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<li id="toc-Maoist_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maoist_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Maoist era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maoist_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Market_reform_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Market_reform_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Market reform era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Market_reform_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditions_in_Laogai_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditions_in_Laogai_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Conditions in Laogai camps</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conditions_in_Laogai_camps-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conditions in Laogai camps subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conditions_in_Laogai_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Food</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Living_quarters_and_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Living_quarters_and_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Living quarters and sanitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Living_quarters_and_sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease_and_pests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease_and_pests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Disease and pests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease_and_pests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Reform_through_labor"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Reform_through_labor""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>"Reform through labor"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Reform_through_labor"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimated_number_of_deaths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimated_number_of_deaths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Estimated number of deaths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimated_number_of_deaths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Laogai</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%87%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8E" title="Папраўча-працоўныя турмы Кітаю – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Папраўча-працоўныя турмы Кітаю" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B1%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%B9" title="Λαογκάι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λαογκάι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Лаогай – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лаогай" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%98" title="Лаогај – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Лаогај" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%B4%E5%83%8D%E6%94%B9%E9%80%A0%E6%89%80" title="労働改造所 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="労働改造所" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Лаогай – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лаогай" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Laogai" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%B3%E5%8A%A8%E6%94%B9%E9%80%A0" title="劳动改造 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="劳动改造" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1280973#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <i>laojiao</i>, known in English as <a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">re-education through labor</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laogai_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Laogai_Map.jpg/220px-Laogai_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Laogai_Map.jpg/330px-Laogai_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Laogai_Map.jpg/440px-Laogai_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>Locations of <i>laogai</i> camps in the 1990s, according to <a href="/wiki/Harry_Wu" title="Harry Wu">Harry Wu</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de"><i>Laogai</i></th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">劳改</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">勞改</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">láogǎi</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Full name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">劳动改造</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">勞動改造</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">reform through labor</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">láodòng gǎizào</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Laogai</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">劳改</span>), short for <i>laodong gaizao</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans-CN">劳动改造</span></span>), which means <b>reform through labor</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> system involving the use of <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal labor">penal labor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prison_farm" title="Prison farm">prison farms</a> in the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC). <i>Láogǎi</i> is different from <i>láojiào</i>, or <a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">re-education through labor</a>, which was the abolished administrative detention system for people who were not criminals but had committed <a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor" title="Misdemeanor">minor offenses</a>, and was intended to "reform offenders into law-abiding citizens".<sup id="cite_ref-HRW_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HRW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Persons who were detained in the <i>laojiao</i> were detained in facilities that were separate from those which comprised the general prison system of the <i>laogai</i>. Both systems, however, were based on penal labor. </p><p>Some writers have likened the <i>laogai</i> to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AJE21Slave_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJE21Slave-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chapman_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maoist_era">Maoist era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Maoist era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1950s and 1960s, Chinese prisons, which were similar to organized factories, contained large numbers of people who were considered too critical of the government or "<a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">counter-revolutionaries</a>". However, many people arrested for political or religious reasons were released in the late 1970s at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> reforms (known as <a href="/wiki/Reform_and_opening" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform and opening">reform and opening</a>). </p><p>In the 21st century, critics have said that Chinese prisons produce products for sale in foreign countries, with the profits going to the PRC government.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Products include everything from <a href="/wiki/Green_tea" title="Green tea">green tea</a> to industrial engines to <a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">coal</a> dug from <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to James D. Seymour and <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Anderson" title="Richard C. Anderson">Richard Anderson</a>, who both teach at Chinese schools,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the products made in laogai camps comprise an insignificant amount of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a>'s export output and gross domestic product.<sup id="cite_ref-washington_times_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washington_times-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argue that the use of prison labor for manufacturing is not in itself a violation of human rights, and that most prisoners in Chinese prisons are serving time for what are generally regarded as crimes in <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a>. The West's criticism of the <i>laogai</i> is based not only on the export of products made by forced labor, but also on the claims of detainees <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_conscience" title="Prisoner of conscience">being held for political or religious violations</a>, such as leadership of unregistered <a href="/wiki/Chinese_House_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese House Churches">Chinese House Churches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Market_reform_era">Market reform era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Market reform era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structural changes following the introduction of market reforms have reduced <a href="/wiki/Tax_revenue" title="Tax revenue">tax revenue</a> to local governments, increasing pressure for local governments to supplement their income from elsewhere. At the same time, prisoners usually do not make a good <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a>. The products manufactured by prison labor in China are of low quality and have become unsalable on the open market in competition with products made by non-imprisoned paid labor.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1994 the <i>laogai</i> camps were renamed "prisons".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Chinese criminal law still stipulates that prisoners able to work shall "accept education and reform through labor".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existence of an extensive network of forced-labor camps producing consumer goods for export to Europe and the United States became classified.<sup id="cite_ref-AJE21Slave_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJE21Slave-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chongqing_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chongqing-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Publication of information about China's prison system by <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera English</a> resulted in its expulsion from China on May 7, 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTAJE_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTAJE-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2003, the word "laogai" entered the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>. It entered the German <i><a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a></i> in 2005,<sup id="cite_ref-LRF25_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LRF25-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and French and Italian dictionaries in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harry_Wu" title="Harry Wu">Harry Wu</a> has written books, including <i>Troublemaker</i> and <i>Laogai,</i> that describe the system from the 19(?)0s to the 1990s. Wu spent 19 years, from 1960 to 1979, as a prisoner in these camps, for having criticized the government while he was a young college student.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After almost starving to death in the camps, he eventually moved to the United States as a visiting scholar in 1985. In 1992, Wu created the <a href="/wiki/Laogai_Research_Foundation" title="Laogai Research Foundation">Laogai Research Foundation</a>, a human rights <a href="/wiki/NGO" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO">NGO</a> located in Washington, DC. In 2008, Wu opened the <a href="/wiki/Laogai_Museum" title="Laogai Museum">Laogai Museum</a> in Washington, D.C., calling it the first ever United States museum to directly address human rights in China.<sup id="cite_ref-washington_times_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washington_times-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-taipei_times_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taipei_times-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-press_release_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-press_release-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, the Laogai Research Foundation estimated that approximately 1,045 <i>laogai</i> facilities were operating in China, and contained an estimated 500,000 to 2 million detainees.<sup id="cite_ref-LRF6_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LRF6-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conditions_in_Laogai_camps">Conditions in Laogai camps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Conditions in Laogai camps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing">Clothing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Clothing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">Laojiao</a> (re-education through labor) inmates, Laogai criminals are issued clothing. Depending on the locale and its economic situation, the quality of clothing can vary significantly. Some prisoners may receive black or grey while others wear dark red or blue. Also depending on location, the clothing is available in different thicknesses. Commonly stamped on the uniforms are the Chinese characters for <i>fan</i> and <i>lao gai</i> meaning "criminal" and "reform through labor," respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also issued to the prisoners are a pair of shoes made of rubber or plastic.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These minimums do not meet the needs of the prisoners, who must purchase underclothes, socks, hats, and jackets with their monthly earnings of 2.5–3 <a href="/wiki/Chinese_yuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese yuan">yuan</a> (US$0.37–US$0.44 as of April 11, 2009).<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackets were rare in the Mao era and were commonly made from patches of old blankets rather than from original cloth. Washing clothes was also rare, but clothing supplies in prisons have improved since the mid-Deng-Jiang Era.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food">Food</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Food"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Food distribution has varied much through time, similar to its variation across the "over 1,155 documented laogai" camps.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One camp near Beijing distributes between 13.5 and 22.5 kg of food per person per month. This is about average. The food consists of sorghum and corn, which are ground into flour and made into bread or gruel. The prisoners of the <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> camp also receive 3 ounces of cooking oil per month. Every 2 weeks, the prisoners receive "a special meal of pork broth soup and white-flour steamed buns". Important Chinese holidays, such as New Year's, National Day, and the Spring Festival, are celebrated with meat dumplings, an exception in an otherwise meatless diet.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Food is distributed by one person per squad, which consists of about 10 people. This prisoner, called the <i>zhiban</i> or "duty prisoner," delivers the food to the rest of his group in large bowls on a cart. This often involves pushing the cart a great distance to the place where the others are working.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each day prisoners receive gruel, bread, and a watery <a href="/wiki/Vegetable_soup" title="Vegetable soup">vegetable soup</a> made from the cheapest vegetables available. Some camps have reported two meals a day, while others allow three.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Food is rationed according to rank and productive output, which is believed to provide motivation to work. </p><p>During the Mao era, food in prisons was very scarce, not only because of a nationwide <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> (1959–1962), but also because of the harsher rules<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Since little food was available, prisoners would scavenge anything they came across while working. Cases were documented of prisoners eating "field mice, crickets, locusts, toads, grapevine worms, grasshoppers, insect larvae and eggs, and venomous snakes".<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, many inmates would steal produce from the fields they worked on, smuggling vegetables back to their barracks. In <a href="/wiki/Jiabiangou" title="Jiabiangou">Jiabiangou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, around 2,500 out of 3,000 prisoners died of starvation between 1960 and 1962, with some survivors resorting to <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-french2009_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-french2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nutrition in the camps was a big problem, especially during the early 1950s through the 1960s, in the early years of the PRC (People's Republic of China). Before the CCP (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>) took control, hunger was rarely used to control prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early leaders of the CCP realized the power of withholding food from rebellious prisoners and, until recently, this practice was very common. Since the early 1990s, some camps in the coastal regions of Eastern China have improved the quality and amount of food.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Living_quarters_and_sanitation">Living quarters and sanitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Living quarters and sanitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The living quarters, commonly referred to as barracks in most Laogai literature, were relatively primitive. Most had floors made of cement or wood, but some were of only straw and/or earth. The latrine was a bucket, and no furniture was provided. The prisoners slept on the floor in a space 30 cm wide,<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with 10 people per room.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New prisoners were forced to sleep nearest to the latrine while more senior ones slept near the opposite wall.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Baths and showers were very rare and often not mentioned at all in memoirs. The only form of washing was the use of a water basin, which was only slightly less rare. This was ineffective because the entire squad used the same water. Basic essentials, such as a toothbrush and toothpaste, toilet paper, soap, and towels were not provided; prisoners had to spend their wages to acquire them.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prisoners were known to have spread manure, both human and animal, and been required to eat immediately without being able to wash their hands.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sleeping quarters were surrounded on all sides by a wall. This wall is about 20 feet high and topped with electrical fencing. There were also sentry towers on each corner. Outside this wall was 40 feet of empty space, followed by another wall, similar to the first but larger.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease_and_pests">Disease and pests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Disease and pests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Laogai camps were infested with many types of pests. <a href="/wiki/Bed_bug" title="Bed bug">Bed bugs</a> were so numerous that at night they often moved in swarms. This behavior earned them the Laogai nickname of tanks or "tanke".<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They sucked the blood of the prisoners, leaving little red welts all over their bodies. These <a href="/wiki/Wheal_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheal response">welts</a> itched, and severe cases led to inmates scratching their skin raw, leading to dangerous infections. Another common pest was <a href="/wiki/Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a>; some prisoners were known to eat them to supplement their meager diet. No <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticide</a> or pesticides were used in the camps. The prisoner Zhang Xianliang wrote that "the parasites on a single inmate's underpants would be as numerous as the words on the front page of a newspaper". He noted <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> would be so numerous that they would "turn his quilt purplish black with their droppings".<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roundworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworms">Roundworms</a> were also a common threat to the prisoners' health, especially in laogai farms, where human <a href="/wiki/Excrement" class="mw-redirect" title="Excrement">excrement</a> was used as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with a poor diet came many diet-related diseases: <a href="/wiki/Beriberi" class="mw-redirect" title="Beriberi">beriberi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pellagra" title="Pellagra">pellagra</a> were the most common, due to lack of vitamins.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other health problems caused by the lack of healthy food included severe <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> or <a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a> from the lack of oil and fiber. These two were often left untreated and, added to the continuous strain of 12 hours of manual labor, weakened the immune system. Eventually, death followed many of these conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two diseases rampant among the populations of these camps were <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>. Highly contagious, these were also often left untreated until it was too late. Each morning, the cadre of the camp decided who was sick enough to stay in the barracks and miss the day of work. Many prisoners were forced to work when they were ill.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mental illness used to be very common during the Mao era, when prisoners had to spend 2 hours each evening being indoctrinated. The <a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">brainwashing</a> that occurred over the amount of time people were imprisoned could be so intense that they were driven to insanity and, in many cases, <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Reform_through_labor""><span id=".22Reform_through_labor.22"></span>"Reform through labor"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: "Reform through labor""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forced labor defines Laogai prison camps, according to <a href="/wiki/Harry_Wu" title="Harry Wu">Harry Wu</a>, who has characterized the system as: </p> <blockquote><p>Prisoners are roused from bed at 5:30 a.m., and at 6:00 a.m. the <i>zhiban</i> from the kitchen wheels in a cart with tubs of corn gruel and cornbread ... at 7:00 a.m. the company public security cadre (captain) comes in, gathers all the prisoners together, and authorizes any sick prisoners to remain in the barracks. Once at the worksite, the captain delegates production responsibilities ... </p><p>At lunchtime the <i>zhiban</i> arrives pulling a handcart with a large tub of vegetable soup, two hunks of cornbread for each prisoner, and a large tube of drinking water ... after about 30 minutes, work is resumed until the company chief announces quitting time in the evening. Generally the prisoners return to the barracks at about 6:30 p.m. Upon return it is once again a dinner of cornbread, corn gruel, and vegetable soup. At 7:30 p.m., the 2-hour study period begins... At 9:30 p.m., no matter what the weather, all prisoners gather together outside the barracks for roll call and a speech from the captain. At around 10:00 p.m., everyone goes to bed. </p><p> During the night no lights are allowed and no one is allowed to move about. One must remain in one's assigned sleeping place and wait until 5:30 a.m. the next morning before getting up, when the whole cycle begins again.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_27-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Quota filling was a big part of the inmates' lives in Laogai camps. Undershooting or overshooting the target productivity governs their quality of life. Not making the number may result in solitary confinement or loss of food privileges. Generally, food rations are cut by 10–20% if a worker fails to meet the standard. Some prisoners excel and are able to do more than what is required of them. They sometimes receive extra or better quality food. It has been argued that this extra food is not worth the extra calories burned to be more productive, so many prisoners choose to do the minimum with minimum effort, thereby saving as much energy as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Working conditions in Laogai camps are substandard:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="An updated claim is also required, since China changes quickly in a short span of time (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Investigators from the Laogai Research Foundation have confirmed sites where prisoners mine asbestos and other toxic chemicals with no protective gear, work with batteries and battery acid with no protection for their hands, tan hides while standing naked in vats filled 3-feet deep with chemicals used for the softening of animal skins, and work in improperly run mining facilities where explosions and other accidents are a common occurrence.<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Career preparation has historically been used to justify forced labor prison systems around the world. In China, although this argument was used, career preparation was minimal until recently. Following release, the skills acquired within the Laogai prison (i.e. ditch-digging or manure-spreading) do not often lead to desirable employment. Inmates who entered the Laogai system with marketable skills were often assigned jobs utilizing these skills within the prison complex. Doctors, for example, were doctors within the Laogai camp often receiving preferential treatment, larger amounts of food, similar to the cadre, and a bed. "Inmates rarely leave with any new skills unless the training fits the camp's enterprising needs."<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently however, programs have been introduced to train prisoners in useful trades.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_26-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While there are many types of Laogai complexes, most enterprises are farms, mines, or factories. There are, according to the Chinese government, "approximately 200 different kinds of Laogai products that are exported to international markets".<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "A quarter of China's tea is produced in Laogai camps; 60 percent of China's rubber-vulcanizing chemicals are produced in a single Laogai camp in Shengyang ... one of the largest steel-pipe factories in the country is a Laogai camp ... "<sup id="cite_ref-chapman_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chapman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One camp alone, Ziangride, harvests more than 22,000 metric tons of grain every year.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dulan County prisoners have planted over 400,000 trees.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conditions in these camps are considered extremely harsh by most of the world's cultures. However, the Chinese government considers Laogai to be effective in controlling prisoners and furthering China's economy. According to Mao Zedong, "The Laogai facilities are one of the violent component parts of the state machine. Laogai facilities of all levels are established as tools representing the interests of the proletariat and the people's masses and exercising dictatorship over a minority of hostile elements originating from exploiter classes."<sup id="cite_ref-gulag_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gulag-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimated_number_of_deaths">Estimated number of deaths</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Estimated number of deaths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The estimated number of deaths in laogai varies substantially among authors on the subject: </p> <ul><li>In 1997, human rights activist and <a href="/wiki/Laogai_Research_Foundation" title="Laogai Research Foundation">Laogai Research Foundation</a> creator <a href="/wiki/Harry_Wu" title="Harry Wu">Harry Wu</a> put the death toll from 1949 to 1997 at 15 million.<sup id="cite_ref-wudead_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wudead-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1991, political scientist <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rudolph Rummel</a> puts the number of forced labor "<a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">democides</a>" at 15,720,000, excluding "all those collectivized, ill-fed and clothed peasants who would be worked to death in the fields".<sup id="cite_ref-rummels_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rummels-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Margolin" title="Jean-Louis Margolin">Jean-Louis Margolin</a> estimated in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a></i> that 20 million deaths resulted from high mortality rates in laogai.<sup id="cite_ref-Courtois_et.al_1999_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courtois_et.al_1999-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Margolin's calculation assume a yearly imprisoned population of 10 million people and a yearly mortality rate of 5%. If camps operated from roughly 1949 to 1980, that yields about 15.5 million dead.</li> <li>In 2005, linguist <a href="/wiki/Jung_Chang" title="Jung Chang">Jung Chang</a> and historian <a href="/wiki/Jon_Halliday" title="Jon Halliday">Jon Halliday</a> estimated in <i><a href="/wiki/Mao:_The_Unknown_Story" title="Mao: The Unknown Story">Mao: The Unknown Story</a></i> that deaths in prisons and labor camps "could well amount to 27 million" during Mao's rule.<sup id="cite_ref-ChangHalliday2005_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChangHalliday2005-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, Jin Xiaoding negatively described Chang and Halliday's logic as a "magic formula" that simply multiplies 27 (years of Mao's rule) by 10 million (assumed camp population) by 10% (assumed yearly mortality rate) to obtain 27 million dead, with no discussion of responsibility or other data.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charlie Hore called this method "guessing".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chang and Halliday say that inmates were subjected to back-breaking labor in the most hostile wastelands, and that executions and suicides by any means (like diving into a wheat chopper) were commonplace.<sup id="cite_ref-ChangHalliday2005_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChangHalliday2005-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laogai&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laogai.org/news/newsdetail.php?id=2796">the original</a> on April 30, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 22,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chongqing%3A+China+allows+counsel+for+reeducation-through-labor+cases&rft.pub=Laogai+Research+Foundation&rft.date=2007-04-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaogai.org%2Fnews%2Fnewsdetail.php%3Fid%3D2796&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span> Translated from Chinese, original source was <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF海涛2008" class="citation web cs1">海涛 (April 4, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voanews.com/chinese/archive/2007-04/w2007-04-04-voa29.cfm?CFID=55232049&CFTOKEN=80981409">"中国重庆允许律师代理劳动教养案"</a>. Voice of America<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 4,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%8D%E5%BA%86%E5%85%81%E8%AE%B8%E5%BE%8B%E5%B8%88%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86%E5%8A%B3%E5%8A%A8%E6%95%99%E5%85%BB%E6%A1%88&rft.pub=Voice+of+America&rft.date=2008-04-04&rft.au=%E6%B5%B7%E6%B6%9B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fchinese%2Farchive%2F2007-04%2Fw2007-04-04-voa29.cfm%3FCFID%3D55232049%26CFTOKEN%3D80981409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51697800">"Uighurs in 'forced labour for Western brands'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. March 2, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617181615/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51697800">Archived</a> from the original on June 17, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 21,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Uighurs+in+%27forced+labour+for+Western+brands%27&rft.date=2020-03-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-asia-china-51697800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTAJE-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYTAJE_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Wines2012" class="citation news cs1">Michael Wines (May 7, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/08/world/asia/china-expels-al-jazeera-english-language-channel.html">"China Expels Al Jazeera Channel"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120508011052/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/08/world/asia/china-expels-al-jazeera-english-language-channel.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 8, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 8,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=China+Expels+Al+Jazeera+Channel&rft.date=2012-05-07&rft.au=Michael+Wines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F05%2F08%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fchina-expels-al-jazeera-english-language-channel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2012/05/201257195136608563.html">"Al Jazeera English to close China bureau"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120508103635/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2012/05/201257195136608563.html">Archived</a> May 8, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Al Jazeera English May 8, 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LRF25-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LRF25_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527202338/http://www.laogai.org/news2/book/handbook05-06.pdf">"Laogai Handbook"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Laogai Research Foundation. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laogai.org/news2/book/handbook05-06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 27, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laogai+Handbook&rft.pub=The+Laogai+Research+Foundation&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.laogai.org%2Fnews2%2Fbook%2Fhandbook05-06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span> p. 25–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF吴弘达_(Harry_Wu)2007" class="citation web cs1">吴弘达 (<a href="/wiki/Harry_Wu" title="Harry Wu">Harry Wu</a>) (January 19, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120213173117/http://www.cicus.org/info/ArtShow.asp?ID=42171">"祝贺LAOGAI（劳改）进入意大利语词典"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cicus.org/info/ArtShow.asp?ID=42171">the original</a> on February 13, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E7%A5%9D%E8%B4%BALAOGAI%EF%BC%88%E5%8A%B3%E6%94%B9%EF%BC%89%E8%BF%9B%E5%85%A5%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8&rft.date=2007-01-19&rft.au=%E5%90%B4%E5%BC%98%E8%BE%BE+%28Harry+Wu%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cicus.org%2Finfo%2FArtShow.asp%3FID%3D42171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span> English summary: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cicus.org/info_Eng/artshow.asp?ID=7138">Congratulations! Laogai entered Italian dictionary!</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120213173126/http://www.cicus.org/info_Eng/artshow.asp?ID=7138">Archived</a> February 13, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610072617/http://www.academia.org/campus_reports/2003/cr_harry_wu.html">"Exposing Laogai: Harry Wu Speaks At AIM Luncheon"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.org/campus_reports/2003/cr_harry_wu.html">the original</a> on June 10, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exposing+Laogai%3A+Harry+Wu+Speaks+At+AIM+Luncheon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.org%2Fcampus_reports%2F2003%2Fcr_harry_wu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taipei_times-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taipei_times_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgence_France-Presse2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Agence_France-Presse" title="Agence France-Presse">Agence France-Presse</a> (November 10, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2008/11/10/2003428244">"US museum displays China's 'laogai'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Taipei Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081117112908/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2008/11/10/2003428244">Archived</a> from the original on November 17, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Taipei+Times&rft.atitle=US+museum+displays+China%27s+%27laogai%27&rft.date=2008-11-10&rft.au=Agence+France-Presse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taipeitimes.com%2FNews%2Fworld%2Farchives%2F2008%2F11%2F10%2F2003428244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-press_release-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-press_release_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090122061900/http://laogai.org/news/newsdetail.php?id=3216">"Press Release: Laogai Museum Now Open to the Public"</a>. Laogai Research Foundation. November 13, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laogai.org/news/newsdetail.php?id=3216">the original</a> on January 22, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Press+Release%3A+Laogai+Museum+Now+Open+to+the+Public&rft.pub=Laogai+Research+Foundation&rft.date=2008-11-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.laogai.org%2Fnews%2Fnewsdetail.php%3Fid%3D3216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LRF6-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LRF6_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527202338/http://www.laogai.org/news2/book/handbook05-06.pdf">"Laogai Handbook"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Laogai Research Foundation. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laogai.org/news2/book/handbook05-06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 27, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 18,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laogai+Handbook&rft.pub=The+Laogai+Research+Foundation&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.laogai.org%2Fnews2%2Fbook%2Fhandbook05-06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span> p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsWu2004" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Philip F.; Wu, Yenna (2004). <i>The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chinese Prison Camp through Contemporary Fiction and Reportage</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22779-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22779-4"><bdi>0-520-22779-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53369503">53369503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Wall+of+Confinement%3A+The+Chinese+Prison+Camp+through+Contemporary+Fiction+and+Reportage&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53369503&rft.isbn=0-520-22779-4&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Philip+F.&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yenna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-williams-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-williams_26-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Philip F., and Yenna Wu. <i>The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chinese Prison Camp Through Contemporary Fiction and Reportage</i>. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2004. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wu-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_27-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wu, Hongda Harry. <i>Laogai – The Chinese Gulag</i>. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Inc., 1992. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-french2009-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-french2009_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/25/books/25french.html">Howard W. French, "Survivors' Stories From China"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170301204421/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/25/books/25french.html">Archived</a> March 1, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>New York Times,</i> August 25, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">By Ian Johnson. "China's Prison Camps Turn to Commerce --- Forced Labor Helps Settle Unexploited Regions. " <i>Wall Street Journal,</i> Aug. 14, 1998, Eastern edition: A13. ABI/INFORM Global. ProQuest.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gulag-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gulag_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wu, Harry, "The Other Gulag", <i>National Review,</i> 4/5/1999, Vol. 51, Issue 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wudead-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wudead_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikman1997" class="citation web cs1">Aikman, David (September 29, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050426222819/http://www.laogai.org/comment/arch.htm">"The Laogai Archipelago"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard" title="The Weekly Standard">The Weekly Standard</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laogai.org/comment/arch.htm">the original</a> on April 26, 2005. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"There are, according to Wu, an estimated 1,100 of these institutions in which prisoners are compelled to work under conditions, essentially, of slave labor. He estimates that over five decades about 50 million Chinese have been through the Laogai. Today Wu estimates the Laogai population at 6-8 million. [.....] Many of them simply perished in the camps, part of a Laogai death toll that by Wu's calculations may have reached 15 million since 1949. Others survived, but remained in legal limbo for the rest of their lives.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Laogai+Archipelago&rft.pub=The+Weekly+Standard&rft.date=1997-09-29&rft.aulast=Aikman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.laogai.org%2Fcomment%2Farch.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rummels-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rummels_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rummel, R. J.</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE2.HTM">China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190724104631/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE2.HTM">Archived</a> July 24, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88738-417-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88738-417-X">0-88738-417-X</a> pp. 214–215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Courtois_et.al_1999-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Courtois_et.al_1999_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerthPannéPaczkowskiBartosek1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Werth" title="Nicolas Werth">Werth, Nicolas</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Pann%C3%A9" title="Jean-Louis Panné">Panné, Jean-Louis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Paczkowski" title="Andrzej Paczkowski">Paczkowski, Andrzej</a>; <a href="/wiki/Karel_Bartosek" class="mw-redirect" title="Karel Bartosek">Bartosek, Karel</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Margolin" title="Jean-Louis Margolin">Margolin, Jean-Louis</a> (October 1999). <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois" title="Stéphane Courtois">Courtois, Stéphane</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC"><i>The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 498. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07608-2</bdi></a>. <q>The laogai was a sort of nonplace, a black hole where the light of Maoism blinded tens of millions of people. As a rough indication, Harry Wu calculates that up to the mid-1980s some 50 million people passed through the system.115 Many died there. According to estimates by Jean-Luc Domenach, there were roughly 10 million detainees each year, which equals 1—2 percent of the overall population. Given that the mortality rate was around 5 percent, some 20 million Chinese must have died during imprisonment, including approximately 4 million in 1959-1962 during the famine caused by the Great Leap Forward (although a return to normal rations took place only in 1964).116 Along with Jean Pasqualini's extraordinary revelations, two recent studies (those of Wu and Domenach) now yield a better general picture of the least-known of the century's three great concentration-camp systems. [....] 115. Wu, Laogai, p. 38. 116. Domenach, Chine, p. 242; Pasqualini, Prisoner of Mao, p. 318.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Book+of+Communism%3A+Crimes%2C+Terror%2C+Repression&rft.pages=498&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999-10&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07608-2&rft.aulast=Werth&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft.au=Pann%C3%A9%2C+Jean-Louis&rft.au=Paczkowski%2C+Andrzej&rft.au=Bartosek%2C+Karel&rft.au=Margolin%2C+Jean-Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH1jsgYCoRioC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChangHalliday2005-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChangHalliday2005_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChangHalliday2005_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangHalliday2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jung_Chang" title="Jung Chang">Chang, Jung</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jon_Halliday" title="Jon Halliday">Halliday, Jon</a> (2005). <i><a href="/wiki/Mao:_The_Unknown_Story" title="Mao: The Unknown Story">Mao: The Unknown Story</a></i>. London: Jonathan Cape. p. 338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0224071260" title="Special:BookSources/978-0224071260"><bdi>978-0224071260</bdi></a>. <q>Hidden away in these camps, the physically weaker, and the spiritually stronger, were worked to death. Many inmates were executed, while others committed suicide by any means, like diving into a wheat-chopper. In all, during his rule, the number who died in prisons and labour camps could well amount to 27 million.* [....] By the general estimate China's prison and labor camp population was roughly 10 million in any one year under Mao. Descriptions of camp life by inmates, which point to high mortality rates, indicate a probable annual death rate of at least 10 per cent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%3A+The+Unknown+Story&rft.place=London&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0224071260&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Jung&rft.au=Halliday%2C+Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentonChun2010" class="citation book cs1">Benton, Gregor; Chun, Lin, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Was-Mao-Really-a-Monster-The-Academic-Response-to-Chang-and-Hallidays/Benton-Chun/p/book/9780415493307"><i>Was Mao Really a Monster?: The Academic Response to Chang and Halliday's "Mao: The Unknown Story"</i></a> (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415493307" title="Special:BookSources/9780415493307"><bdi>9780415493307</bdi></a>. <q>Twenty-seven million deaths in prisons and labour camps Jung Chang's second large group of Mao's peacetime victims is those who died in Chinese government custody. The number is actually produced by magic formula. Mao's responsibility is not discussed, merely assumed. During Mao's 27 years of rule, 'the number who died in prisons and labour camps could well amount to 27 million' (p. 338). The proof: 'China's prison and labour camp population was roughly 10 million in any one year under Mao. Descriptions of camp life by inmates, which point to high mortality rates, indicate a probable annual death rate of at least 10 per cent' (p. 338 fn.). So 10m × 10% × 27 = 27 million. Jung Chang accuses Mao of killing x = a × b × c number of people, where a = 'China's prison and labour camp population', b = 'annual death rate', and c = the years of his rule. She does not explain why a = 10 million. Her justification of b = 10 per cent is based on 'descriptions of camp life by inmates'. If we applied this magic formula to Deng Xiao-ping's reign from 1978 to 1989, we get the figure of 12 million deaths, and 14 million for his successor Jiang Ze-min (1990–2003). Jung Chang does not show why Mao was responsible. Apparently she simply blames Mao for every Chinese death of whatever kind.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Was+Mao+Really+a+Monster%3F%3A+The+Academic+Response+to+Chang+and+Halliday%27s+%22Mao%3A+The+Unknown+Story%22&rft.pages=149&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780415493307&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FWas-Mao-Really-a-Monster-The-Academic-Response-to-Chang-and-Hallidays%2FBenton-Chun%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780415493307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHore2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hore, Charlie (Spring 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/hore/2006/xx/mao.html">"Mao out of context"</a>. <i>International Socialism</i>. <b>2</b>: 110 – via <a href="/wiki/Marxist_Internet_Archive" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist Internet Archive">Marxist Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Socialism&rft.atitle=Mao+out+of+context&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=110&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hore&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Fetol%2Fwriters%2Fhore%2F2006%2Fxx%2Fmao.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaogai" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Law enforcement in Macau">Macau</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macao_Garrison" title="Macao Garrison">PLA Macau Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_Against_Corruption" title="Commission Against Corruption">Commission Against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau_Security_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Macau Security Force">Macau Security Force</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_Police_Service&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unitary Police Service (page does not exist)">Unitary Police Service</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E7%B8%BD%E5%B1%80" class="extiw" title="zh:警察總局">zh</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_Security_Police_Force" title="Public Security Police Force">Public Security Police</a> (including <i>Migration Service</i>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macau_Judicial_Police&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macau Judicial Police (page does not exist)">Judicial Police</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E9%96%80%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E5%B1%80" class="extiw" title="zh:澳門司法警察局">zh</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_Services_Bureau" title="Fire Services Bureau">Fire Services Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correctional_Services_Bureau" title="Correctional Services Bureau">Correctional Services Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macau_Customs_Service&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macau Customs Service (page does not exist)">Macau Customs Service</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E9%96%80%E6%B5%B7%E9%97%9C" class="extiw" title="zh:澳門海關">zh</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a> (1950–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a> (1951–52)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufan_movement" title="Sufan movement">Sufan movement</a> (1955–57)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a> (1957–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadian_incident" title="Shadian incident">Shadian incident</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_%22Strike_Hard%22_Anti-crime_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign">1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign</a> (1983–87)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/6521_Project" title="6521 Project">6521 Project</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">Anti-corruption campaign</a> (2012–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_Hard_Campaign_Against_Violent_Terrorism" title="Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism">Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Fox_Hunt" title="Operation Fox Hunt">Operation Fox Hunt</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/709_crackdown" title="709 crackdown">709 crackdown</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intelligence_activity_abroad" title="Chinese intelligence activity abroad">Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Information operations and information warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Chinese espionage in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_crackdown_on_dissidents_in_China" title="2011 crackdown on dissidents in China">2011 crackdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/610_Office" title="610 Office">610 Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_jails" title="Black jails">Black jails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_China" title="Capital punishment in China">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Case_Examination_Group" title="Central Case Examination Group">Central Case Examination Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Servant-Family_Pair_Up" title="Civil Servant-Family Pair Up">Civil Servant-Family Pair Up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_sentence_with_reprieve" title="Death sentence with reprieve">Death sentence with reprieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Cannon" title="Great Cannon">Great Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid-style_social_management_in_China" title="Grid-style social management in China">Grid-style social management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law" title="2020 Hong Kong national security law"> Hong Kong national security law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hong_Kong_national_security_cases" title="List of Hong Kong national security cases">List of Hong Kong national security cases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Macau" title="Human rights in Macau">Macao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Hong_Kong" title="Human rights in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">Internet censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inciting_subversion_of_state_power" title="Inciting subversion of state power">Inciting subversion of state power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Hong_Kong" title="Judiciary of Hong Kong">Judiciary of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Macau" title="Judiciary of Macau">Judiciary of Macau</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment_in_China" title="Life imprisonment in China">Life imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLA_Unit_61398" title="PLA Unit 61398">PLA Unit 61398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_offences_in_China" title="Political offences in China">Political offences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picking_quarrels_and_provoking_trouble" title="Picking quarrels and provoking trouble">Picking quarrels and provoking trouble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">Re-education through labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_Surveillance_at_a_Designated_Location" title="Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location">Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_detention" title="Soft detention">Soft detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuanggui" title="Shuanggui">Shuanggui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-faced_person" title="Two-faced person">Two-faced person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holistic_security_concept" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistic security concept">Holistic security concept</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prisons_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China_prisons" title="Template:China prisons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China_prisons" title="Template talk:China prisons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China_prisons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China prisons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prisons_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Prisons in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Municipal_Administration_of_Prisons" title="Beijing Municipal Administration of Prisons">Beijing Municipal Administration of Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Municipal_Administration_of_Prisons" title="Chongqing Municipal Administration of Prisons">Chongqing Municipal Administration of Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Prison_Administrative_Bureau" title="Guangdong Prison Administrative Bureau">Guangdong Prison Administrative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Municipal_Prison_Administration" title="Shanghai Municipal Prison Administration">Shanghai Municipal Prison Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_Province_Prison_Administrative_Bureau" title="Sichuan Province Prison Administrative Bureau">Sichuan Province Prison Administrative Bureau</a></li></ul> <p>SARs: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correctional_Services_Department" title="Correctional Services Department">Hong Kong Correctional Services Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correctional_Services_Bureau" title="Correctional Services Bureau">Macao Correctional Services Bureau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prisons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anqing_Prison" title="Anqing Prison">Anqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baihu_Prison" title="Baihu Prison">Baihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Women%27s_Prison" title="Beijing Women's Prison">Beijing Women's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Municipal_Prison" title="Beijing Municipal Prison">Beijing Municipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Municipal_No._1_Prison" title="Beijing Municipal No. 1 Prison">Beijing Municipal No. 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Municipal_No._2_Prison" title="Beijing Municipal No. 2 Prison">Beijing Municipal No. 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Office_for_Criminal_Deportation" title="Beijing Office for Criminal Deportation">Beijing Office for Criminal Deportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengbu_Prison" title="Bengbu Prison">Bengbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaohu_Prison" title="Chaohu Prison">Chaohu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chishan_Prison" title="Chishan Prison">Chishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongguan_Prison" title="Dongguan Prison"> Dongguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drapchi_Prison" title="Drapchi Prison">Drapchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyang_Prison" title="Fuyang Prison">Fuyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foshan_Prison" title="Foshan Prison">Foshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaoming_Prison" title="Gaoming Prison">Gaoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanzhou_Prison" title="Lanzhou Prison">Lanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lujiang_Prison" title="Lujiang Prison">Lujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liangxiang_Prison" title="Liangxiang Prison">Liangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lianping_Prison" title="Lianping Prison">Lianping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangmen_Prison" title="Jiangmen Prison">Jiangmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaoling_Prison" title="Jiaoling Prison">Jiaoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jieyang_Prison" title="Jieyang Prison">Jieyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinzhong_Prison" title="Jinzhong Prison">Jinzhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiucheng_Administration_Branch" title="Jiucheng Administration Branch">Jiucheng Administration Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiulong_Prison" title="Jiulong Prison">Jiulong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27anshan_Prison" title="Ma'anshan Prison">Ma'anshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyu_Prison" title="Panyu Prison">Panyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingshi_Prison" title="Pingshi Prison">Pingshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingpu_Prison" title="Qingpu Prison">Qingpu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingshan_Prison" title="Qingshan Prison">Qingshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qincheng_Prison" title="Qincheng Prison">Qincheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Detention_Center" title="Shanghai Detention Center">Shanghai Detention Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_Provincial_Women%27s_Prison" title="Sichuan Provincial Women's Prison">Sichuan Provincial Women's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_Prison" title="Suzhou Prison">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Women%27s_Prison" title="Shanghai Women's Prison">Shanghai Women's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shushan_Prison" title="Shushan Prison">Shushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilanqiao_Prison" title="Tilanqiao Prison">Tilanqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhu_Prison" title="Wuhu Prison">Wuhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongchuan_Prison" title="Yongchuan Prison">Yongchuan</a><br /></li></ul> <p>SARs: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Hong_Kong" title="Prisons in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lo_Wu_Correctional_Institution" title="Lo Wu Correctional Institution">Lo Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shek_Pik_Prison" title="Shek Pik Prison">Shek Pik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Prison" title="Stanley Prison">Stanley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lam_Centre_for_Women" title="Tai Lam Centre for Women">Tai Lam for Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tam_Gap_Correctional_Institution" title="Tai Tam Gap Correctional Institution">Tai Tam Gap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correctional_Services_Bureau" title="Correctional Services Bureau">Macau</a></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Closed" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Closed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Prison" title="Victoria Prison">Victoria</a> (Hong Kong)</li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">Re-education<br />through<br />labor</a><br />camps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daqing_re-education_through_labor_camp" title="Daqing re-education through labor camp">Daqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masanjia_re-education_through_labor_camp" title="Masanjia re-education through labor camp">Masanjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanjia_re-education_through_labor_camp" title="Wanjia re-education through labor camp">Wanjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibalihe_women%27s_re-education_through_labor_camp" title="Shibalihe women's re-education through labor camp">Shibalihe women's</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Juvenile facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Juvenile_Offender_Detachment" title="Beijing Juvenile Offender Detachment">Beijing Juvenile Offender Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Juvenile_Offender_Detachment" title="Chongqing Juvenile Offender Detachment">Chongqing Juvenile Offender Detachment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_jails" title="Black jails">Black jails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_China" title="Capital punishment in China">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Macau" title="Human rights in Macau">Macao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Hong_Kong" title="Human rights in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment_in_China" title="Life imprisonment in China">Life imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_Surveillance_at_a_Designated_Location" title="Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location">Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_detention" title="Soft detention">Soft detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuanggui" title="Shuanggui">Shuanggui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laogai&oldid=1249653871">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laogai&oldid=1249653871</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Penal_labor_in_China" title="Category:Penal labor in China">Penal labor in China</a></li><li><a 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