saints' lives</a>. Poetry can be found in the form of hymns and <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> poetry. Many of the Byzantine emperors were active writers themselves and wrote chronicles or works on the running of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine state</a> and strategic or philological works. </p><p>Furthermore, letters, legal texts, and numerous registers and lists in Medieval Greek exist. Concessions to spoken Greek can be found, for example, in John Malalas's <i>Chronography</i> from the 6th century, the <i>Chronicle</i> of <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a> (9th century) and the works of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII_Porphyrogenitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus">Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus</a> (mid-10th century). These are influenced by the vernacular language of their time in choice of words and <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idiom</a>, but largely follow the models of written Koine in their <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. </p><p>The spoken form of Greek was called <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">γλῶσσα δημώδης</span></span> (<i>glōssa dēmōdēs</i> 'vernacular language'), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἁπλοελληνική</span></span> (<i>haploellēnikē</i> 'basic Greek'), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">καθωμιλημένη</span></span> (<i>kathōmilēmenē</i> 'spoken') or <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ῥωμαιϊκή</span></span> (<i>Rhōmaiïkē</i> 'Roman language'). Before the 13th century, examples of texts written in vernacular Greek are very rare. They are restricted to isolated passages of popular <a href="/wiki/Acclamatio" title="Acclamatio">acclamations</a>, sayings, and particularly common or untranslatable formulations which occasionally made their way into Greek literature. Since the end of the 11th century, vernacular Greek poems from the literary realm of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> are documented. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a>, a collection of heroic sagas from the 12th century that was later collated in a <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">verse epic</a>, was the first literary work completely written in the vernacular. The Greek vernacular verse epic appeared in the 12th century, around the time of the French romance novel, almost as a backlash to the Attic renaissance during the dynasty of the Komnenoi in works like <a href="/wiki/Michael_Psellos" title="Michael Psellos">Psellos</a>'s <i>Chronography</i> (in the middle of the 11th century) or the <i>Alexiad</i>, the biography of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> written by his daughter <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnena" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Komnena">Anna Komnena</a> about a century later. In fifteen-syllable <a href="/wiki/Blank_verse" title="Blank verse">blank verse</a> (versus politicus), the <i>Digenes Akritas</i> deals with both ancient and medieval heroic sagas, but also with stories of animals and plants. The <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_Morea" title="Chronicle of the Morea">Chronicle of the Morea</a></i>, a verse chronicle from the 14th century, is unique. It has also been preserved in French, Italian and <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a> versions, and covers the history of <a href="/wiki/Franks#Legacy" title="Franks">Frankish</a> feudalism on the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a> during the <i><a href="/wiki/Latinokratia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinokratia">Latinokratia</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Achaea" title="Principality of Achaea">Principality of Achaea</a>, a crusader state set up after the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> and the 13th century <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a>. </p><p>The earliest evidence of prose vernacular Greek exists in some documents from southern Italy written in the tenth century. Later prose literature consists of statute books, chronicles and fragments of religious, historical and medical works. The dualism of literary language and vernacular was to persist until well into the 20th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language_question" title="Greek language question">Greek language question</a> was decided in favor of the vernacular in 1976. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialects">Dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The persistence until the Middle Ages of a single Greek speaking state, the Byzantine Empire, meant that, unlike <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, Greek did not split into separate languages. However, with the fracturing of the Byzantine state after the turn of the first millennium, newly isolated dialects such as <a href="/wiki/Mariupol_Greek" title="Mariupol Greek">Mariupol Greek</a>, spoken in Crimea, <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic Greek</a>, spoken along the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor, and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian</a>, spoken in central Asia Minor, began to diverge. In <a href="/wiki/Griko" class="mw-redirect" title="Griko">Griko</a>, a language spoken in the southern Italian <a href="/wiki/Exclaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclaves">exclaves</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Tsakonian_language" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian</a>, which is spoken on the Peloponnese, dialects of older origin continue to be used today. <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Greek" title="Cypriot Greek">Cypriot Greek</a> was already in a literary form in the late Middle Ages, being used in the <a href="/wiki/Assizes_of_Jerusalem" title="Assizes of Jerusalem">Assizes of Cyprus</a> and the chronicles of <a href="/wiki/Leontios_Makhairas" class="mw-redirect" title="Leontios Makhairas">Leontios Makhairas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgios_Boustronios" title="Georgios Boustronios">Georgios Boustronios</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonetics_and_phonology">Phonetics and phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonetics and phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is assumed that most of the developments leading to the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> had either already taken place in Medieval Greek and its <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> predecessor <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, or were continuing to develop during this period. Above all, these developments included the establishment of dynamic <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, which had already replaced the tonal system of Ancient Greek during the Hellenistic period. In addition, the vowel system was gradually reduced to five phonemes without any differentiation in vowel length, a process also well begun during the Hellenistic period. Furthermore, Ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a> became <a href="/wiki/Monophthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophthongs">monophthongs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Type </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded vowel">unrounded</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ι</span></span></b>, <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ει</span></span></b>, <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">η</span></span></b> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span>) <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υ</span></span></b>, <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">οι</span></span></b>, <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υι</span></span></b> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ου</span></span></b> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e̞/</span> <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ε</span></span></b>, <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">αι</span></span></b> </td> <td>  </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o̞/</span> <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ο</span></span></b>, <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ω</span></span></b> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> <b><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">α</span></span></b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a>, an encyclopedia from the late 10th century, gives some indication of the vowel inventory. Following the antistoichic<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (July 2020)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> system, it lists terms <a href="/wiki/Alphabetically" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabetically">alphabetically</a> but arranges similarly pronounced letters side by side. In this way, for indicating <a href="/wiki/Homophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Homophones">homophony</a>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">αι</span></span> is grouped together with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ε</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e̞/</span>; <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ει</span></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">η</span></span> together with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>; <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ο</span></span> with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o̞/</span>, and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">οι</span></span> with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span>. At least in educated speech, the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span>, which had also merged with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υι</span></span>, likely did not lose lip-rounding and become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> until the 10th/11th centuries. Up to this point, transliterations into Georgian continue using a different letter for <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">υ/οι</span></span> than for <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ι/ει/η</span></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the year 1030, Michael the <a href="/wiki/Grammarian_(Greco-Roman_world)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)">Grammarian</a> could still make fun of the bishop of <a href="/wiki/Philomelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Philomelion">Philomelion</a> for confusing <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ι</span></span> for <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υ</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 10th century, Georgian transliterations begin using the letter representing <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">უ</span></span>) for <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υ/οι</span></span>, in line with the alternative development in certain dialects like <a href="/wiki/Tsakonian_language" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megaran</a> and South Italian Greek where <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span> reverted to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>. This phenomenon perhaps indirectly indicates that the same original phoneme had merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> in mainstream varieties at roughly the same time (the same documents also transcribe <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υ/οι</span></span> with <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ი</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> very sporadically).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the original closing diphthongs <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">αυ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ευ</span></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ηυ</span></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Offglide" title="Offglide">offglide</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> had developed into a consonantal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[f]</span> early on (possibly through an intermediate stage of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸ]</span>). Before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">υ</span></span> turned to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">εὔνοστος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['evnostos]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἔμνοστος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['emnostos]</a></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χαύνος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xavnos]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χάμνος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xamnos]</a></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐλαύνω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'lavno]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">λάμνω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['lamno]</a></span>), and before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> it was dropped (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θαῦμα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['θavma]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θάμα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['θama]</a></span>). Before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span>, it occasionally turned to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀνάπαυση</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[a'napafsi]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀνάπαψη</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[a'napapsi]</a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Words with initial vowels were often affected by <a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">apheresis</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἡ ἡμέρα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[i<span class="wrap"> </span>i'mera]</a></span> → <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἡ μέρα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[i<span class="wrap"> </span>'mera]</a></span> ('the day'), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐρωτῶ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ero'to]</a></span> → <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ρωτῶ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ro'to]</a></span> ('(I) ask').<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A regular phenomenon in most dialects is <a href="/wiki/Synizesis" title="Synizesis">synizesis</a> ("merging" of vowels). In many words with the combinations <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈea]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈeo]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈia]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈio]</span>, the stress shifted to the second vowel, and the first became a glide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span>. Thus: <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Ῥωμαῖος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ro'meos]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Ῥωμιός</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ro'mɲos]</a></span> ('Roman'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐννέα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'nea]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐννιά</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'ɲa]</a></span> ('nine'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ποῖος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['pios]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ποιός</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['pços]</a></span> ('which'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">τα παιδία</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ta<span class="wrap"> </span>pe'ðia]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">τα παιδιά</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ta<span class="wrap"> </span>pe'ðʝa]</a></span> ('the children'). This accentual shift is already reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">metre</a> of the 6th century hymns of <a href="/wiki/Romanos_the_Melodist" title="Romanos the Melodist">Romanos the Melodist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, the vowel <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><i lang="grc">o</i></span> disappeared in the endings <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-ιον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-ion]</a></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-ιος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-ios]</a></span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">σακκίον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sa'cion]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">σακκίν</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sa'cin]</a></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χαρτίον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[xar'tion]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χαρτίν</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[xar'tin]</a></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κύριος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['cyrios]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κύρις</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['cyris]</a></span>). This phenomenon is attested to have begun earlier, in the Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> papyri.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The shift in the <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> system from <a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a> <a href="/wiki/Plosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">plosives</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">β</span></span>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">δ</span></span>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γ</span></span>) and <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> plosives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʰ/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">φ</span></span>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʰ/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θ</span></span>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χ</span></span>) to corresponding <a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v,<span class="wrap"> </span>ð,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f,<span class="wrap"> </span>θ,<span class="wrap"> </span>x/</span>, respectively) was already completed during <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. However, the original voiced plosives remained as such after nasal consonants, with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mb]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">μβ</span></span>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nd]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νδ</span></span>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋɡ]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γγ</span></span>). The <a href="/wiki/Velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar">velar</a> sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k,<span class="wrap"> </span>x,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋk,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋɡ/</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γκ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γγ</span></span>) were realised as <a href="/wiki/Palatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal">palatal</a> <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c,<span class="wrap"> </span>ç,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʝ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɲc,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɲɟ]</span>) before front vowels. The fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>, which had been present in Classical Greek, had been lost early on, although it continued to be reflected in spelling through the <a href="/wiki/Rough_breathing" title="Rough breathing">rough breathing</a>, a diacritic mark added to vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Changes in the phonological system mainly affect <a href="/wiki/Consonant_clusters" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant clusters">consonant clusters</a> that show <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> processes. In clusters of two different <a href="/wiki/Plosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">plosives</a> or two different <a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a>, there is a tendency for <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">dissimilation</a> such that the first consonant becomes a fricative and/or the second becomes a plosive ultimately favoring a fricative-plosive cluster. But if the first consonant was a fricative and the second consonant was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>, the first consonant instead became a plosive, favoring a plosive-<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> cluster.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval Greek also had cluster voicing harmony favoring the voice of the final plosive or fricative; when the resulting clusters became voiceless, the aforementioned sandhi would further apply. This process of assimilation and sandhi was highly regular and predictable, forming a rule of Medieval Greek <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a> that would persist into Early <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a>. When dialects started deleting unstressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> between two consonants (such as when Myzithras became <a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a>), new clusters were formed and similarly assimilated by sandhi; on the other hand it is arguable that the dissimilation of voiceless <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> occurred before the loss of close vowels, as the clusters resulting from this development do not necessarily undergo the change to [fricative + stop], e.g. <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κ(ου)τί</span></span> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kti]</span> not <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xti]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The resulting clusters were: </p><p>For plosives: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kp]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[xp]</span></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kt]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[xt]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νύκτα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nykta]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νύχτα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nixta]</a></span>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pt]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[ft]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἑπτά</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'pta]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἑφτά</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'fta]</a></span>)</li></ul> <p>For fricatives where the second was not <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sθ]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[st]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Μυζ(η)θράς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[myz(i)'θras]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Μυστράς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mi'stras]</a></span>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sf]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[sp]</span> (only occurred in <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic Greek</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sx]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[sk]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">σχολείο</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sxo'lio]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">σκολειό</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sko'ʎo]</a></span>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fθ]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[ft]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">φθόνος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['fθonos]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">φτόνος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['ftonos]</a></span>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fx]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[fk]</span></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xθ]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[xt]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χθές</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xθes]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χτές</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xtes]</a></span>)</li></ul> <p>For fricatives where the second was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fs]<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>[ps]</span> (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἔπαυσα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['epafsa]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἔπαψα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['epapsa]</a></span>)</li></ul> <p>The disappearance of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> in word-final position, which had begun sporadically in Late Antiquity, became more widespread, excluding certain dialects such as South Italian and Cypriot. The nasals <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> also disappeared before voiceless fricatives, for example <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νύμφη</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nyɱfi]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νύφη</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nifi]</a></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄνθος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['an̪θos]</a></span> → <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄθος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['aθos]</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new set of voiced plosives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[(m)b]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[(n)d]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[(ŋ)ɡ]</span> developed through <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> of voiceless <a href="/wiki/Plosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">plosives</a> after <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasals</a>. There is some dispute as to when exactly this development took place but apparently it began during the Byzantine period. The graphemes <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">μπ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ντ</span></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γκ</span></span> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> can already be found in transcriptions from neighboring languages in Byzantine sources, like in <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ντερβίσης</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[der'visis]</a></span>, from <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i lang="tr">derviş</i> ('<a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervish</a>'). On the other hand, some scholars contend that post-nasal voicing of voiceless plosives began already in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology#Consonants" title="Koine Greek phonology">the Koine</a>, as interchanges with <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">β</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">δ</span></span>, and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γ</span></span> in this position are found in the papyri.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prenasalized voiced spirants <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">μβ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νδ</span></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γγ</span></span> were still plosives by this time, causing a merger between <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">μβ/μπ</span></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">νδ/ντ</span></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">γγ/γκ</span></span>, which would remain except within educated varieties, where spelling pronunciations did make for segments such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɱv,<span class="wrap"> </span>n̪ð,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋɣ]</span><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many decisive changes between Ancient and Modern Greek were completed by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> AD. There is a striking reduction of <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> categories inherited from <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>, especially in the verbal system, and a complementary tendency of developing new analytical formations and periphrastic constructions. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, the inflectional paradigms of <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a>, conjugation and comparison were regularised through analogy. Thus, in nouns, the Ancient Greek third declension, which showed an unequal number of syllables in the different cases, was adjusted to the regular first and second declension by forming a new <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> form out of the oblique case forms: Ancient Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὁ πατήρ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ho<span class="wrap"> </span>patɛ́ːr]</a></span> → Modern Greek <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ὁ πατέρας</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[o<span class="wrap"> </span>pa'teras]</a></span>, in analogy to the accusative form <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">τὸν πατέρα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tom<span class="wrap"> </span>ba'tera]</a></span>. Feminine nouns ending in <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-ις</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-is]</a></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-ας</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-as]</a></span> formed the nominative according to the accusative <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-ιδα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-iða]</a></span> <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-αδα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-aða]</a></span>, as in <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐλπίς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[elpís]</a></span> → <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ἐλπίδα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[elˈpiða]</a></span> ('hope'), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πατρίς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[patrís]</a></span> → <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">πατρίδα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[paˈtriða]</a></span> ('homeland'), and in <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἑλλάς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[hellás]</a></span> → <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἑλλάδα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eˈlaða]</a></span> ('Greece'). Only a few nouns remained unaffected by this simplification, such as <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">τὸ φῶς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[to<span class="wrap"> </span>fos]</a></span> (both <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>), <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">τοῦ φωτός</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tu<span class="wrap"> </span>fo'tos]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>). </p><p>The Ancient Greek formation of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative" title="Comparative">comparative</a> of adjectives ending in <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-ων</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-ιον</span></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-oːn,<span class="wrap"> </span>-ion]</a></span> which was partly irregular, was gradually replaced by the formation using the more regular <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-τερος</span></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-τέρα (-τερη)</span></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-τερο(ν)</span></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-teros,<span class="wrap"> </span>-tera<span class="wrap"> </span>(-teri),<span class="wrap"> </span>-tero(n)]</a></span>: <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">µείζων</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[méːzdoːn]</a></span> → <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">µειζότερος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mi'zoteros]</a></span> ('the bigger'). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> genitive forms of the first and second person <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronoun</a>, as well as the genitive forms of the third person <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronoun</a>, developed into unstressed enclitic possessive pronouns that were attached to nouns: <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">µου</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mu]</a></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">σου</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[su]</a></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">του</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tu]</a></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">της</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tis]</a></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">µας</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mas]</a></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">σας</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sas]</a></span>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">των</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ton]</a></span>. </p><p>Irregularities in verb inflection were also reduced through analogy. Thus, the <a href="/wiki/Contraction_(grammar)" title="Contraction (grammar)">contracted</a> verbs ending in <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-άω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-aoː]</a></span>, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-έω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-eoː]</a></span> etc., which earlier showed a complex set of vowel alternations, readopted the endings of the regular forms: <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀγαπᾷ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[aɡapâːi]</a></span> → <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ἀγαπάει</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[aɣaˈpai]</a></span> ('he loves'). The use of the past tense prefix, known as <a href="/wiki/Augment_(Indo-European)" title="Augment (Indo-European)">augment</a>, was gradually limited to regular forms in which the augment was required to carry word stress. <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a> in the verb stem, which was a feature of the old <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> forms, was gradually abandoned and only retained in antiquated forms. The small ancient Greek class of irregular verbs in <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-μι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-mi]</a></span> disappeared in favour of regular forms ending in <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-ω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-oː]</a></span>; <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">χώννυμι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[kʰóːnnymi]</a></span> → <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">χώνω</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xono]</a></span> ('push'). The auxiliary <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰμί</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eːmí]</a></span> ('be'), originally part of the same class, adopted a new set of endings modelled on the passive of regular verbs, as in the following examples: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th colspan="2">Classical</th> <th colspan="2">Medieval</th> <th colspan="2">Regular passive ending </th></tr> <tr> <th>Present </th> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st person sing. </th> <td><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰμί</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eːmí]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">εἶμαι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['ime]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-μαι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-me]</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person sing. </th> <td><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εἶ</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[êː]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">εἶσαι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['ise]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-σαι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-se]</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person sing. </th> <td><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐστίν</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[estín]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἔνι → ἔναι, εἶναι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['eni<span class="wrap"> </span>→<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈene,<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈine]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-ται</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-te]</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Imperfect </th> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st person sing. </th> <td>ἦν</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̂ːn]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἤμην</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['imin]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-μην</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-min]</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person sing. </th> <td><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἦσθα</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̂ːstʰa]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἦσοι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['isy]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-σοι</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-sy]</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person sing. </th> <td><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἦν</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̂ːn]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἦτο</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈito]</a></span></td> <td><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-το</span></span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-to]</a></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>In most cases, the numerous <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a> variants that appeared in the Ancient Greek system of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> inflection were reduced to only two basic stem forms, sometimes only one. Thus, in Ancient Greek the stem of the verb <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λαμβάνειν</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lambáneːn]</a></span> ('to take') appears in the variants <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λαμβ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lamb-]</a></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λαβ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lab-]</a></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ληψ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lɛːps-]</a></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ληφ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lɛːpʰ-]</a></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λημ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lɛːm-]</a></span>. In Medieval Greek, it is reduced to the forms <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">λαμβ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lamb-]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> or present system) and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">λαβ-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lav-]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a> system). </p><p>One of the numerous forms that disappeared was the <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>. It was replaced in the 10th century by the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> and the prepositional construction of <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[is]</a></span> ('in, to') + <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>. In addition, nearly all the participles and the imperative forms of the 3rd person were lost. The <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> was replaced by the construction of subordinate clauses with the conjunctions <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ὅτι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈoti]</a></span> ('that') and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἵνα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈina]</a></span> ('so that'). <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἵνα</span></span> first became <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἱνά</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[iˈna]</a></span> and was later shortened to <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">να</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[na]</a></span>. By the end of the Byzantine era, the construction <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θέλω να</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈθelo<span class="wrap"> </span>na]</a></span> ('I want that…') + subordinate clause developed into <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θενά</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[θeˈna]</a></span>. Eventually, <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θενά</span></span> became the Modern Greek future particle <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">θα</span></span> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek</a>:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="grc-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[θa]</a></span>, which replaced the old future forms. Ancient formations like the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_absolute" title="Genitive absolute">genitive absolute</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Accusative_and_infinitive" title="Accusative and infinitive">accusative and infinitive</a> and nearly all common participle constructions were gradually substituted by the constructions of subordinate clauses and the newly emerged <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a>. </p><p>The most noticeable grammatical change in comparison to ancient Greek is the almost complete loss of the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a>, which has been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">subordinate clauses</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particle</a> να. Possibly transmitted through Greek, this phenomenon can also <a href="/wiki/Balkan_sprachbund#Avoidance_or_loss_of_infinitive" title="Balkan sprachbund">be found</a> in the adjacent languages and dialects of the Balkans. <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, for example, are in many respects typologically similar to medieval and present day Greek, although <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genealogically</a> they are not closely related. </p><p>Besides the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">να</span></span> and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">θενά</span></span>, the negation particle <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">δέν</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ðen]</a></span> ('not') was derived from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">oὐδέν</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[uːdén]</a></span> ('nothing'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages"><span id="Vocabulary.2C_script.2C_influence_on_other_languages"></span>Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intralinguistic_innovations">Intralinguistic innovations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Intralinguistic innovations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexicographic changes in Medieval Greek influenced by Christianity can be found for instance in words like <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄγγελος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈaɲɟelos]</a></span> ('messenger') → heavenly messenger → angel) or <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀγάπη</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[aˈɣapi]</a></span> 'love' → 'altruistic love', which is strictly differentiated from <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἔρως</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈeros]</a></span>, ('physical love'). In everyday usage, some old Greek stems were replaced, for example, the expression for "wine" where the word <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κρασίον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[kraˈsion]</a></span> ('mixture') replaced the old Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">οἶνος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[oînos]</a></span>. The word <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ὄψον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈopson]</a></span> (meaning 'something you eat with bread') combined with the suffix <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">-αριον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-arion]</a></span>, which was borrowed from the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">-arium</i></span>, became 'fish' (<span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀψάριον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[oˈpsarion]</a></span>), which after apheresis, synizesis and the loss of final <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ν</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[n]</a></span> became the new Greek <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ψάρι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈpsari]</a></span> and eliminated the Old Greek <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἰχθύς</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ikʰtʰýs]</a></span>, which became an acrostic for Jesus Christ and a symbol for Christianity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loanwords_from_other_languages">Loanwords from other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Loanwords from other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_words_of_Byzantine_Latin_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek words of Byzantine Latin origin">List of Greek words of Byzantine Latin origin</a></div> <p>Especially at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, Medieval Greek borrowed numerous words from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, among them mainly titles and other terms of the imperial court's life like <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Αὔγουστος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈavɣustos]</a></span> ('Augustus'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">πρίγκιψ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈpriɲɟips]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">princeps</i>, 'Prince'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">μάγιστρος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈmaʝistros]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">magister</i>, 'Master'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κοιαίστωρ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[cyˈestor]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">quaestor</i>, 'Quaestor'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀφφικιάλος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ofiˈcalos]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">officialis</i>, 'official'). In addition, Latin words from everyday life entered the Greek language, for example <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ὁσπίτιον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[oˈspition]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">hospitium</i>, 'hostel', therefore "house", <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">σπίτι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈspiti]</a></span> in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a>), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">σέλλα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈsela]</a></span> ('saddle'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ταβέρνα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[taˈverna]</a></span> ('tavern'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">κανδήλιον</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[kanˈdilion]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">candela</i>, 'candle'), <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">φούρνος</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈfurnos]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">furnus</i>, 'oven') and <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">φλάσκα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈflaska]</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">flasco</i>, 'wine bottle'). </p><p>Other influences on Medieval Greek arose from contact with neighboring languages and the languages of Venetian, Frankish and Arab conquerors. Some of the <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from these languages have been permanently retained in Greek or in its dialects: </p> <ul><li><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">κάλτσα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈkaltsa]</a></span> from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">calza</i> 'stocking'</li> <li><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ντάμα</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈdama]</a></span> from <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">dame</i> 'dame'</li> <li><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">παζάρι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[paˈzari]</a></span> from <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i lang="tr">pazar</i> (itself derived from <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>), 'market, <a href="/wiki/Bazaar" title="Bazaar">bazaar</a>'</li> <li><span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">χατζι-</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[xadzi-]</a></span> from Arabic: <i><a href="/wiki/Hajji" title="Hajji">hajji</a></i> "Mecca pilgrim", used as a name affix for a Christian after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Script">Script</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Middle Greek used the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet which, until the end of antiquity, were predominantly used as lapidary and majuscule letters and without a space between words and with diacritics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uncial_and_cursive_script">Uncial and cursive script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Uncial and cursive script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/200px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/300px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/400px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="2026" /></a><figcaption>Manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Anthology_of_Planudes" title="Anthology of Planudes">Anthology of Planudes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The first Greek script, a cursive script, developed from quick carving into wax tablets with a slate pencil. This cursive script already showed descenders and ascenders, as well as combinations of letters. </p><p>In the third century, the Greek uncial developed under the influence of the Latin script because of the need to write on papyrus with a reed pen. In the Middle Ages, uncial became the main script for the Greek language. </p><p>A common feature of the medieval majuscule script like the uncial is an abundance of abbreviations (e.g. <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">ΧϹ</span></span> for "Christos") and ligatures. Several letters of the uncial (<span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">ϵ</span></span> for <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">Ε</span></span>, <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">Ϲ</span></span> for <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">Σ</span></span>, <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">Ѡ</span></span> for <span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">Ω</span></span>) were also used as majuscules especially in a sacral context. The <a href="/wiki/Lunate_sigma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunate sigma">lunate sigma</a> was adopted in this form as "<span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Cyrl">С</span></span>" in the Cyrillic script. </p><p>The Greek uncial used the <a href="/wiki/Interpunct" title="Interpunct">interpunct</a> in order to separate sentences for the first time, but there were still no spaces between words. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minuscule_script">Minuscule script</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Minuscule script"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Greek_minuscule" title="Greek minuscule">Greek minuscule</a> script, which probably emerged from the cursive writing in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, appears more and more frequently from the 9th century onwards. It is the first script that regularly uses accents and spiritus, which had already been developed in the 3rd century BC. This very fluent script, with ascenders and descenders and many possible combinations of letters, is the first to use gaps between words. The last forms which developed in the 12th century were <a href="/wiki/Iota_subscript" title="Iota subscript">Iota subscript</a> and word-final <a href="/wiki/Sigma" title="Sigma">sigma</a> (<span title="undetermined-language text"><span lang="und-Grek">ς</span></span>). The type for Greek majuscules and minuscules that was developed in the 17th century by a printer from the Antwerp printing dynasty, Wetstein, eventually became the norm in modern Greek printing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_other_languages">Influence on other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Influence on other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the language of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, Medieval Greek has, especially with the conversion of the Slavs by the brothers <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Cyril</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Methodius</a>, found entrance into the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> via the religious sector, in particular to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> and over its subsequent varieties, the different <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> manuscripts<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="(July 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, also into the language of the countries with an Orthodox population, thus primarily into <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, as well as on <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, sometimes partly through South Slavic intermediates. For this reason, Greek loanwords and <a href="/wiki/Neologisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Neologisms">neologisms</a> in these languages often correspond to the Byzantine phonology, while they found their way into the languages of Western Europe over Latin mediation in the sound shape of the classical Greek (<i><a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a></i> <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Automobil</i> vs. <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">автомобиль</span> <i>a<b>v</b>tomobil,</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Differences_between_standard_Bosnian,_Croatian_and_Serbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Differences between standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian">differences in Serbo-Croatian</a>). </p><p>Some words in Germanic languages, mainly from the religious context, have also been borrowed from Medieval Greek and have found their way into languages like German through the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic language</a>. This includes the word the German word for <a href="/wiki/Pentecost" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a>, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Pfingsten</i></span> (from <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">πεντηκοστή</span></span>‚ 'the fiftieth [day after Easter]').<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="for both statements that (a) Gothic borrowed from Medieval Greek and not from earlier Greek (Ulfilas lived in 4th century while the article intro states Medieval Greek begins later (or sometimes later, depending on definition) and (b) German borrowed from Gothic and not from Latin (cp. www.dwds.de/wb/Pfingsten : "Die Entlehnung erfolgt entweder über ein [...] Lat. [...], oder [...] über spätlat. [..] bzw. got. [..]", & www.dwds.de/wb/Kirche : "Daß das Got. griech. [..] den übrigen germ. Sprachen vermittelt habe, ist wenig wahrscheinlich") (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Byzantine research played an important role in the Greek State, which was refounded in 1832, as the young nation tried to restore its cultural identity through antique and orthodox-medieval traditions. <a href="/wiki/Spyridon_Lambros" title="Spyridon Lambros">Spyridon Lambros</a> (1851–1919), later Prime Minister of Greece, founded Greek <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantinology</a>, which was continued by his and Krumbacher's students. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts">Sample Medieval Greek texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sample Medieval Greek texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following texts clearly illustrate the case of diglossia in Byzantine Greek, as they date from roughly the same time but show marked differences in terms of grammar and lexicon, and likely in phonology as well. The first selection is an example of high literary classicizing historiography, while the second is a vernacular poem which is more compromising to ordinary speech. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_1_–_Anna_Komnena"><span id="Sample_1_.E2.80.93_Anna_Komnena"></span>Sample 1 – Anna Komnena</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sample 1 – Anna Komnena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first excerpt is from the <i>Alexiad</i> of <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnena" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Komnena">Anna Komnena</a>, recounting the invasion by <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond I of Antioch</a>, son of Robert Guiscard, in 1107. The writer employs much ancient vocabulary, influenced by Herodotean Ionic, though post-classical terminology is also used (e.g. <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">δούξ</span></span>, from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">dux</i>). Anna has a strong command of classical morphology and syntax, but again there are occasional 'errors' reflecting interference from the popular language, such as the use of <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">εἰς</span></span> + accusative instead of classical <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐν</span></span> + dative to mean 'in'. As seen in the phonetic transcription, although most major sound changes resulting in the Modern Greek system (including the merger of <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">υ/οι</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>) are assumed complete by this period, learned speech likely resisted the loss of final <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ν</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">aphaeresis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synizesis" title="Synizesis">synizesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Ὁ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">o</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">δὲ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">βασιλεὺς,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vasiˈlefs,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἔτι</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈeti</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">εἰς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">is</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tim</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">βασιλεύουσαν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vasiˈlevusan</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐνδιατρίβων,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">enðjaˈtrivon,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">μεμαθηκὼς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">memaθiˈkos</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðja</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">γραφῶν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣraˈfon</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τοῦ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">δουκὸς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðuˈkos</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Δυρραχίου</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðiraˈçiu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τοῦ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">du</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Βαϊμούντου</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vaiˈmundu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διαπεραίωσιν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðjapeˈreosin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐπετάχυνε</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">epeˈtaçine</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐξέλευσιν.</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eˈkselefsin.</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀνύστακτος</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aˈnistaktos</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">γὰρ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣar</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὤν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">on</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὁ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">o</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">δοὺξ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðuks</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Δυρραχίου,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðiraˈçiu,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">μὴ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mi</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διδοὺς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðiˈðus</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὸ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">παράπαν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">paˈrapan</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὕπνον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈipnon</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τοῖς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tis</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὀφθαλμοῖς,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ofθalˈmis,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὁπηνίκα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">opiˈnika</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διέγνω</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈðjeɣno</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διαπλωσάμενον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðjaploˈsamenon</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὸν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tom</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Βαϊμούντον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vaiˈmundon</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">παρὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">para</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τοῦ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">du</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Ἰλλυρικοῦ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iliriˈku</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">πεδιάδα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">peˈðjaða</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">καὶ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ce</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τῆς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tiz</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">νηὸς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">niˈos</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀποβεβηκότα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">apoveviˈkota</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">καὶ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ce</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">αὐτόθι</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">afˈtoθi</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">που</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">πηξάμενον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">piˈksamenon</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">χάρακα,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈxaraka,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Σκύθην</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈsciθin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">μεταπεψάμενος</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">metapemˈpsamenos</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὑπόπτερον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iˈpopteron</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">δή,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ði,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὸ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τοῦ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">λόγου,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈloɣu,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">πρὸς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pros</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὸν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ton</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">αὐτοκράτορα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aftoˈkratora</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τούτου</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈdutu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διαπεραίωσιν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðjapeˈreosin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐδήλου.</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eˈðilu.</p></div><p style="display: none;">Ὁ δὲ βασιλεὺς, ἔτι εἰς τὴν βασιλεύουσαν ἐνδιατρίβων, μεμαθηκὼς διὰ γραφῶν τοῦ δουκὸς Δυρραχίου τὴν τοῦ Βαϊμούντου διαπεραίωσιν ἐπετάχυνε τὴν ἐξέλευσιν. ἀνύστακτος γὰρ ὤν ὁ δοὺξ Δυρραχίου, μὴ διδοὺς τὸ παράπαν ὕπνον τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, ὁπηνίκα διέγνω διαπλωσάμενον τὸν Βαϊμούντον παρὰ τὴν τοῦ Ἰλλυρικοῦ πεδιάδα καὶ τῆς νηὸς ἀποβεβηκότα καὶ αὐτόθι που πηξάμενον χάρακα, Σκύθην μεταπεψάμενος ὑπόπτερον δή, τὸ τοῦ λόγου, πρὸς τὸν αὐτοκράτορα τὴν τούτου διαπεραίωσιν ἐδήλου.</p><p style="display: none;">o ðe vasiˈlefs, ˈeti is tim vasiˈlevusan enðjaˈtrivon, memaθiˈkos ðja ɣraˈfon tu ðuˈkos ðiraˈçiu tin du vaiˈmundu ðjapeˈreosin epeˈtaçine tin eˈkselefsin. aˈnistaktos ɣar on o ðuks ðiraˈçiu, mi ðiˈðus to paˈrapan ˈipnon tis ofθalˈmis, opiˈnika ˈðjeɣno ðjaploˈsamenon tom vaiˈmundon para tin du iliriˈku peˈðjaða ce tiz niˈos apoveviˈkota ce afˈtoθi pu piˈksamenon ˈxaraka, ˈsciθin metapemˈpsamenos iˈpopteron ði, to tu ˈloɣu, pros ton aftoˈkratora tin ˈdutu ðjapeˈreosin eˈðilu.</p><p style="clear: left;">'When the emperor, who was still in the imperial city, learned of Bohemond's crossing from the letters of the duke (<i>military commander</i>) of Dyrráchion, he hastened his departure. For the duke had been vigilant, having altogether denied sleep to his eyes, and at the moment when he learned that Bohemond had sailed over beside the plain of Illyricum, disembarked, and set up camp thereabouts, he sent for a Scythian with "wings", as the saying goes, and informed the emperor of the man's crossing.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_2_–_Digenes_Akritas"><span id="Sample_2_.E2.80.93_Digenes_Akritas"></span>Sample 2 – Digenes Akritas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sample 2 – Digenes Akritas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second excerpt is from the epic of <a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a> (manuscript E), possibly dating originally to the 12th century. This text is one of the earliest examples of Byzantine folk literature, and includes many features in line with developments in the demotic language. The <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">poetic metre</a> adheres to the fully developed Greek 15-syllable <a href="/wiki/Political_verse" title="Political verse">political verse</a>. Features of popular speech like synezisis, elision and apheresis are regular, as is recognized in the transcription despite the conservative orthography. Also seen is the simplification of <span title="Medieval Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">διὰ</span></span> to modern <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">γιὰ</span></span>. In morphology, note the use of modern possessive pronouns, the concurrence of classical <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-ουσι(ν)/-ασι(ν)</span></span> and modern <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">-ουν/-αν</span></span> 3rd person plural endings, the lack of reduplication in perfect passive participles and the addition of ν to the neuter adjective in γλυκύν. In other parts of the poem, the dative case has been almost completely replaced with the genitive and accusative for indirect objects.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Καὶ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">c</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὡς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">os</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">εἴδασιν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈiðasin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">t</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀδέλφια</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aˈðelfja</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">της</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tis</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tiŋ</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">κόρην</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈɡorin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">μαραμένην,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">maraˈmeni(n)</p></div><p style="display: none;">Καὶ ὡς εἴδασιν τὰ ἀδέλφια της τὴν κόρην μαραμένην,</p><p style="display: none;">c os ˈiðasin t aˈðelfja tis tiŋ ˈɡorin maraˈmeni(n)</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀντάμα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">anˈdama</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">οἱ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">πέντε</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈpende</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐστέναξαν,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈstenaksan,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τοιοῦτον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tiˈuto(n)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">λόγον</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈloɣon</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">εἶπαν:</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈipa(n):</p></div><p style="display: none;">ἀντάμα οἱ πέντε ἐστέναξαν, τοιοῦτον λόγον εἶπαν:</p><p style="display: none;">anˈdama i ˈpende ˈstenaksan, tiˈuto(n) ˈloɣon ˈipa(n):</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">'Ἐγείρου,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eˈjiru,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἠ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">βεργόλικος,</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">verˈɣolikos,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">γλυκύν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣliˈci(m)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">μας</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mas</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὸ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀδέλφιν˙</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aˈðelfi(n);</p></div><p style="display: none;">'Ἐγείρου, ἠ βεργόλικος, γλυκύν μας τὸ ἀδέλφιν˙</p><p style="display: none;">eˈjiru, i verˈɣolikos, ɣliˈci(m) mas to aˈðelfi(n);</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐμεῖς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eˈmis</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">γὰρ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣar</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐκρατοῦμαν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ekraˈtuman</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">σε</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">se</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὡς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">os</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">γιὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ja</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀποθαμένην</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">apoθaˈmeni(n)</p></div><p style="display: none;">ἐμεῖς γὰρ ἐκρατοῦμαν σε ὡς γιὰ ἀποθαμένην</p><p style="display: none;">eˈmis ɣar ekraˈtuman se os ja apoθaˈmeni(n)</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">καὶ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">c</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐσὲν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eˈsen</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὁ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">o</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Θεὸς</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈθjos</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἐφύλαξεν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eˈfilakse(n)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(ð)ja</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">t</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ὡραῖα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">oˈrea</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">σου</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">su</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">κάλλη.</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈkali.</p></div><p style="display: none;">καὶ ἐσὲν ὁ Θεὸς ἐφύλαξεν διὰ τὰ ὡραῖα σου κάλλη.</p><p style="display: none;">c eˈsen o ˈθjos eˈfilakse(n) (ð)ja t oˈrea su ˈkali.</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">Πολέμους</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">poˈlemus</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">οὐ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">u</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">φοβούμεθα</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">foˈvumeθa</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">διὰ</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ðiˈa</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">τὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">σὴν</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ˈsin</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="grc-x-medieval" style="margin: 0px;">ἀγάπην.'</p><p lang="grc-x-medieval-Latn" class="IPA" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aˈɣapi(n)</p></div><p style="display: none;">Πολέμους οὐ φοβούμεθα διὰ τὴν σὴν ἀγάπην.'</p><p style="display: none;">poˈlemus u foˈvumeθa ðiˈa ti ˈsin aˈɣapi(n)</p><p style="clear: left;">'And when her brothers saw the girl withered, the five groaned together, and spoke as follows: "Arise, lissom one, our sweet sister; we had you for dead, but you were protected by God for your beautiful looks. Through our love for you, we fear no battles.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Byzantine Empire, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient</a> and Medieval Greek texts were copied repeatedly; studying these texts was part of Byzantine education. Several collections of transcriptions tried to record the entire body of Greek literature since antiquity. As there had already been extensive exchange with Italian academics since the 14th century, many scholars and a large number of manuscripts found their way to Italy during the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. Renaissance Italian and Greek <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanists</a> set up important collections in Rome, Florence and Venice. The conveyance of Greek by Greek contemporaries also brought about the <a href="/wiki/Iotacism" title="Iotacism">itacistic</a> tradition of Greek studies in Italy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Greek tradition was also taken to Western and Middle Europe in the 16th century by scholars who had studied at Italian universities. It included Byzantine works that mainly had classical Philology, History and Theology but not Medieval Greek language and literature as their objects of research. <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Wolf" title="Hieronymus Wolf">Hieronymus Wolf</a> (1516–1580) is said to be the "father" of German Byzantism. In France, the first prominent Byzantist was <a href="/wiki/Charles_du_Fresne,_sieur_du_Cange" title="Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange">Charles du Fresne</a> (1610–1688). As the Enlightenment saw in Byzantium mainly the decadent, perishing culture of the last days of the empire, the interest in Byzantine research decreased considerably in the 18th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It was not until the 19th century that the publication of and research on Medieval Greek sources began to increase rapidly, which was particularly inspired by <a href="/wiki/Philhellenism" title="Philhellenism">Philhellenism</a>. Furthermore, the first texts in vernacular Greek were edited. The branch of <a href="/wiki/Byzantinology" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantinology">Byzantinology</a> gradually split from Classical Philology and became an independent field of research. The Bavarian scholar <a href="/wiki/Karl_Krumbacher" title="Karl Krumbacher">Karl Krumbacher</a> (1856–1909) carried out research in the newly founded state of Greece, and is considered the founder of Medieval and Modern Greek Philology. From 1897 onwards, he held the academic chair of Medieval and Modern Greek at the University of Munich. In the same century Russian Byzantinology evolved from a former connection between the Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Byzantinology also plays a large role in the other countries on the Balkan Peninsula, as Byzantine sources are often very important for the history of each individual people. There is, therefore, a long tradition of research, for example in countries like Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary. Further centres of Byzantinology can be found in the United States, Great Britain, France and Italy. Today the two most important centres of Byzantinology in German speaking countries are the Institute for Byzantine Studies, Byzantine Art History and the Institute of Modern Greek Language and Literature at the <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>, and the Institute of Byzantine Studies and of Modern Greek Language and Literature at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a>. The International Byzantine Association is the umbrella organization for Byzantine Studies and has its head office in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_Arta" title="Bridge of Arta">Bridge of Arta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatalar_Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatalar Inscription">Chatalar Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omurtag%27s_Tarnovo_Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Omurtag's Tarnovo Inscription">Omurtag's Tarnovo Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Prodromus#Ptochoprodromus" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Prodromus">Ptochoprodromus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dead_Brother%27s_Song" title="The Dead Brother's Song">The Dead Brother's Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timarion" title="Timarion">Timarion</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Literally, ranged opposite in rows or pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Suda#Organization" title="Suda">Suda § Organization</a></div></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mackridge-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mackridge_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackridge_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mackridge" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Mackridge">Peter Mackridge</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2071514/A_language_in_the_image_of_the_nation_Modern_Greek_and_some_parallel_cases">"A language in the image of the nation: Modern Greek and some parallel cases"</a>, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">a proposal to grant separate code gkm was submitted in 2006, but rejected in 2023. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2006-084">"Change Request Documentation: 2006-084"</a>. <i>SIL International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SIL+International&rft.atitle=Change+Request+Documentation%3A+2006-084&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiso639-3.sil.org%2Frequest%2F2006-084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_MacGillivray_Dawkins" title="Richard MacGillivray Dawkins">Dawkins, R.M.</a> 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOstrogorsky1969">Ostrogorsky 1969</a>, "The Struggle for Existence (610-711)", p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>«In that wretched city the reign of Romans lasted for 1143 years»</i> (George Sphrantzes, <i>Chronicle</i>, ια΄, c.1460)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMango1980">Mango 1980</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lombard-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lombard_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lombard_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLombard2003">Lombard 2003</a>, p. 93: "Here too Coptic and Greek were progressively replaced by Arabic, although less swiftly. Some dates enable us to trace the history of this process. The conquest of Egypt took place from 639 to 641, and the first bilingual papyrus (Greek and Arabic) is dated 693 and the last 719, while the last papyrus written entirely in Greek is dated 780 and the first one entirely in Arabic 709."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToufexis2008">Toufexis 2008</a>, pp. 203–217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott1889" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a> (1889). "<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀντίστοιχος</span></span>". <a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon"><i>An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Ancient+Greek+%28to+1453%29-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22grc%22%3E%E1%BC%80%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Ancient+Greek+%28to+1453%29-language+text&rft.btitle=An+Intermediate+Greek%E2%80%93English+Lexicon&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Antistœchal". <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i></a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Antist%C5%93chal&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1983" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Robert (1983). <i>Medieval and Modern Greek</i>. London: Hutchinson University Library. pp. 56–57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+and+Modern+Greek&rft.place=London&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Hutchinson+University+Library&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. Lauritzen, Michael the Grammarian's irony about Hypsilon. A step towards reconstructing Byzantine pronunciation. <i>Byzantinoslavica</i>, 67 (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachardse1980" class="citation journal cs1">Machardse, Neli A. (1980). "Zur Lautung der griechische Sprache in de byzantinischen Zeit". <i>Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik</i> (29): 144–150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jahrbuch+der+%C3%96sterreichischen+Byzantinistik&rft.atitle=Zur+Lautung+der+griechische+Sprache+in+de+byzantinischen+Zeit&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=144-150&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Machardse&rft.aufirst=Neli+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.f. dissimilation of voiceless obstruents below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1">Horrocks, Geoffrey C. (2010). <i>Greek: A history of the language and its speakers</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 276–277.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+history+of+the+language+and+its+speakers&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=276-277&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Appendix III in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaas_and_C.A._Trypanis1963" class="citation book cs1">Maas and C.A. Trypanis, Paul (1963). <i>Sancti Romani melodi cantica: Cantica dubia</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sancti+Romani+melodi+cantica%3A+Cantica+dubia&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Maas+and+C.A.+Trypanis&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 175-176)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: Ch. 6) for a summary of these previous developments in the Koine.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 281-282)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Horrocks (2010: 405.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 281)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 274-275)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 111, 170)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 275-276)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 238-241)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horrocks (2010: 333-337)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1">Horrocks, Geoffrey (2010). <i>Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+History+of+the+Language+and+its+Speakers&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLombard2003" class="citation book cs1">Lombard, Maurice (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cNG8MKDPVUMC"><i>The Golden Age of Islam</i></a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55876-322-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55876-322-8"><bdi>1-55876-322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Islam&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-55876-322-8&rft.aulast=Lombard&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcNG8MKDPVUMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMango1980" class="citation book cs1">Mango, Cyril A. (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantium00cyri"><i>Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome</i></a></span>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-16768-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-16768-9"><bdi>0-684-16768-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%3A+The+Empire+of+New+Rome&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-684-16768-9&rft.aulast=Mango&rft.aufirst=Cyril+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantium00cyri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrogorsky1969" class="citation book cs1">Ostrogorsky, George (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ir7CKnBxRXwC"><i>History of the Byzantine State</i></a>. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-1198-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-1198-4"><bdi>0-8135-1198-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Byzantine+State&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-8135-1198-4&rft.aulast=Ostrogorsky&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIr7CKnBxRXwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToufexis2008" class="citation journal cs1">Toufexis, Notis (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722001959/http://www.toufexis.info/archives/77">"Diglossia and register variation in Medieval Greek"</a>. <i>Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 203–217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F174962508X322687">10.1179/174962508X322687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162128578">162128578</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.toufexis.info/archives/77">the original</a> on 2011-07-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantine+and+Modern+Greek+Studies&rft.atitle=Diglossia+and+register+variation+in+Medieval+Greek&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=203-217&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F174962508X322687&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162128578%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Toufexis&rft.aufirst=Notis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toufexis.info%2Farchives%2F77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndriotis1995" class="citation book cs1">Andriotis, Νicholas P. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/studies/history_books/02_andriotis/index.html"><i>History of the Greek Language</i></a>. Thessalonica, Greece: Institute of Neo-Hellenic Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Greek+Language&rft.place=Thessalonica%2C+Greece&rft.pub=Institute+of+Neo-Hellenic+Studies&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Andriotis&rft.aufirst=%CE%9Dicholas+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greek-language.gr%2FgreekLang%2Fstudies%2Fhistory_books%2F02_andriotis%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1983" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Robert (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b55B1J7I99AC"><i>Medieval and Modern Greek</i></a>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29978-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29978-0"><bdi>0-521-29978-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+and+Modern+Greek&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-521-29978-0&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db55B1J7I99AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1">Horrocks, Geoffrey (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BwHPKIUXKGsC"><i>Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers</i></a>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3415-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3415-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-3415-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+History+of+the+Language+and+its+Speakers&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3415-6&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBwHPKIUXKGsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTonnet2003" class="citation book cs1">Tonnet, Henri (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gWRiAAAAMAAJ"><i>Histoire du grec moderne: la formation d'une langue</i></a>. L'Asiathèque Langues du monde. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-911053-90-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-911053-90-7"><bdi>2-911053-90-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+du+grec+moderne%3A+la+formation+d%27une+langue&rft.pub=L%27Asiath%C3%A8que+Langues+du+monde&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=2-911053-90-7&rft.aulast=Tonnet&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWRiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltonHorrocksJanssenLendari2020" class="citation book cs1">Holton, David; Horrocks, Geoffrey; Janssen, Marjolijne; Lendari, Tina; Manolessou, Io; Toufexis, Notis (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316632840"><i>The Cambridge Grammar of Medieval and Early Modern Greek</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316632840">10.1017/9781316632840</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139026888" title="Special:BookSources/9781139026888"><bdi>9781139026888</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222381614">222381614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Grammar+of+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Greek&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222381614%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316632840&rft.isbn=9781139026888&rft.aulast=Holton&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Horrocks%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Janssen%2C+Marjolijne&rft.au=Lendari%2C+Tina&rft.au=Manolessou%2C+Io&rft.au=Toufexis%2C+Notis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2F9781316632840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/mango.html">Use of Greek in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130703174017/http://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/greek/grammarofmedievalgreek/">Grammar of Medieval Greek Project (1100–1700), University of Cambridge</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012823/http://www.early-modern-greek.org/">Early Modern Greek blog (mainly in Greek)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Greek_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Greek_language" title="Template:Greek language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Greek_language" title="Template talk:Greek language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Greek_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Greek language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Greek_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origin and genealogy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek" title="History of Greek">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2900</span>–1600 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span>–1100 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>–300 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span>–AD 330)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Greek</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 330</span>–1453)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> (since 1453)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>East <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>West <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li> <li>Northwest <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_Doric_Greek" title="Achaean Doric Greek">Achaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Hellenistic Koine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Modern_Greek" title="Varieties of Modern Greek">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Demotic_Greek" title="Demotic Greek">Demotic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katharevousa" title="Katharevousa">Katharevousa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Misthi,_Cappadocia#Misthiotica_dialect" title="Misthi, Cappadocia">Misthiotika</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_Greek" title="Cretan Greek">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Greek" title="Cypriot Greek">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himariote_dialect" title="Himariote dialect">Himariote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Greek_dialect" title="Istanbul Greek dialect">Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiot_Greek" title="Italiot Greek">Italiot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calabrian_Greek" title="Calabrian Greek">Greco/Calabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griko_language" title="Griko language">Griko/Apulian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maniots#Maniot_dialect" title="Maniots">Maniot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariupol_Greek" title="Mariupol Greek">Mariupolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-Greek language">Romano-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsakonian_language" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Australian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Australian dialect">Greco-Australian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_phonology" title="Ancient Greek phonology">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_accent" title="Ancient Greek accent">accent</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Ancient_Greek_in_teaching" title="Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching">teaching</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology" title="Koine Greek phonology">Koine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_phonology" title="Modern Greek phonology">Standard Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Standard Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writing systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_orthography" title="Greek orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_diacritics" title="Greek diacritics">Diacritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Greek" title="Cyrillization of Greek">Cyrillization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek" title="Romanization of Greek">Romanization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeklish" title="Greeklish">Greeklish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_literature" title="Modern Greek literature">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promotion and study</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Foundation_for_Culture" title="Hellenic Foundation for Culture">Hellenic Foundation for Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Greek_Language" title="Center for the Greek Language">Center for the Greek Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Language_and_Speech_Processing" title="Institute for Language and Speech Processing">Institute for Language and Speech Processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eteocretan_language" title="Eteocretan language">Eteocretan language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocypriot_language" title="Eteocypriot language">Eteocypriot language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language_question" title="Greek language question">Greek language question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_exonyms" title="Greek exonyms">Exonyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_morphemes_used_in_English" title="List of Greek morphemes used in English">Morphemes in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_words_for_love" title="Greek words for love">Terms of endearment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_phrases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek phrases">Proverbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan language</a></li> <li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%97%CE%BC%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B1_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82" class="extiw" title="el:Παγκόσμια Ημέρα Ελληνικής Γλώσσας">Greek Language Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_language" title="Trojan language">Trojan language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Ancient_Greek_dictionaries" title="Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries">Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ages_of_Greek" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Greek_language_periods" title="Template:Greek language periods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Greek_language_periods" title="Template talk:Greek language periods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Greek_language_periods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Greek language periods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ages_of_Greek" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ages of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;padding-top: 0.5em; background: transparent; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3rd millennium BC</span></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;padding-top: 0.5em; background: transparent; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600–1100 BC</span></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;padding-top: 0.5em; background: transparent; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800–300 BC</span></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;padding-top: 0.5em; background: transparent; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 BC – AD 600</span></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;padding-top: 0.5em; background: transparent; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600–1453</span></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;padding-top: 0.5em; background: transparent; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold">Since 1453</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;font-size: 110%; text-align: center;width:10em;"><div> <p><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;font-size: 110%; text-align: center;width:10em;"><div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;font-size: 110%; text-align: center;width:10em;"><div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;font-size: 110%; text-align: center;width:10em;"><div> <p><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;font-size: 110%; text-align: center;width:10em;"><div> <p><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;font-size: 110%; text-align: center;width:10em;"><div> <p><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Byzantine_Empire_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Byzantine_Empire_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Preceding</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Early</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(330–717)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Constantinian–Valentinianic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Leonid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian era</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">Twenty Years' Anarchy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Middle</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(717–1204)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Nikephorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Amorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Doukid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Komnenian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Angelid era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Late</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1204–1453)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Byzantine successor states (<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>–<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a>–<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Theodoro</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;">By modern region<br />or territory</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Corsica" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Malta" title="Byzantine Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Governance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Governance</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="Family tree of Byzantine emperors">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Imperial bureaucracy</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_officiorum" title="Magister officiorum">Magister officiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_sacrarum_largitionum" title="Comes sacrarum largitionum">Comes sacrarum largitionum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_rerum_privatarum" title="Comes rerum privatarum">Comes rerum privatarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor_sacri_palatii" title="Quaestor sacri palatii">Quaestor sacri palatii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_dromou" title="Logothetes tou dromou">Logothetes tou dromou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Sakellarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_genikou" title="Logothetes tou genikou">Logothetes tou genikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_stratiotikou" title="Logothetes tou stratiotikou">Logothetes tou stratiotikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Chartoularios tou sakelliou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiarion" title="Vestiarion">Chartoularios tou vestiariou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_tou_eidikou" title="Epi tou eidikou">Epi tou eidikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protasekretis" title="Protasekretis">Protasekretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_ton_deeseon" title="Epi ton deeseon">Epi ton deeseon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megas_logothetes" title="Megas logothetes">Megas logothetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesazon" title="Mesazon">Mesazon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Provincial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="Roman province">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katepano" title="Katepano">Catepanates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kephale_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Kephale (Byzantine Empire)">Kephale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despot_(court_title)" title="Despot (court title)">Despotates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire">Foreign relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Treaties of the Byzantine Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_diplomats" title="Category:Byzantine diplomats">Diplomats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Army" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_battle_tactics" title="Byzantine battle tactics">Battle tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_battles" title="List of Byzantine battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_beacon_system" title="Byzantine beacon system">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_generals" title="Category:Byzantine generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_mercenaries" title="Category:Byzantine mercenaries">Mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Military manuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire">Military units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">Revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">Foederati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucellarii" title="Bucellarii">Bucellarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excubitors" title="Excubitors">Excubitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourma">Tourma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungos" title="Droungos">Droungos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">Tagmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akritai" title="Akritai">Akritai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Komnenian army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">Pronoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiaritai" title="Vestiaritai">Vestiaritai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Palaiologan army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allagion" title="Allagion">Allagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramonai" title="Paramonai">Paramonai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_domestic" title="Grand domestic">Grand domestic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karabisianoi" title="Karabisianoi">Karabisianoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Maritime themata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cibyrrhaeot_Theme" title="Cibyrrhaeot Theme">Cibyrrhaeot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_(theme)" title="Aegean Sea (theme)">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos_(theme)" title="Samos (theme)">Samos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">Dromon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungarios_of_the_Fleet" title="Droungarios of the Fleet">Droungarios of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megas_doux" title="Megas doux">Megas doux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_admirals" title="Category:Byzantine admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Byzantine Empire">Naval battles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Religion in the Byzantine Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayhurum" title="Hayhurum">Hayhurum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Patriarchate of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_saints" title="Category:Byzantine saints">Saints</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Rite">Alexandrian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li>Missionary activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Serbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Serbs">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Justinian" title="Code of Justinian">Code of Justinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_mutilation_in_Byzantine_culture" title="Political mutilation in Byzantine culture">Mutilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_secular_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine secular architecture">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_sacred_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine sacred architecture">Sacred</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-in-square" title="Cross-in-square">Cross-in-square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Cistern" title="Basilica Cistern">Basilica Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus" title="Baths of Zeuxippus">Baths of Zeuxippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Blachernae" title="Palace of Blachernae">Blachernae Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chora_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Chora Church">Chora Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">City Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pammakaristos_Church" title="Pammakaristos Church">Pammakaristos Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_of_Anemas" title="Prison of Anemas">Prison of Anemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Arch of Galerius and Rotunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bath_(Thessaloniki)" title="Byzantine Bath (Thessaloniki)">Byzantine Bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia,_Thessaloniki" title="Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Panagia_Chalkeon" title="Church of Panagia Chalkeon">Panagia Chalkeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Thessaloniki" title="Walls of Thessaloniki">Walls of Thessaloniki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">San Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe">Sant'Apollinare in Classe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Metropolis" title="Little Metropolis">Panagia Gorgoepikoos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">Enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_glass" title="Byzantine glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Byzantine_mosaics" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_painters" title="Category:Byzantine painters">Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian period art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civilisation_in_the_12th_century" title="Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century">Komnenian renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mints" title="Byzantine mints">Mints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">silk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynatoi" title="Dynatoi">Dynatoi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians" title="Category:Byzantine historians">Historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Everyday life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Cities in the Byzantine Empire">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dance" title="Byzantine dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_flags_and_insignia" title="Byzantine flags and insignia">Flags and insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" title="Byzantine gardens">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_lyra" title="Byzantine lyra">Lyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octoechos" title="Octoechos">Octoechos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_people" title="Category:Byzantine people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Women in the Byzantine Empire">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Death in the Byzantine Empire">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_units_of_measurement" title="Byzantine units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Science</a></li><li>Learning</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Greek_encyclopedias" title="Category:Byzantine Greek encyclopedias">Encyclopedias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Library_of_Constantinople" title="Imperial Library of Constantinople">Imperial Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_scholars" title="List of Byzantine scholars">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_university" title="Byzantine university">University</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">University of Constantinople</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_commonwealth" title="Byzantine commonwealth">Byzantine commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_museums" title="Category:Byzantine museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Neo-Byzantine architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Byzantine_Empire%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Outline of the Byzantine Empire">Outline</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Byzantine_Empire" title="Portal:Byzantine Empire">Portal</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36387#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Greek language, Medieval and late"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85057165">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Grec (langue) byzantin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931596z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Grec (langue) byzantin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931596z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="středověká řečtina"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph205083&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007540813305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&oldid=1252247028">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&oldid=1252247028</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_Greek" title="Category:Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_attested_from_the_4th_century" title="Category:Languages attested from the 4th century">Languages attested from the 4th century</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:4th-century_establishments" title="Category:4th-century establishments">4th-century establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_extinct_in_the_15th_century" title="Category:Languages extinct in the 15th century">Languages extinct in the 15th century</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:15th-century_disestablishments_in_Europe" title="Category:15th-century disestablishments in Europe">15th-century disestablishments in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Egypt" title="Category:Languages of Egypt">Languages of Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Sicily" title="Category:Languages of Sicily">Languages of Sicily</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_ancient_Italy" title="Category:Languages of ancient Italy">Languages of ancient Italy</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_that_are_too_technical_from_June_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia articles that are too technical from June 2020">Wikipedia articles that are too technical from June 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_that_are_too_technical" title="Category:All articles that are too technical">All articles that are too technical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_December_2017" title="Category:Use British English from December 2017">Use British English from December 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Medieval_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text">Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_Linglist_code" title="Category:Language articles with Linglist code">Language articles with Linglist code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unnamed_Glottolog_code" title="Category:Articles with unnamed Glottolog code">Articles with unnamed Glottolog code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_with_ISO_639-2_code" title="Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code">Languages with ISO 639-2 code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_unreferenced_extinction_date" title="Category:Language articles with unreferenced extinction date">Language articles with unreferenced extinction date</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Greek-language text">Articles containing Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_that_are_too_technical_from_July_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia articles that are too technical from July 2020">Wikipedia articles that are too technical from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_expert_attention" title="Category:All articles needing expert attention">All articles needing expert attention</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_expert_attention_from_July_2020" title="Category:Articles needing expert attention from July 2020">Articles needing expert attention from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Greek_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Greek IPA">Pages with Greek IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Turkish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Turkish-language text">Articles containing Turkish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Medieval_Greek_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Medieval Greek IPA">Pages with Medieval Greek IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Italian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Italian-language text">Articles containing Italian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_undetermined-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing undetermined-language text">Articles containing undetermined-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_July_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2020">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Russian-language text">Articles containing Russian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 October 2024, at 14:09<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-84779d6bf6-lxzkk","wgBackendResponseTime":170,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.558","walltime":"1.804","ppvisitednodes":{"value":15576,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":465145,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":16470,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":96966,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1514.822 1 -total"," 18.88% 286.028 242 Template:Lang"," 15.53% 235.213 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 14.38% 217.869 223 Template:IPA"," 13.87% 210.142 1 Template:Infobox"," 11.12% 168.391 2 Template:Reflist"," 10.97% 166.224 146 Template:IPA-el"," 8.29% 125.554 11 Template:Navbox"," 6.41% 97.130 5 Template:Longitem"," 6.40% 96.987 1 Template:Greek_language"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.922","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17680405,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAndriotis1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1983\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHoltonHorrocksJanssenLendari2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorrocks2010\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLombard2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaas_and_C.A._Trypanis1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMachardse1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrogorsky1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTonnet2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToufexis2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Byzantine Empire topics\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag\"] = 1,\n [\"Fs interlinear\"] = 7,\n [\"Greek language\"] = 1,\n [\"Greek language periods\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 4,\n [\"IPA\"] = 77,\n [\"IPA-el\"] = 146,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 242,\n [\"Langx\"] = 17,\n [\"Longitem\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Smaller\"] = 1,\n [\"Technical\"] = 1,\n [\"Technical statement\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 2,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-4d6jn","timestamp":"20241124162127","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Medieval Greek","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medieval_Greek","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q36387","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q36387","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-06-21T11:16:20Z","dateModified":"2024-10-20T14:09:19Z","headline":"medieval stage of the Greek language"}</script> </body> </html>