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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Identifying species – Category Ib</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identifying_species_–_Category_Ib-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring_population_genetic_parameters_–_Category_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring_population_genetic_parameters_–_Category_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Monitoring population genetic parameters – Category II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring_population_genetic_parameters_–_Category_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_of_genetic_monitoring_in_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_of_genetic_monitoring_in_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Status of genetic monitoring in science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Status_of_genetic_monitoring_in_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_monitoring_in_natural_resource_agencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_monitoring_in_natural_resource_agencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Genetic monitoring in natural resource agencies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_monitoring_in_natural_resource_agencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item 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</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>Genetic monitoring</b> is the use of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_marker" title="Genetic marker">molecular markers</a> to (i) identify individuals, species or populations, or (ii) to quantify changes in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Population genetic">population genetic</a> metrics (such as <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> and population size) over time. Genetic monitoring can thus be used to detect changes in <a href="/wiki/Species_abundance" class="mw-redirect" title="Species abundance">species abundance</a> and/or diversity, and has become an important tool in both <a href="/wiki/Conservation_management_system" title="Conservation management system">conservation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> management. The types of molecular markers used to monitor populations are most commonly <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial">mitochondrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsatellite (genetics)">microsatellites</a> or <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphisms">single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a> (SNPs), while earlier studies also used <a href="/wiki/Allozyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Allozyme">allozyme</a> data. Species gene diversity is also recognized as an important <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> metric for implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Types of population changes that can be detected by genetic monitoring include population growth and decline, spread of pathogens, adaptation to environmental change, hybridization, introgression and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a> events. Most of these changes are monitored using ‘neutral’ <a href="/wiki/Genetic_markers" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic markers">genetic markers</a> (markers for which mutational changes do not change their adaptive <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> within a population). However markers showing adaptive responses to environmental change can be ‘non-neutral’ (e.g. mutational changes affect their relative fitness within a population). </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b8/Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png/250px-Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b8/Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png/375px-Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b8/Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png/500px-Genetic_Monitoring_Categories.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Categories of Genetic Monitoring as defined by Schwartz et al. 2007<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Two broad categories of genetic monitoring have been defined:<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Category I encompasses the use of genetic markers as identifiers of individuals (Category Ia), populations and species (Category Ib) for traditional population monitoring. Category II represents the use of genetic markers to monitor changes of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Population genetic">population genetic</a> parameters, which include estimators of <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> (Ne), genetic variation, population inter-mixing, structure and migration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estimating_abundance_and_life_history_parameters_–_Category_Ia"><span id="Estimating_abundance_and_life_history_parameters_.E2.80.93_Category_Ia"></span>Estimating abundance and life history parameters – Category Ia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Estimating abundance and life history parameters – Category Ia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the individual level, genetic identification can enable estimation of population abundance and population increase rates within the framework of <a href="/wiki/Mark-recapture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark-recapture">mark-recapture</a> models. The abundance of cryptic or elusive species that are difficult to monitor can be estimated by collecting non-invasive biological samples in the field (e.g. feathers, scat or fur) and using these to identify individuals through <a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsatellite (genetics)">microsatellite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single-nucleotide polymorphism</a> (SNP) genotyping. This census of individuals can then be used to estimate population abundance via mark-recapture analysis. For example, this technique has been used to monitor populations of <a href="/wiki/Grizzly_bear" title="Grizzly bear">grizzly bear</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-boulanger_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boulanger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brush-tailed_rock-wallaby" title="Brush-tailed rock-wallaby">brush-tailed rock-wallaby</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_tiger" title="Bengal tiger">Bengal tiger</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Snow_leopard" title="Snow leopard">snow leopard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Population growth rates are a product of rates of population <a href="/wiki/Birth_rate" title="Birth rate">recruitment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">survival</a>, and can be estimated through open <a href="/wiki/Mark-recapture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark-recapture">mark-recapture</a> models. For example, DNA from feathers shed by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_imperial_eagle" title="Eastern imperial eagle">eastern imperial eagle</a> shows lower cumulative survival over time than seen for other long-lived raptors.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grizzly bear"><img alt="Grizzly bear" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg/80px-Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg/120px-Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg/160px-Grizzly_Bear_Alaska.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Grizzly bear</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brush-tailed rock-wallaby"><img alt="Brush-tailed rock-wallaby" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg/90px-Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg/135px-Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg/180px-Brush-tailed_Rock-wallaby.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1663" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Brush-tailed rock-wallaby</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Uncia_uncia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Snow leopard"><img alt="Snow leopard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Uncia_uncia.jpg/80px-Uncia_uncia.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Uncia_uncia.jpg/120px-Uncia_uncia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Uncia_uncia.jpg/160px-Uncia_uncia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Snow leopard</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eastern imperial eagle"><img alt="Eastern imperial eagle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg/80px-Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg/120px-Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg/161px-Kaiseradler_Aquila_heliaca_2_amk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="2200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Eastern imperial eagle</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identifying_species_–_Category_Ib"><span id="Identifying_species_.E2.80.93_Category_Ib"></span>Identifying species – Category Ib</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Identifying species – Category Ib"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Use of molecular genetic techniques to identify species can be useful for a number of reasons. Species identification in the wild can be used to detect changes in population ranges or site occupancy, rates of <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a> and the emergence and spread of <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>. Changes in population ranges have been investigated for <a href="/wiki/Iberian_lynx" title="Iberian lynx">Iberian lynx</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wolverine" title="Wolverine">wolverine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while monitoring of <a href="/wiki/Westslope_cutthroat_trout" title="Westslope cutthroat trout">westslope cutthroat trout</a> shows widespread ongoing hybridization with introduced <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_trout" title="Rainbow trout">rainbow trout</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Cutbow" title="Cutbow">cutbow</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Canada_lynx" title="Canada lynx">Canada lynx</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bobcat" title="Bobcat">bobcat</a> hybrids have been detected at the southern periphery of the current population range for lynx.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence and spread of <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a> can be tracked using diagnostic molecular assays – for example, identifying the spread of <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile virus</a> among mosquitoes in the eastern US to identify likely geographical origins of infection<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and identifying gene loci associated with parasite susceptibility in <a href="/wiki/Bighorn_sheep" title="Bighorn sheep">bighorn sheep</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic monitoring of invasive species is of conservation and economic interest, as invasions often affect the ecology and range of native species and may also bring risks of hybridization (e.g. for <a href="/wiki/Copepods" class="mw-redirect" title="Copepods">copepods</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ducks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ducks">ducks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-genetic_tools_2012_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genetic_tools_2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spotted_owl" title="Spotted owl">spotted owl</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Rabbitfish" title="Rabbitfish">Lessepsian rabbitfish</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Linces10.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iberian lynx"><img alt="Iberian lynx" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Linces10.jpg/84px-Linces10.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Linces10.jpg/126px-Linces10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Linces10.jpg/168px-Linces10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="420" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Iberian lynx</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolverine,_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wolverine"><img alt="Wolverine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Wolverine%2C_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg/120px-Wolverine%2C_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Wolverine%2C_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg/180px-Wolverine%2C_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Wolverine%2C_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg/240px-Wolverine%2C_Kristiansand_Zoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wolverine</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Canadian_Lynx.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Canadian lynx"><img alt="Canadian lynx" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Canadian_Lynx.jpg/120px-Canadian_Lynx.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Canadian_Lynx.jpg/180px-Canadian_Lynx.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Canadian_Lynx.jpg/240px-Canadian_Lynx.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2333" data-file-height="1986" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Canadian lynx</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spotted owl"><img alt="Spotted owl" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/81px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/121px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg/162px-Northern_Spotted_Owl.USFWS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2262" data-file-height="3352" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Spotted owl</div> </li> </ul> <p>Species identification is also of considerable utility in monitoring <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_trade" title="Wildlife trade">wildlife trade</a>, where conventional visual identification of butchered or flensed products is difficult or impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-baker_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baker-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monitoring of trade and consumption of species of conservation interest can be carried out using molecular amplification and identification of meat or fish obtained from markets. For example, genetic market surveys have been used to identify protected species and populations of whale (e.g., North Pacific <a href="/wiki/Minke_whale" title="Minke whale">minke whale</a>) and dolphin species appearing in the marketplace.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other surveys of market trade have focused on <a href="/wiki/Pinnipeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnipeds">pinnipeds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sea_horses" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea horses">sea horses</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such surveys are used to provide ongoing monitoring of the quantity and movement of fisheries and wildlife products through markets and for detecting <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a> or other illegal, unreported or unregulated (IUU) exploitation <sup id="cite_ref-baker_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baker-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">IUU fishing</a>). </p><p>Although initial applications focused on species identification and population assessments, market surveys also provide the opportunity for a range of molecular ecology investigations including capture-recapture, assignment tests and population modeling.<sup id="cite_ref-baker_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baker-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These developments are potentially relevant to genetic monitoring Category II. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Whale meat"><img alt="Whale meat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg/120px-Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg/180px-Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg/240px-Whale_meat_on_dish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1531" data-file-height="843" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Whale_meat" title="Whale meat">Whale meat</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dried sea horses"><img alt="Dried sea horses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg/84px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg/127px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg/169px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Sea_horse_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="2036" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dried sea horses</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shark fins"><img alt="Shark fins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg/120px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg/180px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg/240px-Yokohama_Chinese_Medicine_Shark_fin_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Shark fins</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitoring_population_genetic_parameters_–_Category_II"><span id="Monitoring_population_genetic_parameters_.E2.80.93_Category_II"></span>Monitoring population genetic parameters – Category II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Monitoring population genetic parameters – Category II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Monitoring of population changes through genetic means can be done retrospectively, through analysis of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_DNA" title="Ancient DNA">'historical' DNA</a> recovered from museum-archived species and comparison with contemporary DNA of that species. It can also be used as a tool for evaluating ongoing changes in the status and persistence of current populations. Genetic measures of relative population change include changes in diversity (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Heterozygosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygosity">heterozygosity</a> and allelic richness). Monitoring of relative population changes through these metrics has been performed retrospectively for <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringian</a> <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_tortoise" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos tortoise">Galapagos tortoise</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Houting" class="mw-redirect" title="Houting">houting</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_salmon" title="Atlantic salmon">Atlantic salmon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Northern_pike" title="Northern pike">northern pike</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_snapper" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand snapper">New Zealand snapper</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Steelhead_trout" class="mw-redirect" title="Steelhead trout">steelhead trout</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Greater_prairie_chicken" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater prairie chicken">greater prairie chicken</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mauritius_kestrel" title="Mauritius kestrel">Mauritius kestrel</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Hector%27s_dolphin" title="Hector's dolphin">Hector's dolphin</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is the subject of many ongoing studies, including Danish and Swedish <a href="/wiki/Brown_trout" title="Brown trout">brown trout</a> populations.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measuring absolute population changes (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> (Ne)) can be carried out by measuring changes in population allele frequencies (‘Ftemporal’) or levels of <a href="/wiki/Linkage_disequilibrium" title="Linkage disequilibrium">linkage disequilibrium</a> over time (‘LDNe’), while changing patterns of gene flow between populations can also be monitored by estimating differences in allele frequencies between populations over time. Subjects of such studies include <a href="/wiki/Grizzly_bears" class="mw-redirect" title="Grizzly bears">grizzly bears</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-boulanger_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boulanger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kendall_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kendall-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Red_deer" title="Red deer">red deer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Leopard_frog" title="Leopard frog">Leopard frogs</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Barrel Medic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galapagos giant tortoise"><img alt="Galapagos giant tortoise" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg/120px-Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg/180px-Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg/240px-Galapagos_giant_tortoise_Geochelone_elephantopus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Galapagos giant tortoise</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Atlantic salmon"><img alt="Atlantic salmon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg/120px-Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg/180px-Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg/240px-Salmo_trutta_Trout_Aquarium_Atlanterhavsparken_Norway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Atlantic salmon</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hectors_Dolphin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hector's dolphin"><img alt="Hector's dolphin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Hectors_Dolphin.jpg/120px-Hectors_Dolphin.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Hectors_Dolphin.jpg/180px-Hectors_Dolphin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Hectors_Dolphin.jpg/240px-Hectors_Dolphin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="660" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hector's dolphin</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Northern leopard frog"><img alt="Northern leopard frog" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg/120px-Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg/180px-Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg/240px-Northern_leopard_frog_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="195" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Northern leopard frog</div> </li> </ul> <p>Genetic monitoring has also been increasingly used in studies that monitor environmental changes through changes in the frequency of adaptively selected markers. For example, the genetically controlled photo-periodic response (hibernating time) of pitcher-plant mosquitos (<i><a href="/wiki/Wyeomyia_smithii" title="Wyeomyia smithii">Wyeomyia smithii</a></i>) has shifted in response to longer growing seasons for pitcher plants brought on by warmer weather.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experimental <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> populations grown in contrasting environments over a period of 12 generations found that changes in <a href="/wiki/Flowering" class="mw-redirect" title="Flowering">flowering</a> time were closely correlated with regulatory changes in one gene, suggesting a pathway for genetic adaptation to changing climate in plants.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genetic monitoring is also useful in monitoring the ongoing health of small, relocated populations. Good examples of this are found for <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand birds">New Zealand birds</a>, many species of which were greatly impacted by <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> and the appearance of numerous mammalian predators in the last century and have recently become part of relocation programs that transfer a few ‘founder’ individuals to predator-free offshore <a href="/wiki/Ecological_island" title="Ecological island">“ecological” islands</a>. E.g. <a href="/wiki/Black_robin" title="Black robin">black robin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81k%C4%81p%C5%8D" title="Kākāpō">kākāpō</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Category II genetic monitoring of population genetic diversity (PGD) of wild species, for purposes of biodiversity conservation and sustainable management, is unevenly distributed among countries in Europe. <a href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_area" title="List of European countries by area"> Country size</a> and per capita <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">Gross Domestic Product</a> (GDP) are statistically associated in different ways with the number of documented monitoring projects, suggesting that available habitat for species and country financial resources influence monitoring effort. There is relatively little genetic monitoring for PGD conducted in southeastern Europe. Much attention has been directed towards monitoring of large carnivores, and relatively little effort towards monitoring species in other groups, such as amphibians. <sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Barrel medic"><img alt="Barrel medic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG/120px-Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG/180px-Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG/240px-Medicago_truncatula_A17_plant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Barrel medic</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wheat_P1210892.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Common wheat"><img alt="Common wheat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Wheat_P1210892.jpg/120px-Wheat_P1210892.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Wheat_P1210892.jpg/180px-Wheat_P1210892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Wheat_P1210892.jpg/240px-Wheat_P1210892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Common wheat</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pitcher plant mosquito"><img alt="Pitcher plant mosquito" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg/120px-Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg/180px-Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg/240px-Wyeomyia_smithii_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1219" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pitcher plant mosquito</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kākāpō – New Zealand night parrot"><img alt="Kākāpō – New Zealand night parrot" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg/80px-New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg/120px-New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg/160px-New_Zealand_Kakapo_Felix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kākāpō – New Zealand night parrot</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status_of_genetic_monitoring_in_science">Status of genetic monitoring in science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Status of genetic monitoring in science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In February 2007 an international summit was held at the Institute of the Environment at <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a>, concerning ‘Evolutionary Change in Human Altered Environments: An International Summit to translate Science into Policy’. This led to a special issue of the journal of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_ecology#Molecular_Ecology_(journal)" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular Ecology</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> organized around our understanding of genetic effects in three main categories: (i) habitat disturbance and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> (ii) exploitation and <a href="/wiki/Captive_breeding" title="Captive breeding">captive breeding</a> (iii) <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a>. </p><p>In 2007 a <a href="/wiki/Working_group" title="Working group">Working Group</a> on Genetic Monitoring was launched with joint support from <a href="/wiki/NCEAS" class="mw-redirect" title="NCEAS">NCEAS</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/NESCent" class="mw-redirect" title="NESCent">NESCent</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to further develop the techniques involved and provide general monitoring guidance for policy makers and managers.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently the topic is covered in several well known text books, including McComb et al. (2010) and Allendorf et al. (2013). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_monitoring_in_natural_resource_agencies">Genetic monitoring in natural resource agencies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genetic monitoring in natural resource agencies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resource</a> agencies see genetic monitoring as a cost-effective and defensible way to monitor fish and wildlife populations. As such scientists in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, <a href="/wiki/USFS" class="mw-redirect" title="USFS">U.S. Forest Service</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>, and <a href="/wiki/National_Marine_Fisheries_Service" title="National Marine Fisheries Service">National Marine Fisheries Service</a> have been developing new methods and tools to use genetic monitoring, and applying such tools across broad geographic scales.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kendall_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kendall-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently the USFWS hosts a website that informs managers as to the best way to use genetic tools for monitoring (see below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_genetics" title="Landscape genetics">Landscape genetics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbd.int/">Website of the Convention on Biological Diversity</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genetic+Monitoring%3A+Development+of+Tools+for+Conservation+and+Management&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nceas.ucsb.edu%2Ffeatured%2Fallendorf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+monitoring" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/wildlife/genetics/index.php">Rocky Mountain Research Station Wildlife Genetics Laboratory</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_monitoring&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110808112633/http://alaska.fws.gov/gem/mainPage_1.htm">Genetic Monitoring For Managers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencecentric.com/news/article.php?q=08091708">Science Centric Report of Grizzly Bear study in northwest Montana</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20026782.600-snow-leopard-genes-could-help-estimate-populations.html">New Scientist Article – Snow leopard numbers can be read in their scat</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-16939681_ITM">Animals' scat is scientist's treasure: Advances in DNA testing let wildlife biologists study creatures using what they leave behind</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06298/732549-113.stm">Post Gazette News: Aviary researcher finds Eagles need a closer look</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926672.900-hidden-populations-give-lynx-a-fighting-chance.html">New Scientist- Hidden Populations give Lynx a fighting chance</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/03/24/BAHKVPL1V.DTL">SFGate: It's True – wolverine is thriving near Tahoe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattlepi.com/local/65639_fish08.shtml">Associated Press: Protected Trout is breeding itself into Extinction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/specials/climate_change/wyeomia_interactive/">Adapting to a warmer climate: the purple pitcher plant mosquito</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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