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chemical defences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_chemical_defences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_defensive_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_defensive_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Evolution of defensive traits</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_of_defensive_traits-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution of defensive traits subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_defensive_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Records_of_herbivores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Records_of_herbivores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Records of herbivores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Records_of_herbivores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Co-evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Co-evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Co-evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Co-evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants_also_need_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants_also_need_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Plants also need animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants_also_need_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Defence against herbivory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanismes_de_defensa_de_les_plantes_contra_els_herb%C3%ADvors" title="Mecanismes de defensa de les plantes contra els herbívors – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mecanismes de defensa de les plantes contra els herbívors" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzliche_Abwehr_von_Herbivoren" title="Pflanzliche Abwehr von Herbivoren – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pflanzliche Abwehr von Herbivoren" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory – English" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Plant defense against herbivory" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensas_vegetales_contra_la_herbivor%C3%ADa" title="Defensas vegetales contra la herbivoría – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Defensas vegetales contra la herbivoría" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%81%E2%80%8C%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="دفاع گیاه در برابر علف‌خوار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دفاع گیاه در برابر علف‌خوار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9fense_des_plantes_contre_les_herbivores" title="Défense des plantes contre les herbivores – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Défense des plantes contre les herbivores" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertahanan_tanaman_terhadap_herbivora" title="Pertahanan tanaman terhadap herbivora – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pertahanan tanaman terhadap herbivora" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difesa_vegetale_contro_gli_erbivori" title="Difesa vegetale contro gli erbivori – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Difesa vegetale contro gli erbivori" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%94" title="התגוננות צמחים מטריפה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התגוננות צמחים מטריפה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afweer_van_planten_tegen_herbivoren" title="Afweer van planten tegen herbivoren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Afweer van planten tegen herbivoren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obrona_przed_ro%C5%9Blino%C5%BCercami" title="Obrona przed roślinożercami – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obrona przed roślinożercami" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defesas_vegetais_contra_a_herbivoria" title="Defesas vegetais contra a herbivoria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Defesas vegetais contra a herbivoria" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg/220px-Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg/330px-Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg/440px-Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Poison_ivy" title="Poison ivy">Poison ivy</a> produces <a href="/w/index.php?title=Urushiol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urushiol (not yet started)">urushiol</a> to protect the plant from herbivores. In humans this chemical produces an allergic skin rash.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foxglove2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Foxglove2.jpg/220px-Foxglove2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Foxglove2.jpg/330px-Foxglove2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Foxglove2.jpg/440px-Foxglove2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Foxglove" class="mw-redirect" title="Foxglove">Foxgloves</a> produce several deadly chemicals, namely heart and <a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">steroidal</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycoside&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glycoside (not yet started)">glycosides</a>. Eating it can cause <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vomit" title="Vomit">vomiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Convulsion">convulsions</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Defence against herbivory</b> describes <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> defences to avoid being eaten. There are many <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptations</a> which improve the <a href="/wiki/Fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Fitness">survival and reproduction</a> of plants by reducing the effect of <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>. </p><p>Many plants produce <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemicals</a> which change the <a href="/wiki/Behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviour">behaviour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth" class="mw-disambig" title="Growth">growth</a>, or survival of herbivores. These chemical defences can act as repellents or <a href="/wiki/Toxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxin">toxins</a> to herbivores, or reduce plant digestibility. Some plants, known as <a href="/wiki/Hyperaccumulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperaccumulators">hyperaccumulators</a>, specialise in storing <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a> which are toxic to animals. </p><p>Some plants encourage the presence of <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">natural enemies</a> of herbivores, which in turn protect the plant. Some plants provide a home for <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">ants</a> which defend the plant strongly. </p><p>Other defensive strategies used by plants include escaping or avoiding herbivores in time or in place. They may grow where plants are not easily found or got at by herbivores. They may grow when herbivores are not around. Herbivores may get diverted towards non-essential parts, or a plant may be able to recover from the damage caused by herbivory. </p><p>Each type of defence can be either <i>constitutive</i> (always present in the plant), or <i>induced</i> (produced in reaction to damage or stress caused by herbivores). Plants can and do react to damage.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, <a href="/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects">insects</a> have been the most significant herbivores, especially the <a href="/wiki/Larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Larvae">larvae</a> of insects. The evolution of <a href="/wiki/Land_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Land plants">land plants</a> is closely associated with the evolution of insects. While most plant defences are directed against insects, other defences have evolved that are aimed at <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> herbivores, such as <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. </p><p>The study of plant defences against herbivory is important, not only from an evolutionary viewpoint, but also because these defences can be used in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, including human and livestock food sources. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_chemical_defences">Specific chemical defences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Change section: Specific chemical defences" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Specific chemical defences"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant chemicals have evolved to affect insects. Some of these biochemical pathways exist in vertebrates, including humans. Many <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceuticals</a> are got from the chemicals plants use to protect themselves from herbivores. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">atropine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11395950_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11395950-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pyrrolizidine <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a> are produced by plants as a defence mechanism against <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> herbivores. More than 660 PAs and PA <a href="/w/index.php?title=N-oxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-oxide (not yet started)">N-oxides</a> have been identified in over 6,000 plants. About half of them exhibit <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hepatotoxicity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hepatotoxicity (not yet started)">hepatotoxicity</a>, that is, they attack liver function.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_defensive_traits">Evolution of defensive traits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Change section: Evolution of defensive traits" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Evolution of defensive traits"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:InsectPlantEvol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/InsectPlantEvol.svg/450px-InsectPlantEvol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/InsectPlantEvol.svg/675px-InsectPlantEvol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/InsectPlantEvol.svg/900px-InsectPlantEvol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of plant evolution and the beginnings of different modes of insect herbivory</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest land plants evolved from aquatic plants around 450 million years ago (mya) in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period. These early land plants had no <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissue</a> and needed free water for their reproduction. <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a> appeared later and their diversification began in the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> era (about 400 mya). They had adaptations such as protective coating to reduce <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> from their tissues. </p><p>Reproduction and dispersal of vascular plants in these dry conditions was got by the evolution of specialized <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> structures. The diversification of flowering plants (<a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period is associated with a sudden burst of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a> in insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This diversification of insects represented a major selective force in plant evolution. It led to the selection of plants that had defensive adaptations. Early insect herbivores bit or chewed vegetation; but the evolution of vascular plants lead to the <a href="/wiki/Co-evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-evolution">co-evolution</a> of other forms of herbivory, such as sap-sucking, <a href="/wiki/Leaf_miner" title="Leaf miner">leaf mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gall" title="Gall">gall</a> forming and nectar-feeding.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Records_of_herbivores">Records of herbivores</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Change section: Records of herbivores" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Records of herbivores"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg/220px-Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg/330px-Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg/440px-Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1432" /></a><figcaption><i>Viburnum lesquereuxii</i> leaf with insect damage; Dakota Sandstone (Cretaceous) of Ellsworth County, Kansas. <a href="/wiki/Scale_(ratio)" title="Scale (ratio)">Scale bar</a> is 10 mm.</figcaption></figure> <p>Our understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: </p> <ol><li>fossilized plants which may preserve evidence of defence (such as spines), or herbivory-related damage;</li> <li>the observation of plant debris in fossilised <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolite</a> (animal <a href="/wiki/Faeces" class="mw-redirect" title="Faeces">faeces</a>); and</li> <li>the construction of herbivore mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira1998_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Long thought to be a <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> phenomenon, evidence for herbivory is found almost as soon as fossils which could show it. Within under 20 million years of the first fossils of <a href="/wiki/Sporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporangia">sporangia</a> and stems towards the close of the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, around 420 mya, there is evidence that they were being eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the <a href="/wiki/Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</a> also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira1998_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many plants of this time are preserved with spine-like growths, which may have had a defensive role. </p><p>During the ensuing 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs – from roots to seeds. There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between each organ evolving, and it being fed upon.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira1998_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plain_tiger_moat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Plain_tiger_moat.JPG/220px-Plain_tiger_moat.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Plain_tiger_moat.JPG/330px-Plain_tiger_moat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Plain_tiger_moat.JPG/440px-Plain_tiger_moat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A plain tiger caterpillar <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Danaus_chrysippus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Danaus chrysippus (not yet started)">Danaus chrysippus</a></i> making a <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">moat</a> to block defensive chemicals of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calotropis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calotropis (not yet started)">Calotropis</a></i> before feeding</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Co-evolution">Co-evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Change section: Co-evolution" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Co-evolution"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Herbivores depend on plants for food, and have evolved mechanisms to get this food despite the evolution of many plant defences. Herbivore adaptations to plant defence have been likened to <i>offensive traits</i>. They are adaptations which allow increased feeding and use of a host plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Karban_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karban-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often results in reciprocal evolutionary change, called <a href="/wiki/Co-evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-evolution">co-evolution</a>. </p><p>When a herbivore eats, it eats plants that do not mount a sufficient defensive response. This creates the opportunity for plants which <i>can</i> mount a defence. So plants with defences become the more common. In cases where this relationship demonstrates <i>specificity</i> (the evolution of each trait is due to the other), and <i>reciprocity</i> (both traits evolve), the species are thought to have co-evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-Futuyma_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Futuyma-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "escape and radiation" mechanism for co-evolution is the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants have been the driving force behind <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adaptations have played a role in the radiation of insect species during the age of <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some herbivores have evolved ways to hijack plant defences to their own benefit, by <a href="https://simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/sequester" class="extiw" title="wikt:sequester">sequestering</a> (keeping) these chemicals and using them to protect themselves from predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plants_also_need_animals">Plants also need animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Change section: Plants also need animals" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Plants also need animals"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the plants which defend their leaves so vigorously nevertheless do need some animals. Up to 98% of flowering plants in tropical lowland <a href="/wiki/Rain_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Rain forests">rain forests</a> rely on animals for <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> dispersal.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Change section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9724317">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyd, Jade 2012. A bit touchy: Plants' insect defenses activated by touch. Rice University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://news.rice.edu/2012/04/09/a-bit-touchy-plants-insect-defenses-activated-by-touch-2/">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512012546/http://news.rice.edu/2012/04/09/a-bit-touchy-plants-insect-defenses-activated-by-touch-2/">Archived</a> 2012-05-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid11395950-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid11395950_2-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9724332">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2000" class="citation journal cs1">Ghosh, B. (2000). "Polyamines and plant alkaloids". <i>Indian Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. <b>38</b> (11): 1086–91. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11395950">11395950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=Polyamines+and+plant+alkaloids&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1086-91&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11395950&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Final Paper: The medicinal value of the rainforest May 15, 2003. Amanda Haidet May 2003. Jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFRadominska-Pandya2010" class="citation journal cs1">Radominska-Pandya, A (2010). "Invited Speakers". <i>Drug Metabolism Reviews</i>. <b>42</b> (S1): 1–2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F03602532.2010.506057">10.3109/03602532.2010.506057</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20842800">20842800</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38292188">38292188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Drug+Metabolism+Reviews&rft.atitle=Invited+Speakers&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=S1&rft.pages=1-2&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38292188%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20842800&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F03602532.2010.506057&rft.aulast=Radominska-Pandya&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Final Paper: The medicinal value of the rainforest May 15, 2003. Amanda Haidet May 2003. Jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrlich-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_6-0">6.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_6-1">6.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_6-2">6.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFEhrlichPeter_H._Raven1964" class="citation journal cs1">Ehrlich, Paul R.; Peter H. Raven (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_1964-12_18_4/page/586">"Butterflies and plants: a study of coevolution"</a>. <i>Evolution</i>. <b>18</b> (4). Society for the Study of Evolution: 586–608. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2406212">10.2307/2406212</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2406212">2406212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.atitle=Butterflies+and+plants%3A+a+study+of+coevolution&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=586-608&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2406212&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2406212%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ehrlich&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft.au=Peter+H.+Raven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_evolution_1964-12_18_4%2Fpage%2F586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labandeira-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeira1994" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira, C.C.; et al. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC45420">"Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America</i>. <b>91</b> (25): 12278–82. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PNAS...9112278L">1994PNAS...9112278L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.91.25.12278">10.1073/pnas.91.25.12278</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC45420">45420</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11607501">11607501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Science+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Ninety-seven+million+years+of+angiosperm-insect+association%3A+paleobiological+insights+into+the+meaning+of+coevolution&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=12278-82&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC45420%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11607501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.91.25.12278&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994PNAS...9112278L&rft.aulast=Labandeira&rft.aufirst=C.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC45420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labandeira1998-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira1998_8-0">8.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira1998_8-1">8.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira1998_8-2">8.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeira_C.C.1998" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira C.C. (1998). "Early history of arthropod and vascular plant associations 1". <i>Annual Reviews in Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 329–377. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AREPS..26..329L">1998AREPS..26..329L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.26.1.329">10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Reviews+in+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Early+history+of+arthropod+and+vascular+plant+associations+1&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=329-377&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.26.1.329&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998AREPS..26..329L&rft.au=Labandeira+C.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labandeira2007-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira2007_9-0">9.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira2007_9-1">9.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeira_C.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira C. (2007). "The origin of herbivory on land: initial patterns of plant tissue consumption by arthropods". <i>Insect Science</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 259–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00152.x">10.1111/j.1744-7917.2007.00152.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221813576">221813576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insect+Science&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+herbivory+on+land%3A+initial+patterns+of+plant+tissue+consumption+by+arthropods&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=259-275&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00152.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221813576%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Labandeira+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karban-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Karban_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFKarbanAnurag_A._Agrawal2002" class="citation journal cs1">Karban, Richard; Anurag A. Agrawal (2002). "Herbivore offense". <i>Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 641–664. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443">10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=Herbivore+offense&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=641-664&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443&rft.aulast=Karban&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Anurag+A.+Agrawal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Futuyma-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Futuyma_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFFutuyma,_Douglas_J._&_Slatkin,_Montgomery1983" class="citation book cs1">Futuyma, Douglas J. & Slatkin, Montgomery (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coevolution0000unse"><i>Coevolution</i></a>. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87893-228-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87893-228-3"><bdi>0-87893-228-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coevolution&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Sinauer&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-87893-228-3&rft.au=Futuyma%2C+Douglas+J.+%26+Slatkin%2C+Montgomery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcoevolution0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_12-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1999" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, J. (1999). "What we know and do not know about coevolution: insect herbivores and plants as a test case". In H. Olff, V.K. Brown, R.H. Drent (ed.). <i>Herbivores: between plants and predators; the 38th symposium of the British Ecological Society</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Science. pp. 7–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-05155-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-05155-8"><bdi>0-632-05155-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+we+know+and+do+not+know+about+coevolution%3A+insect+herbivores+and+plants+as+a+test+case&rft.btitle=Herbivores%3A+between+plants+and+predators%3B+the+38th+symposium+of+the+British+Ecological+Society&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=7-30&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-632-05155-8&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_editors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFFarrellCharles_Mitter1994" class="citation journal cs1">Farrell, Brian D.; Charles Mitter (1994). "Adaptive radiation in insects and plants: time and opportunity". <i>American Zoologist</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 57–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F34.1.57">10.1093/icb/34.1.57</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Zoologist&rft.atitle=Adaptive+radiation+in+insects+and+plants%3A+time+and+opportunity&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-69&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F34.1.57&rft.aulast=Farrell&rft.aufirst=Brian+D.&rft.au=Charles+Mitter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3ADefence+against+herbivory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bawa K.S. 1990. Plant pollinator interactions in tropical rain forests. <i>Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</i>. <b>21</b>, 167–196.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_pages">Related pages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Change section: Related pages" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Related pages"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capsicum" title="Capsicum">Capsicum</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Change section: Further reading" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Further reading"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bakker, Robert T. 1986. <i>The dinosaur heresies: new theories unlocking the mystery of the dinosaurs and their extinction</i>. Morrow. Chapter 8: Dinosaurs at table. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8065-2260-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8065-2260-7">0-8065-2260-7</a></li> <li>Strong D.R., Lawton J.W. and Southwood, Sir Richard 1984. <i>Insects on plants: community patterns and mechanisms</i>. Blackwell, Oxford. Chapter 6 Coevolution. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-00909-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-00909-8">0-632-00909-8</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&oldid=9228315">https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Defence_against_herbivory&oldid=9228315</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Botany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coevolution" title="Category:Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ecology" title="Category:Ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_JsonConfig_extension" title="Category:Pages using the JsonConfig extension">Pages using the JsonConfig extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_editors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last changed on 3 December 2023, at 07:35.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License">GFDL</a>; additional terms may apply. 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