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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peri-Gondwana_development:_Paleozoic_rifts_and_accretions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peri-Gondwana_development:_Paleozoic_rifts_and_accretions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Peri-Gondwana_development:_Paleozoic_rifts_and_accretions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Peri-Gondwana_development:_Paleozoic_rifts_and_accretions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Southwestern_accretions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southwestern_accretions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Southwestern accretions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southwestern_accretions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gondwana_as_part_of_Pangaea:_Late_Paleozoic_to_Early_Mesozoic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gondwana_as_part_of_Pangaea:_Late_Paleozoic_to_Early_Mesozoic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gondwana as part of Pangaea: Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gondwana_as_part_of_Pangaea:_Late_Paleozoic_to_Early_Mesozoic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Break-up" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Break-up"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Break-up</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Break-up-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Break-up subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Break-up-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesozoic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesozoic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Mesozoic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesozoic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Opening of western Indian Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Opening of eastern Indian Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening_of_South_Atlantic_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Opening of South Atlantic Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Andean_orogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Andean_orogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Early Andean orogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Andean_orogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cenozoic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cenozoic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Cenozoic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cenozoic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia–Antarctica_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia–Antarctica_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Australia–Antarctica separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia–Antarctica_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biogeography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biogeography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Biogeography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biogeography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biogeography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biogeography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-Cambrian_diversification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Cambrian_diversification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Post-Cambrian diversification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Cambrian_diversification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_diversification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_diversification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Modern diversification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_diversification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gondwana</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">97 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="غندوانا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غندوانا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qondvana" title="Qondvana – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qondvana" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE" title="গন্ডোয়ানা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গন্ডোয়ানা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гандвана – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гандвана" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гандвана – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гандвана" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1" title="गोंडवाना लैंड – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="गोंडवाना लैंड" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwanaland" title="Gondwanaland – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gondwanaland" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8E%DE%AE%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%91%DE%A6%DE%88%DE%A7%DE%82%DE%A7" title="ގޮންޑަވާނާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ގޮންޑަވާނާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Γκοντβάνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γκοντβάνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvano" title="Gondvano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gondvano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="گوندوانا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گوندوانا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwane" title="Gondwane – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Gondwane" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonduanalainn" title="Gonduanalainn – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gonduanalainn" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A4%EB%93%9C%EC%99%80%EB%82%98" title="곤드와나 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="곤드와나" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1" title="Գոնդվանա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գոնդվանա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="गोंडवाना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गोंडवाना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="גונדוונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גונדוונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1" title="ಗೋಂಡ್ವಾನ ಖಂಡ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗೋಂಡ್ವಾನ ಖಂಡ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="გონდვანა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გონდვანა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondv%C4%81na" title="Gondvāna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gondvāna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonduana" title="Gonduana – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Gonduana" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana_(%C5%91skontinens)" title="Gondwana (őskontinens) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gondwana (őskontinens)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%82" title="ഗോണ്ട്വാന ഭൂഖണ്ഡം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗോണ്ട്വാന ഭൂഖണ്ഡം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8" title="गोंडवन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गोंडवन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Гондванась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Гондванась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana_(continent)" title="Gondwana (continent) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gondwana (continent)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="गोन्डवाना – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="गोन्डवाना" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%AF%E3%83%8A%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8" title="ゴンドワナ大陸 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゴンドワナ大陸" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DA%88%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="گونڈوانا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گونڈوانا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana_(Kontinent)" title="Gondwana (Kontinent) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Gondwana (Kontinent)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DA%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="گونڊوانا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="گونڊوانا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AFndwana" title="Gůndwana – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Gůndwana" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE" title="கோண்டுவானா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கோண்டுவானா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2" title="มหาทวีปกอนด์วานา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มหาทวีปกอนด์วานา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondvana" title="Gondvana – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gondvana" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Гондвана – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гондвана" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DA%88%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="گونڈوانا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گونڈوانا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%88%E7%93%A6%E9%82%A3%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86" title="冈瓦那大陆 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="冈瓦那大陆" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B2%A1%E7%93%A6%E9%82%A3%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8" title="岡瓦那大陸 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="岡瓦那大陸" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Gondwana" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%88%E7%93%A6%E7%BA%B3%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86" title="冈瓦纳大陆 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="冈瓦纳大陆" data-language-autonym="中文" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Neoproterozoic to Cretaceous landmass</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the supercontinent. For the region in India, see <a href="/wiki/Gondwana_(India)" title="Gondwana (India)">Gondwana (India)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Gondwana_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Gondwana (disambiguation)">Gondwana (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Gondwana</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gondwana_420_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gondwana_420_Ma.png/220px-Gondwana_420_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gondwana_420_Ma.png/330px-Gondwana_420_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gondwana_420_Ma.png/440px-Gondwana_420_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="807" data-file-height="791" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Gondwana 420 million years ago (late Silurian). View centered on the South Pole.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #ccf;">Historical continent</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formed</th><td class="infobox-data">600 Mya</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">Supercontinent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a><br /><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a><br /><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Peninsula">Balkans</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Smaller continents</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Zealandia_(continent)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zealandia (continent)">Zealandia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tectonic plates</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/African_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="African Plate">African Plate</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Plate">Antarctic Plate</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Indo-Australian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Australian Plate">Indo-Australian Plate</a><br /><a href="/wiki/South_American_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="South American Plate">South American Plate</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Gondwana</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"> </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a large landmass, sometimes referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a>. The remnants of Gondwana make up around two-thirds of today's continental area, including <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. </p><p>Gondwana was formed by the <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">accretion</a> of several <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a> (large stable blocks of the Earth's crust), beginning <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=800–650">800 to 650</a> <abbr title="million years ago">Ma</abbr></span> with the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Orogeny" title="East African Orogeny">East African Orogeny</a>, the collision of India and Madagascar with East Africa, and culminating in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=600–530">600 to 530</a> Ma</span> with the overlapping <a href="/wiki/Brasiliano_orogeny" title="Brasiliano orogeny">Brasiliano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kuunga_orogeny" title="Kuunga orogeny">Kuunga</a> orogenies, the collision of South America with Africa, and the addition of Australia and Antarctica, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, Gondwana became the largest piece of <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> Era, covering an area of some 100,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (39,000,000 sq mi),<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about one-fifth of the Earth's surface. It fused with <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. It began to separate from northern Pangea (<a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, and started to fragment during the Early <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> (around 180 million years ago). The final stages of break-up, involving the separation of Antarctica from South America (forming the <a href="/wiki/Drake_Passage" title="Drake Passage">Drake Passage</a>) and Australia, occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> (from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66–23">66 to 23</a> million years ago</span> (Ma)). Gondwana was not considered a supercontinent by the earliest definition, since the landmasses of <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a> were separated from it.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley-2011_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To differentiate it from the Indian region of the same name (see <a href="#Name">§ Name</a>), it is also commonly called <b>Gondwanaland</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regions that were part of Gondwana shared <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">floral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">faunal</a> elements that persist to the present day. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wegener_fossils-mapped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Wegener_fossils-mapped.png/249px-Wegener_fossils-mapped.png" decoding="async" width="249" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Wegener_fossils-mapped.png/374px-Wegener_fossils-mapped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Wegener_fossils-mapped.png/498px-Wegener_fossils-mapped.png 2x" data-file-width="2742" data-file-height="1628" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of four <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> fossil groups used as biogeographic evidence for continental drift, land bridging.</figcaption></figure> <p>The continent of Gondwana was named by the Austrian scientist <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Suess" title="Eduard Suess">Eduard Suess</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Gondwana_(India)" title="Gondwana (India)">region in central India of the same name</a>, which is derived from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> for "forest of the <a href="/wiki/Gondi_people" title="Gondi people">Gonds</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name had been previously used in a geological context, first by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Benedict_Medlicott" title="Henry Benedict Medlicott">H. B. Medlicott</a> in 1872,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (<a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>) are also described. </p><p>Some scientists prefer the term "Gondwanaland" for the supercontinent to make a clear distinction between the region and the supercontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-McLoughlin_2001_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLoughlin_2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kuunga2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kuunga2.png/207px-Kuunga2.png" decoding="async" width="207" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kuunga2.png/311px-Kuunga2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kuunga2.png/414px-Kuunga2.png 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Eastern Gondwana. <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=620–550">620 to 550</a> Ma</span> post-collisional extension of the East African Orogeny in blue and <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=570–530">570 to 530</a> Ma</span> collisional metamorphism of the Kuunga orogeny in red.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process during the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, which remains incompletely understood because of the lack of paleo-magnetic data. Several <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenies</a>, collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Pan-African_orogeny" title="Pan-African orogeny">Pan-African orogeny</a>, caused the continental fragments of a much older supercontinent, <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a>, to amalgamate. One of those orogenic belts, the <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_Belt" title="Mozambique Belt">Mozambique Belt</a>, formed <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=800–650">800 to 650</a> Ma</span> and was originally interpreted as the <a href="/wiki/Suture_(geology)" title="Suture (geology)">suture</a> between East (India, Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia) and West Gondwana (Africa and South America). Three orogenies were recognised during the 1990s as a result of data sets compiled on behalf of oil and mining companies:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Orogeny" title="East African Orogeny">East African Orogeny</a> (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=650–800">650 to 800</a> Ma</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Kuunga_orogeny" title="Kuunga orogeny">Kuunga orogeny</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_orogeny" title="Malagasy orogeny">Malagasy orogeny</a> in southern Madagascar) (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=550">550</a> Ma</span>), the collision between East Gondwana and East Africa in two steps, and the <a href="/wiki/Brasiliano_orogeny" title="Brasiliano orogeny">Brasiliano orogeny</a> (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=660–530">660 to 530</a> Ma</span>), the successive collision between South American and African <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Iapetus_Ocean" title="Iapetus Ocean">Iapetus Ocean</a> between <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> and western Gondwana.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this interval, the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> occurred. Laurentia was docked against the western shores of a united Gondwana for a brief period near the Precambrian and Cambrian boundary, forming the short-lived and still disputed supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_Belt" title="Mozambique Belt">Mozambique Ocean</a> separated the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Craton" title="Congo Craton">Congo</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tanzania_Craton" title="Tanzania Craton">Tanzania</a>–<a href="/wiki/Bangweulu_Block" title="Bangweulu Block">Bangweulu Block</a> of central Africa from Neoproterozoic India (India, the <a href="/wiki/Antongil_Bay" title="Antongil Bay">Antongil</a> Block in far eastern Madagascar, the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>, and the Napier and Rayner Complexes in <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania</a> continent<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (much of central <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and Arabia) was an island in the Mozambique Ocean. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Positions_of_ancient_continents,_550_million_years_ago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg/259px-Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg" decoding="async" width="259" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg/389px-Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg/518px-Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plate_reconstruction" title="Plate reconstruction">Reconstruction</a> showing final stages of assembly of Gondwana, 550 Mya</figcaption></figure> <p>The continents of Australia and <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Shield" title="East Antarctic Shield">East Antarctica</a> were still separated from India, eastern Africa, and Kalahari by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=600">600</a> Ma</span>, when most of western Gondwana had already been amalgamated. By <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550 Ma, India had reached its Gondwanan position, which initiated the Kuunga orogeny (also known as the Pinjarra orogeny). Meanwhile, on the other side of the newly forming Africa, Kalahari collided with Congo and Rio de la Plata which closed the <a href="/wiki/Adamastor_Ocean" title="Adamastor Ocean">Adamastor Ocean</a>. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 540–530 Ma, the closure of the Mozambique Ocean brought India next to Australia–East Antarctica, and both North China and South China were in proximity to Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the rest of Gondwana formed, a complex series of orogenic events assembled the eastern parts of Gondwana (eastern Africa, Arabian-Nubian Shield, Seychelles, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, East Antarctica, Australia) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=750–530">750 to 530</a> Ma</span>. First, the Arabian-Nubian Shield collided with eastern Africa (in the Kenya-Tanzania region) in the East African Orogeny <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=750–620">750 to 620</a> Ma</span>. Then Australia and East Antarctica were merged with the remaining Gondwana <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=570–530">570 to 530</a> Ma</span> in the Kuunga Orogeny.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The later Malagasy orogeny at about 550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it, Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, suturing along the Mozambique Belt.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 18,000 km-long (11,000 mi) <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis_Orogen" title="Terra Australis Orogen">Terra Australis Orogen</a> developed along Gondwana's western, southern, and eastern margins.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proto-Gondwanan Cambrian arc belts from this margin have been found in eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica. Though these belts formed a continuous arc chain, the direction of subduction was different between the Australian-Tasmanian and New Zealand-Antarctica arc segments.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peri-Gondwana_development:_Paleozoic_rifts_and_accretions">Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many terranes were accreted to Eurasia during Gondwana's existence, but the Cambrian or Precambrian origin of many of these terranes remains uncertain. For example, some Paleozoic terranes and microcontinents that now make up Central Asia, often called the "Kazakh" and "Mongolian terranes", were progressively amalgamated into the continent <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstania" title="Kazakhstania">Kazakhstania</a> in the late <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>. Whether these blocks originated on the shores of Gondwana is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Early Paleozoic, the <a href="/wiki/Armorican_terrane" title="Armorican terrane">Armorican terrane</a>, which today form large parts of France, was part of Peri-Gondwana; the Rheic Ocean closed in front of it and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean opened behind it. Precambrian rocks from the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> suggest that it, too, formed part of core Gondwana before its detachment as an <a href="/wiki/Orocline" title="Orocline">orocline</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Variscan orogeny</a> close to the Carboniferous–Permian boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg/192px-Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg/288px-Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg/384px-Geology_of_Asia_450.Ma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg/192px-Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg/288px-Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg/384px-Geology_of_Asia_350Ma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg/192px-Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg/288px-Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg/384px-Geology_of_Asia_300Ma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg/192px-Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg/288px-Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg/384px-Geology_of_Asia_200Ma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia, <a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" title="Late Ordovician">Late Ordovician</a> to <a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early Jurassic</a> (450, 350, 300, and 200 Mya).<br />View centred on 0°S,105°E.</div></div></div></div> <p>South-east Asia was made of Gondwanan and <a href="/wiki/Cathaysia" title="Cathaysia">Cathaysian</a> continental fragments that were assembled during the Mid-Paleozoic and Cenozoic. This process can be divided into three phases of rifting along Gondwana's northern margin: first, in the Devonian, <a href="/wiki/North_China_Craton" title="North China Craton">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_China_Craton" title="South China Craton">South China</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim</a> and Quidam (north-western China) rifted, opening the Paleo-Tethys behind them. These terranes accreted to Asia during Late Devonian and Permian. Second, in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian, <a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmerian terranes</a> opened Meso-Tethys Ocean; <a href="/wiki/Shan%E2%80%93Thai_terrane" title="Shan–Thai terrane">Sibumasu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qiangtang_terrane" title="Qiangtang terrane">Qiangtang</a> were added to south-east Asia during <a href="/wiki/Lopingian" title="Lopingian">Late Permian</a> and Early Jurassic. Third, in the Late Triassic to Late Jurassic, <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_terrane" title="Lhasa terrane">Lhasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burma_terrane" title="Burma terrane">Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woyla" title="Woyla">Woyla</a> terranes opened the Neo-Tethys Ocean; Lhasa collided with Asia during the Early Cretaceous, and Burma and Woyla during the Late Cretaceous.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gondwana's long, northern margin remained a mostly passive margin throughout the Paleozoic. The Early Permian opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along this margin produced a long series of terranes, many of which were and still are being deformed in the <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Himalayas" title="Geology of the Himalayas">Himalayan orogeny</a>. These terranes are, from Turkey to north-eastern India: the Taurides in southern Turkey; the Lesser Caucasus Terrane in Georgia; the Sanand, Alborz, and Lut terranes in Iran; the Mangysglak Terrane in the Caspian Sea; the Afghan Terrane; the Karakorum Terrane in northern Pakistan; and the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes in Tibet. The Permian–Triassic widening of the Neo-Tethys pushed all these terranes across the Equator and over to Eurasia.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southwestern_accretions">Southwestern accretions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Southwestern accretions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic phase of the <a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis_Orogen" title="Terra Australis Orogen">Terra Australis Orogen</a>, a series of terranes were rafted from the proto-Andean margin when the Iapetus Ocean opened, to be added back to Gondwana during the closure of that ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Paleozoic, some blocks which helped to form parts of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a> of South America, include a piece transferred from Laurentia when the west edge of Gondwana scraped against southeast Laurentia in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the <a href="/wiki/Cuyania" title="Cuyania">Cuyania</a> or Precordillera <a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">terrane</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Famatinian_orogeny" title="Famatinian orogeny">Famatinian orogeny</a> in northwest Argentina which may have continued the line of the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachians</a> southwards.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chilenia" title="Chilenia">Chilenia</a> terrane accreted later against Cuyania.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collision of the Patagonian terrane with the southwestern Gondwanan occurred in the late Paleozoic. Subduction-related igneous rocks from beneath the <a href="/wiki/North_Patagonian_Massif" title="North Patagonian Massif">North Patagonian Massif</a> have been dated at 320–330 million years old, indicating that the subduction process initiated in the early Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-Pankhurst-2006_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pankhurst-2006-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was relatively short-lived (lasting about 20 million years), and initial contact of the two landmasses occurred in the mid-Carboniferous,<sup id="cite_ref-Pankhurst-2006_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pankhurst-2006-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ramos-2008_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramos-2008-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with broader collision during the early Permian.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramos-2008_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramos-2008-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Devonian, an <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a> named <a href="/wiki/Chaitenia" title="Chaitenia">Chaitenia</a> accreted to Patagonia in what is now south-central Chile.<sup id="cite_ref-Hervé-2018_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hervé-2018-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gondwana_as_part_of_Pangaea:_Late_Paleozoic_to_Early_Mesozoic">Gondwana as part of Pangaea: Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gondwana as part of Pangaea: Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laurasia-Gondwana.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Laurasia-Gondwana.svg/220px-Laurasia-Gondwana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Laurasia-Gondwana.svg/330px-Laurasia-Gondwana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Laurasia-Gondwana.svg/440px-Laurasia-Gondwana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Gondwana formed part of Pangaea for <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Gondwana and <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> supercontinent during the Carboniferous. Pangaea began to break up in the Mid-Jurassic when the <a href="/wiki/Central_Atlantic_magmatic_province" title="Central Atlantic magmatic province">Central Atlantic opened</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the western end of Pangaea, the collision between Gondwana and Laurasia closed the <a href="/wiki/Rheic_Ocean" title="Rheic Ocean">Rheic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Tethys_Ocean" title="Paleo-Tethys Ocean">Paleo-Tethys</a> oceans. The obliquity of this closure resulted in the docking of some northern terranes in the <a href="/wiki/Marathon_Uplift" title="Marathon Uplift">Marathon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ouachita_orogeny" title="Ouachita orogeny">Ouachita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alleghanian_orogeny" title="Alleghanian orogeny">Alleghanian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Variscan</a> orogenies, respectively. Southern terranes, such as <a href="/wiki/Chortis_Block" title="Chortis Block">Chortis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oaxaca" title="Oaxaca">Oaxaca</a>, on the other hand, remained largely unaffected by the collision along the southern shores of Laurentia. Some Peri-Gondwanan terranes, such as <a href="/wiki/Maya_Block" title="Maya Block">Yucatán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, were buffered from collisions by major promontories. Other terranes, such as <a href="/wiki/Carolina_terrane" title="Carolina terrane">Carolina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meguma_terrane" title="Meguma terrane">Meguma</a>, were directly involved in the collision. The final collision resulted in the Variscan-<a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>, stretching from present-day Mexico to southern Europe. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a> collided with <a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstania" title="Kazakhstania">Kazakhstania</a> which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Uralian_orogeny" title="Uralian orogeny">Uralian orogeny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a>. Pangaea was finally amalgamated in the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian, but the oblique forces continued until Pangaea began to rift in the Triassic.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the eastern end, collisions occurred slightly later. The <a href="/wiki/North_China_Craton" title="North China Craton">North China</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_China_Craton" title="South China Craton">South China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sunda_plate" title="Sunda plate">Indochina</a> blocks rifted from Gondwana during the middle Paleozoic and opened the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tethys_Ocean" title="Proto-Tethys Ocean">Proto-Tethys Ocean</a>. North China docked with Mongolia and Siberia during the Carboniferous–Permian, followed by South China. The <a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmerian</a> blocks then rifted from Gondwana to form the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Tethys_Ocean" title="Paleo-Tethys Ocean">Paleo-Tethys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Neo-Tethys</a> oceans in the Late Carboniferous, and docked with Asia during the Triassic and Jurassic. Western Pangaea began to rift while the eastern end was still being assembled.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The formation of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> and its mountains had a tremendous impact on global climate and sea levels, which resulted in glaciations and continent-wide sedimentation. In North America, the base of the <a href="/wiki/Absaroka_sequence" title="Absaroka sequence">Absaroka sequence</a> coincides with the Alleghanian and Ouachita orogenies and are indicative of a large-scale change in the mode of deposition far away from the Pangaean orogenies. Ultimately, these changes contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> and left large deposits of hydrocarbons, coal, evaporite, and metals.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The breakup of Pangaea began with the <a href="/wiki/Central_Atlantic_magmatic_province" title="Central Atlantic magmatic province">Central Atlantic magmatic province</a> (CAMP) between South America, Africa, North America, and Europe. CAMP covered more than seven million square kilometres over a few million years, reached its peak at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200">200</a> Ma</span>, and coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reformed Gondwanan continent was not precisely the same as that which had existed before Pangaea formed; for example, most of <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> is underlain by rocks that were originally part of Gondwana, but this region stayed attached to North America when the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean#Central_Atlantic" title="Atlantic Ocean">Central Atlantic opened</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Break-up">Break-up</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Break-up"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mesozoic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Antarctica, the centre of the supercontinent, shared boundaries with all other Gondwana continents and the fragmentation of Gondwana propagated clockwise around it. The break-up was the result of the eruption of the <a href="/wiki/Karoo-Ferrar" title="Karoo-Ferrar">Karoo-Ferrar igneous province</a>, one of the Earth's most extensive <a href="/wiki/Large_igneous_province" title="Large igneous province">large igneous provinces</a> (LIP) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200–170">200 to 170</a> Ma</span>, but the oldest <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly" title="Magnetic anomaly">magnetic anomalies</a> between South America, Africa, and Antarctica are found in what is now the southern <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a> where initial break-up occurred during the Jurassic <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=180–160">180 to 160</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean">Opening of western Indian Ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Opening of western Indian Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_150_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="790" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean_70_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="790" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The oldest western Indian ocean floor formed between Madagascar and Africa c. 150 Ma (left) and between <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> c. 70 Ma (right).</div></div></div></div> <p>Gondwana began to break up in the early <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> following the extensive and fast emplacement of the <a href="/wiki/Karoo-Ferrar" title="Karoo-Ferrar">Karoo-Ferrar</a> <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">flood basalts</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=184">184</a> Ma</span>. Before the Karoo plume initiated rifting between <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, it separated a series of smaller continental blocks from Gondwana's southern, Proto-Pacific margin (along what is now the <a href="/wiki/Transantarctic_Mountains" title="Transantarctic Mountains">Transantarctic Mountains</a>): the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Byrd_Land" title="Marie Byrd Land">Marie Byrd Land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thurston_Island" title="Thurston Island">Thurston Island</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ellsworth%E2%80%93Whitmore_Mountains" title="Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains">Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains</a> (in Antarctica) were rotated 90° in opposite directions; and South America south of the <a href="/wiki/Gastre_Fault" title="Gastre Fault">Gastre Fault</a> (often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_evolution_of_Patagonia" title="Tectonic evolution of Patagonia">Patagonia</a>) was pushed westward.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The history of the Africa-Antarctica break-up can be studied in great detail in the fracture zones and magnetic anomalies flanking the <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Indian_Ridge" title="Southwest Indian Ridge">Southwest Indian Ridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Madagascar block and the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Plateau" title="Mascarene Plateau">Mascarene Plateau</a>, stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> to <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a>, were broken off India, causing <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madagascar" title="Geography of Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insular_India" title="Insular India">Insular India</a> to be separate <a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">landmasses</a>: elements of this break-up nearly coincide with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>. The India–Madagascar–Seychelles separations appear to coincide with the eruption of the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Traps" title="Deccan Traps">Deccan basalts</a>, whose eruption site may survive as the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union_hotspot" title="Réunion hotspot">Réunion hotspot</a>. The Seychelles and the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> are now separated by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Indian_Ridge" title="Central Indian Ridge">Central Indian Ridge</a>. </p><p>During the initial break-up in the Early Jurassic, a <a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">marine transgression</a> swept over the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> covering Triassic <a href="/wiki/Planation_surface" title="Planation surface">planation surfaces</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">marls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">evaporites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbate-2015_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbate-2015-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Coltorti-2007_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coltorti-2007-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean">Opening of eastern Indian Ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Opening of eastern Indian Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:552px;max-width:552px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_120_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="804" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_80_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="804" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_eastern_Indian_Ocean_40_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="804" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The oldest eastern Indian ocean floor formed between India and Antarctica c. 120 Ma (left). The Kerguelen LIP began to form the Ninety East ridge c. 80 Ma (centre). The Indian and Australian plates merged c. 40 Ma (right).</div></div></div></div> <p>East Gondwana, comprising Antarctica, Madagascar, India, and Australia, began to separate from Africa. East Gondwana then began to break up <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=132.5–96">132.5 to 96</a> Ma</span> when India moved northwest from Australia-Antarctica.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian plate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_plate" title="Australian plate">Australian plate</a> are now separated by the <a href="/wiki/Capricorn_plate" title="Capricorn plate">Capricorn plate</a> and its diffuse boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the opening of the Indian Ocean, the <a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_hotspot" title="Kerguelen hotspot">Kerguelen hotspot</a> first formed the <a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Plateau" title="Kerguelen Plateau">Kerguelen Plateau</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_plate" title="Antarctic plate">Antarctic plate</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=118–95">118 to 95</a> Ma</span> and then the <a href="/wiki/Ninety_East_Ridge" title="Ninety East Ridge">Ninety East Ridge</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian plate</a> at <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=100">100</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kerguelen Plateau and the <a href="/wiki/Broken_Ridge" title="Broken Ridge">Broken Ridge</a>, the southern end of the Ninety East Ridge, are now separated by the <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Indian_Ridge" title="Southeast Indian Ridge">Southeast Indian Ridge</a>. </p><p>Separation between Australia and <a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a> began <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=132">132</a> Ma</span> with seafloor spreading occurring <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=96">96</a> Ma</span>. A shallow seaway developed over the <a href="/wiki/South_Tasman_Rise" title="South Tasman Rise">South Tasman Rise</a> during the Early <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> started to separate the continents during the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=35.5">35.5</a> Ma</span> global ocean temperature dropped significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A dramatic shift from arc- to rift magmatism <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=100">100</a> Ma</span> separated <a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a>, including <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Campbell_Plateau" title="Campbell Plateau">Campbell Plateau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Rise" title="Chatham Rise">Chatham Rise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Howe_Rise" title="Lord Howe Rise">Lord Howe Rise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Ridge" title="Norfolk Ridge">Norfolk Ridge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, from <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=84">84</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opening_of_South_Atlantic_Ocean">Opening of South Atlantic Ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Opening of South Atlantic Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_126_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="798" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png/180px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png/270px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png/360px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="798" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">At c. 126 Ma (left) the Falkland Plateau began to slide past southern Africa and the Paraná-Etendeka LIP had opened the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At c. 83 Ma (right) the South Atlantic was fully opened and the Romanche Fracture Zone was forming near the Equator.</div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean#South_Atlantic" title="Atlantic Ocean">opening of the South Atlantic Ocean</a> divided West Gondwana (South America and Africa), but there is considerable debate over the exact timing of this break-up. Rifting propagated from south to north along Triassic–Early Jurassic lineaments, but intra-continental rifts also began to develop within both continents in Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentary basins, subdividing each continent into three sub-plates. Rifting began <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=190">190</a> Ma</span> at Falkland latitudes, forcing Patagonia to move relative to the still static remainder of South America and Africa, and this westward movement lasted until the Early Cretaceous <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=126.7">126.7</a> Ma</span>. From there rifting propagated northward during the Late Jurassic <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=150">150</a> Ma</span> or Early Cretaceous <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=140">140</a> Ma</span> most likely forcing dextral movements between sub-plates on either side. South of the <a href="/wiki/Walvis_Ridge" title="Walvis Ridge">Walvis Ridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande_Rise" title="Rio Grande Rise">Rio Grande Rise</a> the <a href="/wiki/Paran%C3%A1_and_Etendeka_traps" title="Paraná and Etendeka traps">Paraná and Etendeka magmatics</a> resulted in further ocean-floor spreading <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=130–135">130 to 135</a> Ma</span> and the development of rifts systems on both continents, including the <a href="/wiki/West_and_Central_African_Rift_System" title="West and Central African Rift System">Central African Rift System</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Shear_Zone" title="Central African Shear Zone">Central African Shear Zone</a> which lasted until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=85">85</a> Ma</span>. At Brazilian latitudes spreading is more difficult to assess because of the lack of palaeo-magnetic data, but rifting occurred in Nigeria at the <a href="/wiki/Benue_Trough" title="Benue Trough">Benue Trough</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=118">118</a> Ma</span>. North of the Equator the rifting began after <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=120.4">120.4</a> Ma</span> and continued until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=100–96">100 to 96</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dinosaur footprints representing identical species assemblages are known from opposite sides of the South Atlantic (Brazil and <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>) dating to around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=120">120</a> million years ago</span>, suggesting that some form of land connection still existed between Africa and South America as recently as the early <a href="/wiki/Aptian" title="Aptian">Aptian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Andean_orogeny">Early Andean orogeny</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Early Andean orogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first phases of <a href="/wiki/Andean_orogeny" title="Andean orogeny">Andean orogeny</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early Cretaceous</a> were characterised by <a href="/wiki/Extensional_tectonics" title="Extensional tectonics">extensional tectonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rifting</a>, the development of <a href="/wiki/Back-arc_basin" title="Back-arc basin">back-arc basins</a> and the emplacement of large <a href="/wiki/Batholith" title="Batholith">batholiths</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramos-2009_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramos-2009-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Charrier-2006_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charrier-2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This development is presumed to have been linked to the subduction of cold <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charrier-2006_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charrier-2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the mid to <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 90 million years ago</span>), the Andean orogeny changed significantly in character.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramos-2009_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramos-2009-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Charrier-2006_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charrier-2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warmer and younger oceanic lithosphere is believed to have started to be subducted beneath South America around this time. Such kind of subduction is held responsible not only for the intense contractional <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)" title="Deformation (engineering)">deformation</a> that different lithologies were subject to, but also the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">uplift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> known to have occurred from the Late Cretaceous onward.<sup id="cite_ref-Charrier-2006_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charrier-2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonic</a> reorganisation since the mid-Cretaceous might also have been linked to the <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">opening</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">South Atlantic Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramos-2009_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramos-2009-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another change related to mid-Cretaceous plate tectonic rearrangement was the change of subduction direction of the oceanic lithosphere that went from having south-east motion to having a north-east motion about 90 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffmann-2006_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann-2006-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While subduction direction changed, it remained oblique (and not perpendicular) to the coast of South America, and the direction change affected several <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zone</a>-parallel faults including <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Fault" title="Atacama Fault">Atacama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domeyko_Fault" title="Domeyko Fault">Domeyko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liqui%C3%B1e-Ofqui_Fault" title="Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault">Liquiñe-Ofqui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charrier-2006_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charrier-2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoffmann-2006_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann-2006-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cenozoic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Insular_India" title="Insular India">Insular India</a> began to collide with Asia circa <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=70">70</a> Ma</span>, forming the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, since which more than 1,400 km (870 mi) of crust has been absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> orogen. During the Cenozoic, the orogen resulted in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> between the Tethyan Himalayas in the south and the <a href="/wiki/Kunlun_Mountains" title="Kunlun Mountains">Kunlun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qilian_Mountains" title="Qilian Mountains">Qilian</a> mountains in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, South America was connected to North America via the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a>, cutting off a circulation of warm water and thereby making the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> colder,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as allowing the <a href="/wiki/Great_American_Interchange" title="Great American Interchange">Great American Interchange</a>. </p><p>The break-up of Gondwana can be said to continue in eastern Africa at the <a href="/wiki/Afar_triple_junction" title="Afar triple junction">Afar triple junction</a>, which separates the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_plate" title="Arabian plate">Arabian</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_plate" title="African plate">African</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Somali</a> plates, resulting in rifting in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia–Antarctica_separation"><span id="Australia.E2.80.93Antarctica_separation"></span>Australia–Antarctica separation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Australia–Antarctica separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Early <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>, Australia was still connected to Antarctica <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 35–40° south of its current location and both continents were largely unglaciated. A rift between the two developed but remained an embayment until the Eocene-Oligocene boundary when the Circumpolar Current developed and the glaciation of Antarctica began.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Australia was warm and wet during the Paleocene and dominated by rainforests. The opening of the Tasman Gateway at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=33">33</a> Ma</span>) resulted in abrupt cooling but the Oligocene became a period of high rainfall with swamps in southeastern Australia. During the Miocene, a warm and humid climate developed with pockets of rainforests in central Australia, but before the end of the period, colder and drier climate severely reduced this rainforest. A brief period of increased rainfall in the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> was followed by drier climate which favoured grassland. Since then, the fluctuation between wet interglacial periods and dry glacial periods has developed into the present arid regime. Australia has thus experienced various <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate changes</a> over a 15-million-year period with a gradual decrease in precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tasman Gateway between Australia and Antarctica began to open <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=40–30">40 to 30</a> Ma</span>. Palaeontological evidence indicates the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a> (ACC) was established in the Late Oligocene <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=23">23</a> Ma</span> with the full opening of the <a href="/wiki/Drake_Passage" title="Drake Passage">Drake Passage</a> and the deepening of the Tasman Gateway. The oldest oceanic crust in the Drake Passage, however, is <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=34–29">34 to 29</a> Ma</span>-old which indicates that the spreading between the Antarctic and South American plates began near the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep sea environments in <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scotia_plate" title="Scotia plate">North Scotia Ridge</a> during the Eocene and Oligocene indicate a "Proto-ACC" opened during this period. Later, <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=26–14">26 to 14</a> Ma</span>, a series of events severally restricted the Proto-ACC: change to shallow marine conditions along the North Scotia Ridge; closure of the Fuegan Seaway, the deep sea that existed in Tierra del Fuego; and uplift of the Patagonian Cordillera. This, together with the reactivated <a href="/wiki/Iceland_hotspot" title="Iceland hotspot">Iceland plume</a>, contributed to global warming. During the Miocene, the Drake Passage began to widen, and as water flow between South America and the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a> increased, the renewed ACC resulted in cooler global climate.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the Eocene, the northward movement of the Australian Plate has resulted in an <a href="/wiki/Continental_arc" title="Continental arc">arc-continent</a> collision with the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Sea_plate" title="Philippine Sea plate">Philippine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caroline_plate" title="Caroline plate">Caroline</a> plates and the uplift of the <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea_Highlands" title="New Guinea Highlands">New Guinea Highlands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the Oligocene to the late Miocene, the climate in Australia, dominated by warm and humid rainforests before this collision, began to alternate between open forest and rainforest before the continent became the arid or semiarid landscape it is today.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biogeography">Biogeography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Biogeography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg/220px-Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg/330px-Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg/440px-Dryandra_formosa-IMG_0335.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Banksia" title="Banksia">Banksia</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Grevilleoideae" title="Grevilleoideae">grevilleoid</a> Proteaceae, is an example of a plant from a family with a Gondwanan distribution</figcaption></figure> <p>The adjective "Gondwanan" is in common use in <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a> when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms, typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana, including the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_flora" title="Antarctic flora">Antarctic flora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McLoughlin_2001_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLoughlin_2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the plant family <a href="/wiki/Proteaceae" title="Proteaceae">Proteaceae</a>, known from all continents in the Southern Hemisphere, has a "Gondwanan distribution" and is often described as an archaic, or <a href="/wiki/Relict_(biology)" title="Relict (biology)">relict</a>, lineage. The distributions in the Proteaceae is, nevertheless, the result of both Gondwanan rafting and later oceanic dispersal.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Cambrian_diversification">Post-Cambrian diversification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Post-Cambrian diversification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Silurian, Gondwana extended from the Equator (Australia) to the South Pole (North Africa and South America) whilst Laurasia was located on the Equator opposite to Australia. A short-lived <a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Late Ordovician glaciation</a> was followed by a Silurian <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth" title="Greenhouse and icehouse Earth">Hot House</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction" title="Late Ordovician mass extinction">End-Ordovician extinction</a>, which resulted in 27% of marine invertebrate families and 57% of genera going extinct, occurred during this shift from Ice House to Hot House.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:378px;max-width:378px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg/210px-Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg/315px-Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg/420px-Cooksonia_sp._-_MUSE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="1552" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg/160px-Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg/240px-Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg/320px-Archaeopteris_sp._-_MUSE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Reconstructions of (left) a late Silurian <i><a href="/wiki/Cooksonia" title="Cooksonia">Cooksonia</a></i>, the first known land plant, and (right) a Late Devonian <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i>, the first large tree</div></div></div></div> <p>By the end of the Ordovician, <i><a href="/wiki/Cooksonia" title="Cooksonia">Cooksonia</a></i>, a slender, ground-covering plant, became the first known vascular plant to establish itself on land. This first colonisation occurred exclusively around the Equator on landmasses then limited to Laurasia and, in Gondwana, to Australia. In the late Silurian, two distinctive lineages, <a href="/wiki/Zosterophyll" title="Zosterophyll">zosterophylls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhyniophyte" title="Rhyniophyte">rhyniophytes</a>, had colonised the tropics. The former evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Lycopodiopsida" title="Lycopodiopsida">lycopods</a> that were to dominate the Gondwanan vegetation over a long period, whilst the latter evolved into <a href="/wiki/Equisetum" title="Equisetum">horsetails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>. Most of Gondwana was located far from the Equator during this period and remained a lifeless and barren landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>West Gondwana drifted north during the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, bringing Gondwana and Laurasia close together. Global cooling contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian extinction</a> (19% of marine families and 50% of genera went extinct) and glaciation occurred in South America. Before Pangaea had formed, terrestrial plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Pteridophyte" title="Pteridophyte">pteridophytes</a>, began to diversify rapidly resulting in the colonisation of Gondwana. The <a href="/wiki/Baragwanathia" title="Baragwanathia">Baragwanathia</a> Flora, found only in the <a href="/wiki/Yea_Flora_Fossil_Site" title="Yea Flora Fossil Site">Yea Beds</a> of Victoria, Australia, occurs in two strata separated by 1,700 m (5,600 ft) or 30 Ma; the upper assemblage is more diverse and includes Baragwanathia, the first primitive <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous</a> lycopod to evolve from the zosterophylls. During the Devonian, <a href="/wiki/Lepidodendron" title="Lepidodendron">giant club mosses</a> replaced the Baragwanathia Flora, introducing the first trees, and by the Late Devonian this first forest was accompanied by the <a href="/wiki/Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">progymnosperms</a>, including the first large trees <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Late Devonian extinction probably also resulted in <a href="/wiki/Osteolepiformes" title="Osteolepiformes">osteolepiform</a> fishes <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">evolving into the amphibian tetrapods</a>, the earliest land vertebrates, in Greenland and Russia. The only traces of this evolution in Gondwana are amphibian footprints and a single jaw from Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The closure of the Rheic Ocean and the formation of Pangaea in the Carboniferous resulted in the rerouting of ocean currents that initiated an Ice House period. As Gondwana began to rotate clockwise, Australia shifted south to more temperate latitudes. An ice cap initially covered most of southern Africa and South America but spread to eventually cover most of the supercontinent, except northernmost Africa-South America. Giant lycopod and horsetail forests continued to evolve in tropical Laurasia together with a diversified assemblage of true insects. In Gondwana, in contrast, ice and, in Australia, volcanism decimated the Devonian flora to a low-diversity seed fern flora – the pteridophytes were increasingly replaced by the gymnosperms which were to dominate until the Mid-Cretaceous. Australia, however, was still located near the Equator during the Early Carboniferous, and during this period, <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyli" title="Temnospondyli">temnospondyl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepospondyli" title="Lepospondyli">lepospondyl</a> amphibians and the first <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniote</a> reptilians evolved, all closely related to the Laurasian fauna, but spreading ice eventually drove these animals away from Gondwana entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:358px;max-width:358px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Walchia_piniformis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Walchia_piniformis.jpg/170px-Walchia_piniformis.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Walchia_piniformis.jpg/255px-Walchia_piniformis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Walchia_piniformis.jpg/340px-Walchia_piniformis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2008" data-file-height="1736" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebachia_piniformis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Lebachia_piniformis.jpg/180px-Lebachia_piniformis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Lebachia_piniformis.jpg/270px-Lebachia_piniformis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Lebachia_piniformis.jpg/360px-Lebachia_piniformis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="803" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Fossilised <i><a href="/wiki/Walchia" title="Walchia">Walchia</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Utrechtia" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrechtia">Utrechtia</a></i>, two <a href="/wiki/Voltziales" title="Voltziales">voltzialean</a> pines from which modern conifers evolved</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg/170px-Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg/255px-Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg/340px-Agathis_robusta_cone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="2404" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:166px;max-width:166px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG/164px-Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG" decoding="async" width="164" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG/246px-Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG/328px-Wollemia_nobilis_M2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2775" data-file-height="3700" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:193px;max-width:193px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:143px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Araucaria_(La_Mer_de_sable)_cone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Araucaria_%28La_Mer_de_sable%29_cone.jpg/191px-Araucaria_%28La_Mer_de_sable%29_cone.jpg" decoding="async" width="191" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Araucaria_%28La_Mer_de_sable%29_cone.jpg/287px-Araucaria_%28La_Mer_de_sable%29_cone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Araucaria_%28La_Mer_de_sable%29_cone.jpg/382px-Araucaria_%28La_Mer_de_sable%29_cone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4416" data-file-height="3312" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:143px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Podocarpus_macrophyllus_(seed_s3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Podocarpus_macrophyllus_%28seed_s3%29.jpg/143px-Podocarpus_macrophyllus_%28seed_s3%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Podocarpus_macrophyllus_%28seed_s3%29.jpg/215px-Podocarpus_macrophyllus_%28seed_s3%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Podocarpus_macrophyllus_%28seed_s3%29.jpg/286px-Podocarpus_macrophyllus_%28seed_s3%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Still extant Triassic conifers (<i><a href="/wiki/Agathis" title="Agathis">Agathis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Wollemia" title="Wollemia">Wollemia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">Araucaria</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Podocarpus" title="Podocarpus">Podocarpus</a></i>) that once dominated Gondwana</div></div></div></div> <p>The Gondwana ice sheet melted, and sea levels dropped during the Permian and Triassic global warming. During this period, the extinct <a href="/wiki/Glossopteridales" title="Glossopteridales">glossopterids</a> colonised Gondwana and reached peak diversity in the Late Permian when coal-forming forests covered all of Gondwana. The period also saw the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Voltziales" title="Voltziales">Voltziales</a>, one of the few plant orders to survive the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction</a> (57% of marine families and 83% of genera went extinct) and which came to dominate in the Late Permian and from whom true <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> evolved. Tall lycopods and <a href="/wiki/Equisetidae" title="Equisetidae">horsetails</a> dominated the wetlands of Gondwana in the Early Permian. Insects co-evolved with glossopterids across Gondwana and diversified with more than 200 species in 21 orders by the Late Permian, many known from South Africa and Australia. Beetles and cockroaches remained minor elements in this fauna. <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapod</a> fossils from the Early Permian have only been found in Laurasia but they became common in Gondwana later during the Permian. The arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Therapsida" title="Therapsida">therapsids</a> resulted in the first plant-vertebrate-insect ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_diversification">Modern diversification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Modern diversification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Mid- to Late Triassic, hot-house conditions coincided with a peak in biodiversity – the end-Permian extinction was enormous and so was the radiation that followed. Two families of conifers, <a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">Podocarpaceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Araucariaceae" title="Araucariaceae">Araucariaceae</a>, dominated Gondwana in the Early Triassic, but <i><a href="/wiki/Dicroidium" title="Dicroidium">Dicroidium</a></i>, an extinct genus of fork-leaved seed ferns, dominated woodlands and forests of Gondwana during most of the Triassic. Conifers evolved and radiated during the period, with six of eight extant families already present before the end of it. <a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pentoxylales" title="Pentoxylales">Pentoxylales</a>, two now extinct orders of gymnospermous plants, evolved in the Late Triassic and became important in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. It is possible that gymnosperm biodiversity surpassed later angiosperm biodiversity and that the evolution of angiosperms began during the Triassic but, if so, in Laurasia rather than in Gondwana. Two Gondwanan classes, <a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">lycophytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equisetidae" title="Equisetidae">sphenophytes</a>, saw a gradual decline during the Triassic while ferns, though never dominant, managed to diversify.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brief period of icehouse conditions during the <a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</a> had a dramatic impact on dinosaurs but left plants largely unaffected. The Jurassic was mostly one of hot-house conditions and, while vertebrates managed to diversify in this environment, plants have left little evidence of such development, apart from <a href="/wiki/Cheirolepidiaceae" title="Cheirolepidiaceae">Cheiroleidiacean</a> conifers and <a href="/wiki/Caytoniales" title="Caytoniales">Caytoniales</a> and other groups of seed ferns. In terms of biomass, the Jurassic flora was dominated by conifer families and other gymnosperms that had evolved during the Triassic. The <a href="/wiki/Pteridophyte" title="Pteridophyte">Pteridophytes</a> that had dominated during the Paleozoic were now marginalised, except for ferns. In contrast to Laurentia, very few insect fossils have been found in Gondwana, to a considerable extent because of widespread deserts and volcanism. While plants had a cosmopolitan distribution, dinosaurs evolved and diversified in a pattern that reflects the Jurassic break-up of Pangaea.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cretaceous saw the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a>, or flowering plants, a group that probably evolved in western Gondwana (South America–Africa). From there the angiosperms diversified in two stages: the <a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">monocots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">magnoliids</a> evolved in the Early Cretaceous, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Hamamelidaceae" title="Hamamelidaceae">hammamelid</a> <a href="/wiki/Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicots</a>. By the Mid-Cretaceous, angiosperms constituted half of the flora in northeastern Australia. There is, however, no obvious connection between this spectacular angiosperm radiation and any known extinction event nor with vertebrate/insect evolution. Insect orders associated with pollination, such as <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">flies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">butterflies and moths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">wasps, bees, ants</a>, radiated continuously from the Permian-Triassic, long before the arrival of the angiosperms. Well-preserved insect fossils have been found in the lake deposits of the <a href="/wiki/Santana_Group" title="Santana Group">Santana Formation</a> in Brazil, the <a href="/wiki/Koonwarra,_Victoria#Koonwarra_fossil_bed" title="Koonwarra, Victoria">Koonwarra Lake fauna</a> in Australia, and the <a href="/wiki/Orapa_diamond_mine" title="Orapa diamond mine">Orapa diamond mine</a> in Botswana.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson-1999_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-1999-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dinosaurs continued to prosper but, as the angiosperm diversified, conifers, bennettitaleans and pentoxylaleans disappeared from Gondwana <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 115 Ma together with the specialised herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Ornithischia" title="Ornithischia">ornithischians</a>, whilst generalist browsers, such as several families of <a href="/wiki/Sauropodomorpha" title="Sauropodomorpha">sauropodomorph</a> <a href="/wiki/Saurischia" title="Saurischia">Saurischia</a>, prevailed. The <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> killed off all dinosaurs except birds, but plant evolution in Gondwana was hardly affected.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson-1999_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-1999-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gondwanatheria" title="Gondwanatheria">Gondwanatheria</a> is an extinct group of non-<a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">therian</a> mammals with a Gondwanan distribution (South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Zealandia and Antarctica) during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Xenarthra" title="Xenarthra">Xenarthra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrotheria" title="Afrotheria">Afrotheria</a>, two placental clades, are of Gondwanan origin and probably began to evolve separately <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=105">105</a> Ma</span> when Africa and South America separated.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nothofagus_demis.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Nothofagus_demis.JPG/300px-Nothofagus_demis.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Nothofagus_demis.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="223" /></a><figcaption>The plant genus <i><a href="/wiki/Nothofagus" title="Nothofagus">Nothofagus</a></i> provides a good example of a taxon with a Gondwanan distribution, having originated in the supercontinent and existing in present-day Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and South America's <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a>. Fossils have also been found in Antarctica.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Laurel_forest" title="Laurel forest">laurel forests</a> of Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand have a number of species related to those of the <a href="/wiki/Laurel_forest" title="Laurel forest">laurissilva</a> of Valdivia, through the connection of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_flora" title="Antarctic flora">Antarctic flora</a>. These include gymnosperms and the deciduous species of <i>Nothofagus</i>, as well as the New Zealand laurel, <i><a href="/wiki/Karaka_(tree)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaka (tree)">Corynocarpus laevigatus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Laurelia_novae-zelandiae" title="Laurelia novae-zelandiae">Laurelia novae-zelandiae</a></i>. New Caledonia and New Zealand became separated from Australia by <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> 85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants that originated in Gondwana and spread to the Southern Hemisphere continents later. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">Continental drift</a>, the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondwana_Rainforests" title="Gondwana Rainforests">Gondwana Rainforests of Australia</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Escarpment,_Southern_Africa" title="Great Escarpment, Southern Africa">Great Escarpment</a> of Southern Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a>, a theory which describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Gondwana" title="East Gondwana">South Polar dinosaurs</a>, which proliferated during the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Mya) while Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gondwana_Research" title="Gondwana Research">Gondwana Research</a></i>, a scholarly journal including Gondwana among its emphases</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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.cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gondwana">"Gondwana"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reference.com" title="Reference.com">Dictionary.com</a></i>. Lexico Publishing Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214206/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gondwana">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jafrearsci.2022.104817">"The Mesozoic West and Central Africa Rift System (WCARS) and the older Kandi Shear Zone (KSZ): Rifting and tectonics of North Africa and South America and fragmentation of Gondwana based on geophysical investigations"</a>. <i>Journal of African Earth Sciences</i>. <b>199</b>: 104817. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023JAfES.19904817F">2023JAfES.19904817F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jafrearsci.2022.104817">10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2022.104817</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a 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href="#CITEREFMeertVan_der_Voo1997">Meert & Van der Voo 1997</a>, Introduction, pp. 223–226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiashitaYamamoto1996">Miashita & Yamamoto 1996</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeertVan_der_Voo1997">Meert & Van der Voo 1997</a>, p. 229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Defined but not named in <a href="#CITEREFCollinsPisarevsky2005">Collins & Pisarevsky 2005</a>: "Azania" was a Greek name for the East African coast</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiBogdanovaCollinsDavidson2008">Li et al. 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonAndersonArchangelskyBamford1999" class="citation 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"The evolution of tribospheny and the antiquity of mammalian clades". <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i>. <b>28</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">360–</span>385. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003MolPE..28..360W">2003MolPE..28..360W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1055-7903%2803%2900113-1">10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00113-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12878472">12878472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+tribospheny+and+the+antiquity+of+mammalian+clades&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E360-%3C%2Fspan%3E385&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12878472&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1055-7903%2803%2900113-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003MolPE..28..360W&rft.aulast=Woodburne&rft.aufirst=M.+O.&rft.au=Rich%2C+T.+H.&rft.au=Springer%2C+M.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGondwana" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYinHarrison2000" class="citation journal cs1">Yin, A.; Harrison, T. M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~yin/05-Publications/papers/051-Yin&Harrison-2000-AREPS.pdf">"Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>28</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">211–</span>280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000AREPS..28..211Y">2000AREPS..28..211Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.28.1.211">10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Geologic+evolution+of+the+Himalayan-Tibetan+orogen&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E280&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.28.1.211&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000AREPS..28..211Y&rft.aulast=Yin&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Harrison%2C+T.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ess.ucla.edu%2F~yin%2F05-Publications%2Fpapers%2F051-Yin%26Harrison-2000-AREPS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGondwana" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouseman" class="citation web cs1">Houseman, Greg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eargah/Gond.html">"Animation of the dispersal of Gondwanaland"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leeds" title="University of Leeds">University of Leeds</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Animation+of+the+dispersal+of+Gondwanaland&rft.pub=University+of+Leeds&rft.aulast=Houseman&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.see.leeds.ac.uk%2F~eargah%2FGond.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGondwana" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarend_KöbbenColin_ReevesMaarten_de_Wit" class="citation web cs1">Barend Köbben; Colin Reeves; Maarten de Wit. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kartoweb.itc.nl/gondwana/gondwana.html">"Interactive animation of the breakup of Gondwana"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ITC_Enschede" title="ITC Enschede">ITC</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Twente" title="University of Twente">University of Twente</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interactive+animation+of+the+breakup+of+Gondwana&rft.pub=ITC%2C+University+of+Twente&rft.au=Barend+K%C3%B6bben&rft.au=Colin+Reeves&rft.au=Maarten+de+Wit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkartoweb.itc.nl%2Fgondwana%2Fgondwana.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGondwana" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm">Graphical subjects dealing with Tectonics and Paleontology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/97019/index.htm">Gondwana Reconstruction and Dispersion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gondwana.geologia.ufrj.br/en/?page_id=41">The Gondwana Map Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190920223629/http://www.gondwana.geologia.ufrj.br/en/?page_id=41">Archived</a> 20 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_HinsbergenTorsvikSchmidMaţenco2019" class="citation journal cs1">van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J.; Torsvik, Trond H.; Schmid, Stefan M.; Maţenco, Liviu C.; Maffione, Marco; Vissers, Reinoud L.M.; Gürer, Derya; Spakman, Wim (September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gr.2019.07.009">"Orogenic architecture of the Mediterranean region and kinematic reconstruction of its tectonic evolution since the Triassic"</a>. <i>Gondwana Research</i>. <b>81</b>: <span class="nowrap">79–</span>229. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020GondR..81...79V">2020GondR..81...79V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gr.2019.07.009">10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.009</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F390104">20.500.11850/390104</a></span>.</cite><span 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg/150px-Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="536" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/75px-Location_North_America.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/113px-Location_North_America.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Location_North_America.svg/150px-Location_North_America.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:14%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg/75px-Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg/113px-Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg/150px-Afro-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29_political.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Eurasia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:25%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/75px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/113px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Oceania_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center; padding-right:1.0em;width:35%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b>Prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinents</a></b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gondwana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenorland" title="Kenorland">Kenorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nena_(supercontinent)" title="Nena (supercontinent)">Nena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur_(continent)" title="Ur (continent)">Ur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaalbara" title="Vaalbara">Vaalbara</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center; padding-right:1.0em;width:65%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b>Other prehistoric continents</b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_Craton" title="Amazonian Craton">Amazonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctica" title="Arctica">Arctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiamerica" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiamerica">Asiamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantica" title="Atlantica">Atlantica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilenia" title="Chilenia">Chilenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Craton" title="Congo Craton">Congo Craton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuyania" title="Cuyania">Cuyania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctic_Shield" title="East Antarctic Shield">East Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurasia#Euramerica/Laurussia" title="Laurasia">Euramerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Craton" title="Kalahari Craton">Kalaharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstania" title="Kazakhstania">Kazakhstania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laramidia" title="Laramidia">Laramidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China_Craton" title="North China Craton">North China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pampia" title="Pampia">Pampia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahul" title="Sahul">Sahul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Craton" title="South China Craton">South China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;;border-bottom:0;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:25%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Submerged_continent" title="Submerged continent">Submerged continent</a>/<a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">lands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_fragment" title="Continental fragment">microcontinents</a></b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathaysia" title="Cathaysia">Cathaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doggerland" title="Doggerland">Doggerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Australian_Bight" title="Great Australian Bight">Great Australian Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Mayen_Microcontinent" title="Jan Mayen Microcontinent">Jan Mayen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Plateau" title="Kerguelen Plateau">Kerguelen Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritia_(microcontinent)" title="Mauritia (microcontinent)">Mauritia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahul_Shelf" title="Sahul Shelf">Sahul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles_Microcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Seychelles Microcontinent">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Shelf" title="Sunda Shelf">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:20%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b>Possible future supercontinents</b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Amasia_(supercontinent)" title="Amasia (supercontinent)">Amasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurica_(supercontinent)" title="Aurica (supercontinent)">Aurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novopangaea" title="Novopangaea">Novopangaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangaea_Proxima" title="Pangaea Proxima">Pangaea Proxima</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:25%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_places" title="List of mythological places">Mythical</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_lost_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="List of lost lands">lost</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phantom_island" title="Phantom island">hypothesised</a> continents</b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Atlantis" title="Atlantis">Atlantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperborea" title="Hyperborea">Hyperborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumari_Kandam" title="Kumari Kandam">Kumari Kandam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemuria" title="Lemuria">Lemuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meropis" title="Meropis">Meropis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu_(mythical_lost_continent)" title="Mu (mythical lost continent)">Mu</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:center;padding-right:1.0em;width:30%;"><div> <ul><li><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Continent#Subcontinents" title="Continent">Subcontinents</a></b></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Eastern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Eastern Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>See also: <b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Regions_of_the_world" title="Template:Regions of the world">Regions of the world</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_fragment" title="Continental fragment">Continental fragment</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Continents" title="Category:Continents">Category</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_continents" title="Chronology of continents">Chronology of continents</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80583#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1424" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80583#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1424" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80583#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/123469820">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJtXbqWRwm8vFQfVHDW4bd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4021604-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85055849">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562546">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gondwana"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge957482&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gondwana"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph313790&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007533641805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&oldid=1268957398">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gondwana&oldid=1268957398</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_continents" title="Category:Historical continents">Historical continents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_supercontinents" 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