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id="toc-Late_antiquity_(313_–_c._600)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geographical_spread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_spread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Geographical spread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographical_spread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heresies_and_schisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heresies_and_schisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Heresies and schisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heresies_and_schisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_art_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_art_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Early art and literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_art_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(c._600–1000)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages_(c._600–1000)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Early Middle Ages (c. 600–1000) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(c._600–1000)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early Middle Ages (c. 600–1000) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(c._600–1000)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monasticism_and_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasticism_and_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Monasticism and art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasticism_and_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Regional differences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(c._1000–1300)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages_(c._1000–1300)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(c._1000–1300)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(c._1000–1300)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monks,_reform,_and_renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monks,_reform,_and_renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Monks, reform, and renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monks,_reform,_and_renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Centralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Centralization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schism,_crusade,_spread,_and_retraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schism,_crusade,_spread,_and_retraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Schism, crusade, spread, and retraction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schism,_crusade,_spread,_and_retraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges_and_repression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_and_repression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Challenges and repression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges_and_repression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_and_Reformation_(c._1300–1650)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_and_Reformation_(c._1300–1650)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Renaissance and Reformation (c. 1300–1650) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Renaissance_and_Reformation_(c._1300–1650)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Renaissance and Reformation (c. 1300–1650) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_and_Reformation_(c._1300–1650)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Division_in_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Division_in_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Division in the West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Division_in_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_East_and_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_East_and_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 The East and Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_East_and_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inquisitions_and_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inquisitions_and_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Inquisitions and discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inquisitions_and_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Reformation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period_(1650–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period_(1650–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Modern period (1650–1945) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_period_(1650–1945)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern period (1650–1945) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_period_(1650–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ideological_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideological_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Ideological movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideological_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonialism_and_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonialism_and_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Colonialism and missions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonialism_and_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Nineteenth and twentieth centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Russian Orthodoxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 After World War II </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle After World War II subsection </button> <ul id="toc-After_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theological_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theological_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Theological revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theological_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books_&_periodicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_&_periodicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Books & periodicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_&_periodicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encyclopedia_&_web_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedia_&_web_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Encyclopedia & web sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedia_&_web_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Christianity</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BD_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इसाई धर्म केरऽ इतिहास – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इसाई धर्म केरऽ इतिहास" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ المسيحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ المسيحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_cristianismu" title="Historia del cristianismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia del cristianismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="খ্রিস্টধর্মের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খ্রিস্টধর্মের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="История на християнството – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на християнството" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_del_cristianisme" title="Història del cristianisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història del cristianisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_k%C5%99es%C5%A5anstv%C3%AD" title="Dějiny křesťanství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny křesťanství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A7%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Ιστορία του Χριστιανισμού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του Χριστιανισμού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_cristianismo" title="Historia del cristianismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del cristianismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_kristanismo" title="Historio de kristanismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de kristanismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristautasunaren_historia" title="Kristautasunaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kristautasunaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="تاریخ مسیحیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ مسیحیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_christianisme" title="Histoire du christianisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du christianisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="기독교의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기독교의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Քրիստոնեության պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քրիստոնեության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="ईसाई धर्म का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ईसाई धर्म का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_kr%C5%A1%C4%87anstva" title="Povijest kršćanstva – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest kršćanstva" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Kristanismo" title="Historio di Kristanismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Kristanismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Kekristenan" title="Sejarah Kekristenan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Kekristenan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_christianismo" title="Historia del christianismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del christianismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_cristianesimo" title="Storia del cristianesimo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del cristianesimo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="היסטוריה של הנצרות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של הנצרות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Kanisa" title="Historia ya Kanisa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Kanisa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristiet%C4%ABbas_v%C4%93sture" title="Kristietības vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kristietības vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_kereszt%C3%A9nys%C3%A9g_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nete" title="A kereszténység története – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A kereszténység története" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Историја на христијанството – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на христијанството" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantaran%27_ny_kristianisma" title="Tantaran' ny kristianisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantaran' ny kristianisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storja_tal-Kristjane%C5%BCmu" title="Storja tal-Kristjaneżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Storja tal-Kristjaneżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="ख्रिश्चन धर्माचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ख्रिश्चन धर्माचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_l_Crestianismo" title="Stória de l Crestianismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de l Crestianismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_het_christendom" title="Geschiedenis van het christendom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van het christendom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskydenisse_van_et_kristendom" title="Geskydenisse van et kristendom – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Geskydenisse van et kristendom" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E6%95%99%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="キリスト教の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キリスト教の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="عیسائیت دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عیسائیت دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د مسیحیت تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مسیحیت تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_chrze%C5%9Bcija%C5%84stwa" title="Historia chrześcijaństwa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia chrześcijaństwa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_cristianismo" title="História do cristianismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do cristianismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_cre%C8%99tinismului" title="Istoria creștinismului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria creștinismului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorgia_da_la_baselgia" title="Istorgia da la baselgia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Istorgia da la baselgia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="История христианства – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История христианства" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Krisht%C3%ABrimit" title="Historia e Krishtërimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Krishtërimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="ක්‍රිස්තියානි ආගමේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍රිස්තියානි ආගමේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of Christianity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_kres%C5%A5anstva" title="Dejiny kresťanstva – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny kresťanstva" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_hri%C5%A1%C4%87anstva" title="Istorija hrišćanstva – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija hrišćanstva" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristinuskon_historia" title="Kristinuskon historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kristinuskon historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="ประวัติศาสนาคริสต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสนาคริสต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hristiyanl%C4%B1k_tarihi" title="Hristiyanlık tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hristiyanlık tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Історія християнства – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія християнства" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="تاریخ مسیحیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ مسیحیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Kit%C3%B4_gi%C3%A1o" title="Lịch sử Kitô giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Kitô giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_Kristiyanismo" title="Kaagi han Kristiyanismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi han Kristiyanismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="基督教历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基督教历史" 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For the magazine, see <a href="/wiki/Christian_History" title="Christian History">Christian History</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline of Christianity</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/260px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/390px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/520px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Funerary <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> of Licinia Amias on marble, in the <a href="/wiki/National_Roman_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="National Roman Museum">National Roman Museum</a>. One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early third-century <a href="/wiki/Vatican_necropolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican necropolis">Vatican necropolis</a> area in Rome. It contains the text ΙΧΘΥϹ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ ('fish of the living'), a predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Ichthys" title="Ichthys">Ichthys</a> symbol.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #efefef">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #efefef"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Principal symbol of Christianity"><img alt="Principal symbol of Christianity" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/50px-Christian_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/75px-Christian_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/100px-Christian_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="564" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamb_of_God" title="Lamb of God">Lamb of God</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></li><li>Foundations</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Old Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Christian views on the Old Covenant</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Teachings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstinence" title="Abstinence">Abstinence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atonement" title="Atonement">Atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Christian views on poverty and wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_violence" title="Christianity and violence">Christianity and violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">Evangelism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Catechesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Catholic priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk Christianity">Folk Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-air_preaching" title="Open-air preaching">Open-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">Pastor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_for_an_eye" title="Eye for an eye">Eye for an eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">Good works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_Christ" title="Love of Christ">of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_God" title="Love of God">of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-denial" title="Self-denial">Self-denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sacrifice" title="Self-sacrifice">Self-sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_world,_the_flesh,_and_the_devil" title="The world, the flesh, and the devil">The world, the flesh, and the devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_alcohol" title="Christian views on alcohol">Views on alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Option_for_the_poor" title="Option for the poor">Option for the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mortgage" title="Social mortgage">Social mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_destination_of_goods" title="Universal destination of goods">Universal destination of goods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_values" title="Christian values">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worldview" title="Christian worldview">Worldview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-reformation">Counter-reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role of Christianity in civilization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemptus_mundi" title="Contemptus mundi">Contemptus mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupio_dissolvi" title="Cupio dissolvi">Cupio dissolvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damnation#Christianity" title="Damnation">Damnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">Fall of man</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven_in_Christianity" title="Heaven in Christianity">Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell_in_Christianity" title="Hell in Christianity">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Judgement">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_(theology)" title="Mortification (theology)">Mortification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_in_Catholic_theology" title="Mortification in Catholic theology">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh" title="Mortification of the flesh">Of the flesh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemption_(theology)" title="Redemption (theology)">Redemption (theology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemptive_suffering" title="Redemptive suffering">Redemptive suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Sin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_sin" title="Eternal sin">Eternal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">Mortal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sins_that_cry_to_Heaven_for_Vengeance" title="Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance">Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venial_sin" title="Venial sin">Venial sin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rite_(Christianity)" title="Rite (Christianity)">Rites</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Communion" title="First Communion">First Communion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellant" title="Flagellant">Flagellant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_water" title="Holy water">Holy water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">Last rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_prayer" title="Christian prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacrament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-flagellation" title="Self-flagellation">Self-flagellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abstinence" title="Sexual abstinence">Sexual abstinence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_formula" title="Trinitarian formula">Trinitarian formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross" title="Sign of the cross">Sign of the cross</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">(full list)</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmarian_Catholic_Church" title="Palmarian Catholic Church">Palmarian Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedevacantism" title="Sedevacantism">Sedevacantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Free Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian [Hussite]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Members_Church_of_God_International" title="Members Church of God International">Members Church of God International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">The New Church (Swedenborgian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Unitarian,_Universalist,_and_Unitarian_Universalist_churches" title="List of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist churches">Unitarians and Universalists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">Absence of good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">... and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">... and other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBT_rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-LGBT rhetoric">Anti-LGBT rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beginning_of_human_personhood" title="Beginning of human personhood">Beginning of human life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Catholic Church sexual abuse cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">Choir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">Crucifix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">Providence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_terrorism" title="Christian terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_homosexuality" title="Christianity and homosexuality">Views on homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian cross"><img alt="Christian cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a 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href="/wiki/File:Icon-religion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/200px-Icon-religion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/300px-Icon-religion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/400px-Icon-religion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="519" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founding figures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza_ibn_Ali" title="Hamza ibn Ali">Hamza ibn Ali</a> (<a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druzism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Baháʼu'lláh">Baháʼu'lláh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotheology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotheology">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_gene" title="God gene">God gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Ancient Greek religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Hellenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Early modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Age of Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Postmodernism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#History" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto#History" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopagan">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religion" title="Template:History of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religion" title="Template talk:History of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of Christianity begins with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">ministry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, a Jewish teacher and healer, who was <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucified</a> and died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 30–33 in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judea</a>. Afterwards, his followers, a set of <a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">apocalyptic</a> Jews, proclaimed him <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">risen from the dead</a>. Christianity began as <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">a Jewish sect</a> and remained so for centuries in some locations, <a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">diverging gradually from Judaism</a> over doctrinal, social and historical differences. Despite the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a>, the faith spread as a <a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">grassroots</a> movement that, by the third century, was established both in and outside the empire. <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> texts were written and church government was loosely organized in its first centuries, though the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon#Christian_canons" title="Biblical canon">biblical canon</a> did not become official until 382. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> was the first Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">to declare himself a Christian</a>. In 313, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> expressing tolerance for all religions. He did not make Christianity the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>, but he did provide it with crucial support. Constantine called the first of <a href="/wiki/Seven_ecumenical_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven ecumenical councils">seven ecumenical councils</a>. In the fourth century, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a> Christianity began to diverge. After 476, monks in the West preserved Western culture, <a href="/wiki/Spread_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Spread Christianity">spread Christianity</a> across western Europe, and established the <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> that influenced every aspect of medieval European life. Between 600 and 750, Christianity was in retreat in the Near and Middle East and North Africa, while constant war turned the Eastern Roman Empire into the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. By the ninth and into the twelfth centuries, the Eastern church had spread further east along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, into Tibet and China, and along all of the main trade routes of Central Asia. Christian societies prospered among the Mongols, in the Nubian kingdoms, Ethiopia, and Caucasian Armenia and Georgia. Between the ninth and twelfth centuries, politicization and <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> developed the states of <a href="/wiki/East-Central_Europe" title="East-Central Europe">East-Central Europe</a>. Byzantine missionaries there formed <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> contributing to literacy, literature, and culture in the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic countries">Slavic countries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. During the High Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity had grown far enough apart that differences led to the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a> of 1054, but this did not prevent the appeal for help that led to the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>. Temporary reunion of East and West was achieved in 1452; it lasted until <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople fell</a> in 1453 and Byzantium became part of the empire of the Ottoman Turks. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, various crises in Europe, coupled with growing <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">criticism of the Catholic Church</a> led to the sixteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>. The Catholic Church responded in the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>. Royal houses took sides precipitating the <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a>. This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and modern political concepts of tolerance. In the eighteenth century, biblical criticism was created challenging many of the traditional views of the Bible. Parts of Christianity influenced the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, worked for societal reforms, and formed an important part of the ideology of <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> which shut down the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. Nineteenth century Protestant missionaries shaped multiple societies through literacy and <a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">indigenization</a>. In the twentieth century, Christianity faced many challenges and conflicts both internal and external. Traditional Christianity declined in the West, while new forms developed. The centre of growth shifted from West to East and from the North to the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>. In the twenty-first century, it is the world's largest religion with <a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">more than two billion Christians worldwide</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Christianity_(c._27_–_fourth_century)">Early Christianity (c. 27 – fourth century)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Christianity (c. 27 – fourth century)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_first_century">The first century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The first century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_first_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the first century">Christianity in the first century</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg/220px-Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="416" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg/330px-Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg/440px-Titian_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Christ_-_109_-_Pinacoteca_civica_%22Francesco_Podesti%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="846" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The sixteenth-century life-size painting Crocifissione di San Domenico by <a href="/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a>, showing Jesus on the cross with Mary and John at the foot of the cross</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> began with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">itinerant preaching of Jesus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 27–30), a Jewish man, who lived in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Judea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Judea">Roman province of Judea</a> during the first century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung20061–2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-2">[2]</a> Jesus' existence and his <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucifixion</a> are well attested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200624-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw2011129-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöstenbergerKellumQuarles2009114-5">[5]</a> The religious, social, and political climate in Judea was extremely diverse and characterized by turmoil with numerous religious and political movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz200949,_91-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200625-7">[7]</a> One such movement, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_messianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish messianism">Jewish messianism</a>, promised a <a href="/wiki/Messianic" class="mw-redirect" title="Messianic">messianic</a> redeemer descended from <a href="/wiki/King_David" class="mw-redirect" title="King David">King David</a> who would save Israel from her troubles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung20061–2-1">[1]</a> Texts and organisation indicate the first Christians saw <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> of Nazareth as that Messiah.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadhead2017124-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert200911-9">[9]</a> Jesus saw his identity and mission, and that of his followers, in light of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">kingdom of God</a> and the prophetic tradition of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadhead2017123-10">[10]</a> His followers believed God's spirit was incarnated (embodied) in Jesus and that after his crucifixion, he <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">rose from the dead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200611-11">[11]</a> The Christian church established <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">incarnation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> as its first doctrines,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunn1994253–254,_256-12">[12]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> and the celebration of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> meal (Jesus's <a href="/wiki/Last_Supper" title="Last Supper">Last Supper</a>) as its two primary rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrout2016479-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200632–34-14">[14]</a> The first Christian communities were predominantly Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlutz2002178–190-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman200730–32-16">[16]</a> Early Christians gathered into <a href="/wiki/House_church" title="House church">small groups inside private homes</a>, where the typical setting for worship was the communal meal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler201711-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2017686-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">Presbyters</a> or bishops oversaw the economic requirements of the meal, alongside charitable distributions, and any ceremonial role they took was initially connected to this more prosaic role.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2014intro.-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGowan2016370-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201264-21">[21]</a> Beginning with fewer than 1000 adherents, Christianity grew to around one hundred <a href="/wiki/Early_centres_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centres of Christianity">small household churches</a> consisting of an average of seventy members each by the year 100.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998202-22">[22]</a> It spread through the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">dispersed peoples</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumfress20133,_76,_83–88,_91-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBokenkotter200718-24">[24]</a> along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers, and migrating tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007118-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarnett2017200,_217-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998192–193-27">[27]</a> In the first century it reached <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevett2006314,_320,_324–327-28">[28]</a> and probably <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, Egypt where <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Christianity">Coptic Christianity</a> developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2006331,_334–336-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20075-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a> was one of several <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a> who spread Christianity in the first century, making at least three missionary journeys and founding numerous churches in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlutz2002178–190-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThiessen2014373–391-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifrid1992210–211,_246–247-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Antioch" title="Church of Antioch">Christianity in Antioch</a> is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Paul%27s_epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul's epistles">his epistles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2006351,_353-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews of Alexandria">Jews of Alexandria</a> had produced <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">a Greek translation</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> between the third and first centuries BC which the apostles and early Christians used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETov201437–46-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch201066–69-35">[35]</a> Christian writings in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Four_gospels" class="mw-redirect" title="Four gospels">four gospels</a> (the accounts of Jesus's ministry), letters of Paul, and letters attributed to other early Christian leaders, were written in the first century and had considerable authority even in the formative period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1998a14-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2011198-37">[37]</a> The letters of the Apostle Paul sent to the <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">early Christian communities</a> were circulating in collected form by the end of the first century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002302–303-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codex</a>, the ancestor of modern books, was used by first-century Christians, but the Egyptian church likely invented the papyrus codex during the next decades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts1949158–159,_160–161-39">[39]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a>, (c. 49), the Jerusalem church gathered to address whether the increasing numbers of non-Jews needed to follow Jewish law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathews1909337-40">[40]</a> The council decided to allow Gentile Christians their form of Christianity and Jews theirs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathews1909341-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">Jewish Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a> Christianity still grew apart. The departure of Christians before the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70</a>, alongside the development of what would become <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, disagreements about Jewish law, and insurrections against Rome, contributed to their divergence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus200687–88,_99–100-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner1972313-43">[43]</a> Nevertheless, Jewish Christianity remained influential in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the second and third centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylen1995190–193-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus200696–99,_101-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ante-Nicene_period_(100–312)">Ante-Nicene period (100–312)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ante-Nicene period (100–312)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Christianity in the ante-Nicene period</a></div> Christianity achieved <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass_(sociodynamics)" title="Critical mass (sociodynamics)">critical mass</a> in the years between 150 and 250, when it grew from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarnett2017200,_217-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998192–193-27">[27]</a> By the third century, it had spread into North Africa and across the Mediterranean region, from Greece and Anatolia into the Balkans in the East and as far as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> in the northwest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrombley2006307–309-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiek2007abstract-47">[47]</a> A more formal Church structure grew over the second and third centuries AD, but at different times in different locations. <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishops</a> rose in power and influence, beginning to preside over larger areas with multiple churches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrington1957375–376-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2014intro-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216-50">[50]</a> Early Christianity was open to everyone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeeks200379–81-51">[51]</a> Baptism was free, and there were no fees, which made Christianity more affordable than traditional Roman models.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelchPulham2000202-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199245–48-53">[53]</a> The religion's inclusivity extended to women, who <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Church_history" title="Women in Church history">made up significant numbers of Christianity's earliest members</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu19995-54">[54]</a> Women could attain greater freedom through religious activities than Roman customs otherwise permitted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner199167-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy1995xv-56">[56]</a> Women in the church were prominent in church rolls,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996163,_167-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECloke19955–7-58">[58]</a> the Pauline epistles,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996169-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy201110,_75,_188-60">[60]</a> and in early Christian art,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETulloch2004302-61">[61]</a> while much early anti-Christian criticism was linked to "female initiative" indicating their role in the movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner199167-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996126,_157,_167–168,_202,_242-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaFosse2017385–387-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[note 1]</a> A key characteristic of early Christianity was its unique type of exclusivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrebilco201785-69">[68]</a> Believing was the crucial and defining characteristic of membership – believers were separated from the "unbelievers" by a strong social boundary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2010126–127-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrebilco201785,_218,_282-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199268,_108-72">[71]</a> This exclusivity gave Christianity the powerful psychological attraction of elitism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199236-73">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P46.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/150px-P46.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/225px-P46.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/300px-P46.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>A folio from <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">Papyrus 46</a>, an early third-century collection of <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></figcaption></figure> The four gospels and the letters of Paul were generally regarded as authoritative, but other writings, such as the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> and the epistles <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">to the Hebrews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/I_John" class="mw-redirect" title="I John">I John</a>, were assigned different degrees of authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017205-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoll199736–37-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Jonge2003315-76">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic texts</a> challenged the physical nature of Jesus, <a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a> suggested that the apostles could be superseded, and <a href="/wiki/Monarchianism" title="Monarchianism">Monarchianism</a> emphasized the unity of God over the Trinity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017212–217-77">[76]</a> In the face of such diversity, unity was provided by the shared scriptures and the bishops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216–217-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullmann20181-79">[78]</a> In the early church, <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> did not yet exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennington2007386-80">[79]</a> The Ante-Nicene period included sporadic but increasing <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">persecution from Roman authorities</a>, and the rise of Christian <a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cults</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociological_classifications_of_religious_movements" title="Sociological classifications of religious movements">movements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017207–212,_213–217-81">[80]</a> In the 250s, the emperors <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> made it a capital offence to refuse to make sacrifices to <a href="/wiki/Roman_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman gods">Roman gods</a>, resulting in widespread persecution of Christians. Official persecution <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">reached its height under Diocletian</a> in 303–311.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERives1999141-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroix2006139–140-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaddis200530–31-84">[83]</a> Authorities in the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> also periodically persecuted Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017212-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglebert20155-86">[85]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photo of very old and slightly damaged representation of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the catacombs, made c. 300" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/220px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>One of the oldest representations of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">catacombs of Rome</a>, made c. 300</figcaption></figure> There are few early records of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">early Christian art</a>. The oldest forms emerged in funerary environments c. 200.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabar20237-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–149-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudith_Anne_Testa80-89">[88]</a> It typically fused Graeco-Roman style and Christian symbolism: the most common image was Jesus as the good shepherd.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodenough1962138-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–151-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_antiquity_(313_–_c._600)">Late antiquity (313 – c. 600)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late antiquity (313 – c. 600)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></div> Late Antiquity was an age of change as Christianity became a licit religion, and then a favored one, and transformed in every capacity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20071-92">[91]</a> In 313, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>, a self-declared Christian, issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> expressing tolerance for all religions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b542-93">[92]</a> Thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Religious_policies_of_Constantine_the_Great" title="Religious policies of Constantine the Great">he supported Christianity</a>, giving bishops judicial power, and legally establishing them as equal to polytheistic priests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b538,_544,_546-94">[93]</a> He devoted personal and public funds to building churches and endowed them with funds for maintenance and support of their clergy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b546–547-95">[94]</a> Christian art, literature and church building blossomed under Constantine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2017700-96">[95]</a> There were churches in the majority of Roman cities by the end of the fourth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b547-97">[96]</a> Constantine wrote hostile imperial laws aimed at suppressing sacrifice and magic that contributed to one of the most significant changes of this age of change. Blood sacrifice had been a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, but it disappeared by the end of the fourth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury1995331,_355–356-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson201287,_93-99">[98]</a> Religious violence was not a general phenomenon,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglebert20154–5-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESághySchoolman20171-101">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998640–641,_646–647-102">[101]</a> and was "mostly restricted to violent rhetoric".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremmer20209-103">[102]</a> There was no legislation forcing the conversion of pagans before the 500s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007418,_421-104">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015455–457-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerberdingMoran_Cruz200455–56-106">[105]</a> Polytheism remained widespread for centuries, as late as the ninth century in Greece.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2002182-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaxwell2015854–855-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[note 2]</a> Constantine and his successors attempted to fit the Church into their political program.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahner2013xiii,_xvii-113">[111]</a> Church leaders responded by articulating the first limitations on a secular ruler's authority, arguing that religious authority must be separate from State authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007413–414-114">[112]</a> For most of Late Antiquity, the <a href="/wiki/Popes" class="mw-redirect" title="Popes">popes</a> – the successors to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a> as bishop of Rome – had limited influence, and did not yet have the power needed to break free of secular interference in church affairs. However, papal power began to rise in this age as eastern patriarchs increasingly looked to the Roman Pope to resolve disagreements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20072,_3-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2021300-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998199-117">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism_before_451" title="Christian monasticism before 451">Christian monasticism originated</a> before the fourth century in Syria from the asceticism already intrinsic to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017309-118">[116]</a> Monastic communities were associated with the urban holy places in Palestine (which became a center of pilgrimage), Cappadocia, Italy, Gaul, and Roman North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017315–324-119">[117]</a> In the 370s, <a href="/wiki/Basil_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Basil the Great">Basil the Great</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Basileias" title="Basileias">Basileias</a>, a monastic community in <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_(Mazaca)" title="Caesarea (Mazaca)">Caesarea (Mazaca)</a> that developed the first <a href="/wiki/Health_care_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care system">health care system</a> for the poor which became the model of <a href="/wiki/History_of_hospitals" title="History of hospitals">public hospitals</a> thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrislip2005100–106-120">[118]</a> In the fourth century, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> argued that Jews should not be killed or forcibly converted, instead, they should be left alone because they preserved the teachings of the Old Testament and were "living witnesses" of the New Testament.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199878–80-121">[119]</a> Most Jews and Christians, (with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> in Spain), lived peacefully alongside each other into the High Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2002xii-122">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachrach19773-123">[121]</a> The theology of <a href="/wiki/Supersessionism" title="Supersessionism">supersessionism</a> claimed that Christians had displaced the <a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Jews as God's chosen people</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETapie20173-124">[122]</a> many scholars attribute the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> to this concept, but other scholars make distinctions between them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim20062,_4,_8–9-125">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerdmar200925-126">[124]</a> After 476 and the breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, there was no center of political power in the European West. The ensuing socio-political fragmentation left the church with responsibility for the folk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin202190-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987paragraphs_1,_2,_5-128">[126]</a> Thereafter, western Europe developed in a manner distinctively different from the remaining empire in the East. For the next five centuries, Western culture and civilization were preserved and passed on primarily by monks while the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> continued to be a Roman Empire with an emperor, a civil government, and a large army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201458,_61-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau20172–3,_5-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196047-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20088-132">[130]</a> The religious policies of the Eastern Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 527–565) reflected his conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith: he persecuted pagans and religious minorities and purged government and church bureaucracies of those who disagreed with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20121–3-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20088-132">[130]</a> He contributed to cultural development,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2007283-134">[132]</a> and integrated Christian concepts with Roman law in his <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> which remains the basis of civil law in many modern states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennington2007386-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin2009213-135">[133]</a> In Gaul, the Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> converted to Catholicism; his kingdom became the dominant polity in the West in 507 gradually converting into a Christian kingdom over the next centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201458,_61-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau20172–3,_5-130">[128]</a> Papal influence rose as competition within the church increasingly led people to Rome to resolve disagreements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-136">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson201636-137">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great (590-604)</a> gained prestige and power for the papacy by leading the response to invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> in 592 and 593, reforming the clergy, standardizing music in worship, sending out missionaries and founding new monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008214-138">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998198–199-139">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographical_spread">Geographical spread</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Geographical spread">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ireland" title="Christianity in Ireland">Christianity in Ireland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Scotland" title="Christianisation of Scotland">Christianisation of Scotland</a></div> Christianity continued to grow rapidly, both westwards and eastwards:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudge20104-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein20146-141">[139]</a> In the fourth century the percentage of Christians was as high in the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> as in the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert20098-142">[140]</a> Even as the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> caused havoc in the Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, many converted to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau20175–15-143">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim20132–5,_36-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury196755,_91,_109-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201424–25-146">[144]</a> Although the religion soon reached as far east as Afghanistan and as far south as <a href="/wiki/Soqotra" class="mw-redirect" title="Soqotra">Soqotra</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, Christian institutions in Asia or East Africa never developed the intellectual or socio-political power that the European churches and Byzantium did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007118–120-147">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> became the first state to adopt Christianity as its religion in 301. It was followed by others in the Caucasus, such as <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Albania</a>, and Ethiopia and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowe2006404–405-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2007138-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrita2020252-150">[148]</a> Christianity, a minority faith in Britain since the second century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1997506–507-151">[149]</a> began to be displaced by <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon paganism</a> in the fifth century;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan201370-152">[150]</a> this process began reversing after the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">Gregorian mission</a> of 597.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby200035,_120–121-153">[151]</a> Missionaries also began to convert the Irish in the early fifth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarney2017103,_122-154">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heresies_and_schisms">Heresies and schisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Heresies and schisms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicaea_icon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An Eastern icon depicting Constantine surrounded by several few bishops holding the Nicene Creed in front of them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/220px-Nicaea_icon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/330px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/440px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>Icon depicting the <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Emperor Constantine</a> (centre) and the bishops of the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325) holding the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed#Niceno-Constantinopolitan_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381</a></figcaption></figure> Regional Christianities produced diverse and sometimes competing churches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20072-155">[153]</a> Ancient authors identified any practice or doctrine which differed from apostolic tradition as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIricinschiZellentin20084-156">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199268,_108-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn2017838–841-157">[155]</a> The number of laws directed at heresy indicate it was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians of this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998634,_640,_651-158">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman1993375-159">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[note 3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> embroiled the entire church, lay and clergy alike, for decades, in arguing whether Jesus' divinity was equal to the Father's.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman200730–32-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20149-164">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankin2017908-165">[162]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> in 325 attempted to resolve the controversy with the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20142,_4,_7-166">[163]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2006b545"In_one_of_the_most_momentous_precedents_of_his_reign,_during_Constantine's_twentieth-anniversary_celebrations_in_325,_some_250_bishops_assembled_at_Nicaea..."_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b545"In_one_of_the_most_momentous_precedents_of_his_reign,_during_Constantine's_twentieth-anniversary_celebrations_in_325,_some_250_bishops_assembled_at_Nicaea..."-167">[164]</a> Christian scripture was formalized as the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, distinguishing it from the Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>, by the fourth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestcott200512–13-168">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruce1988215-169">[166]</a> Despite agreement on these texts, differences between Eastern and Western churches were becoming evident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2010Intro._and_ch._1-170">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19762-171">[168]</a> Latin was used by the west but not the east, where Greek, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>, and other languages were used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahner2013xiii,_xiv-172">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEichbauer20221-173">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–177-174">[171]</a> The West condemned Roman culture as sinful and resisted state control, whereas the east harmonized with Greek culture and aimed for unanimity between church and state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007416,_418-175">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19767–8-176">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2002261-177">[174]</a> There were also tensions surrounding the marriage of clerics, which continued in the east but was forbidden in the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2017365-178">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308,_324-179">[176]</a> The East advocated <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">sharing the government of the church between five leaders</a>, arguing that the Patriarchs of <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria" title="Patriarch of Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" title="Patriarch of Antioch">Antioch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem" title="Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> were equal to the Pope. Rome asserted <a href="/wiki/Papal_primacy" title="Papal primacy">papal primacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-136">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPentarchy2024-180">[177]</a> Controversies over how Jesus' human and divine natures co-existed led to a series of <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">ecumenical councils</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Third</a> in 431, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Fourth</a> in 451, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Fifth</a> in 583, and the <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Sixth</a> in 680–681.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabo2018vii-181">[178]</a> The church in Persia didn't recognize the authority of the Council of Ephesus, but it outright rejected the Fourth Council's (451) <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Definition" title="Chalcedonian Definition">assertion</a> that two separate natures of Christ form one <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> entity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöhr2007abstract-182">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECross2001363-183">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003177-184">[181]</a> This led to a formal breach in 482 when the Persian church formed a separate communion and called themselves the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003177–178-185">[182]</a> The Church of the East flourished in the sixth and seventh centuries, but there were also <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syrian Orthodox</a> in Persia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003178-186">[183]</a> By the sixth century, almost all Christians in Syria and Mesopotamia were Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003180-187">[184]</a> The Church of the East became the principal Church in Asia in the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003xii-188">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_art_and_literature">Early art and literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early art and literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity#Sculpture_and_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity § Sculpture and art</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VirgenNino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="fourth century wall painting of mother and child" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/220px-VirgenNino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/330px-VirgenNino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/440px-VirgenNino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early Roman catacombs, fourth century</figcaption></figure> Constantine's sponsorship stimulated a proliferation of Christian art and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1979xix-189">[186]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a>, a type of Roman municipal court hall, became the model for Christian architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2017673-190">[187]</a> Frescoes, mosaics, statues, and paintings blended classical and Christian styles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1979xix–xx-191">[188]</a> Similarly, a hybrid form of poetry written in classical styles with Christian concepts emerged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroke2015414-192">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgosti2015362,_371–372-193">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGill2015343-194">[191]</a> In the late fourth century, <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> was commissioned to translate the Greek biblical texts into the Latin language; this translation was called the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann196582–83-195">[192]</a> Church fathers of this period, such as <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil of Caesarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory of Nazianzus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrose of Milan">Ambrose of Milan</a>, wrote vast numbers of works, contributing to a golden age of writing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumfress201597,_100–101;_110-196">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages_(c._600–1000)">Early Middle Ages (c. 600–1000)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages (c. 600–1000)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscript</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a></div> By the early 600s, Christianity had spread around the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20082,_6–8-197">[194]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">between 632 and 750</a>, the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a> conquered the Middle East and North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton2009xvii-198">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorfmann-Lazarev200865–66-199">[196]</a> Islamic rule devastated the Chalcedonian Asian churches in the cities, but intense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries had led to <a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">miaphysite</a> Christianity being adopted in the more remote areas of eastern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, central Asia, parts of China, and the coasts of India and Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-201">[note 4]</a> Their remoteness enabled them to survive better.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorfmann-Lazarev200866,_85-202">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373-203">[199]</a> In the same period, war on multiple fronts turned the Eastern Roman Empire into the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201439–41,_54-204">[200]</a> Germanic Europe largely remained impoverished, politically fragmented and dependent on the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201458,_61-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau20172–3,_5-130">[128]</a> The Early Middle Ages was the formative period of Western "<a href="/wiki/Christendom#Late_Antiquity_and_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>" which emerged at the end of this Age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin2021xv,_8,_13-205">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986552-206">[202]</a> In and around this largely Christian world, barbarian invasion, deportation, and neglect produced large "unchurched" populations for whom Christianity was one religion among many that could be fused with aspects of local paganism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200811–13-207">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrams201632–41-208">[204]</a> The church of this Age was only indirectly influenced by the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakley1985171-209">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monasticism_and_art">Monasticism and art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monasticism and art">edit</a>]</div> Until the end of the Early Middle Ages, Western culture was preserved and passed on primarily by monks known as "regular clergy" because they followed a regula: a rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196047-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998199-117">[115]</a> The rule included chastity, obedience and poverty sought through prayer, memorization of scripture, celibacy, fasting, manual labor, and almsgiving.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308–309-210">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008277-211">[207]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Hours_(Use_of_Metz)_Fol._27r,_Decorated_Initials.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="6862" /></a><figcaption>A page from the Book of Hours (Use of Metz) with a decorated Initial</figcaption></figure> Monasteries served as orphanages and inns for travelers, and provided food for those in need.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodman200966–68-212">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008295-213">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstable200435–36-214">[210]</a> They supported <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a>, practiced classical arts and crafts, and copied and preserved ancient texts in their <a href="/wiki/Scriptoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptoria">scriptoria</a> and libraries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerzoco20011–3-215">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodsCanizares20125-216">[212]</a> Dedicated monks created <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998202–203-217">[213]</a> From the sixth to the eighth centuries, most schools were connected to monasteries, but methods of teaching an illiterate populace could also include <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">mystery plays</a>, vernacular sermons, saints' lives in epic form, and artwork.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986552-206">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerzoco20012-218">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin202140,_80–81-219">[215]</a> The early Middle Ages was an age of uncertainty, and the role of relics and "holy men" able to provide "special access" to the divine became increasingly important.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201424,_27–29-220">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkus199026-221">[217]</a> Donations for the dead to receive prayers (with that special access) provided an ongoing source of wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2012514–517,_530-222">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonser1962236-223">[219]</a> Monasteries became increasingly organized, gradually establishing their own authority as separate from political and familial authorities, thereby revolutionizing social history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008275–277,_281,_298-224">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaight2004273-225">[221]</a> Medical practice was highly important, and medieval monasteries were best known for their public hospitals, hospices and their contributions to medicine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhipps1988abstract-226">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrislip20053-227">[223]</a> The sixth-century <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict#Secular_significance" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Rule of Saint Benedict</a> has had extensive influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETruran200068–69-228">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler1919intro.-229">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunn2003137-230">[226]</a> The East developed an approach to sacred art unknown in the West, adapting ancient portraiture in icons as intercessors between God and men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin202112-231">[227]</a> In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo</a> banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, and destroyed much early art. The West condemned Leo's <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2021-232">[228]</a> By the tenth and early eleventh centuries, Byzantine culture began to recover its artistic heritage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth200846-233">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard20063-234">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_differences">Regional differences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Regional differences">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyril_Metodej.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of a monument depicting Saints Cyril and Methodius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/220px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/330px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">St. Cyril and St. Methodius</a> monument on <a href="/wiki/Radho%C5%A1%C5%A5" title="Radhošť">Mt. Radhošť</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europeans</a> had been exposed to Christianity during Roman rule, but it was the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Byzantine Christianity</a> brought by the ninth-century saints <a href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" title="Cyril and Methodius">Cyril and Methodius</a> that was influential in state development there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadić2010232-235">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanič2016126,_129-236">[232]</a> They developed the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic alphabet">Glagolitic alphabet</a> to translate the Bible into local languages; as the ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>, this became the culturo-religious foundation for all Slavic nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125-237">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaff1953161–162-238">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanič2016127-239">[235]</a> In Western Europe, <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> was instrumental in developing key norms concerning oaths of loyalty, homage and fidelity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennington2011106-240">[236]</a> These norms were incorporated into civil law, where traces of them remain today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennington2011114-241">[237]</a> Within the tenets of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, the church created a new model of consecrated kingship unknown to the East, and in 800, Clovis' descendant <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> became its recipient when <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> crowned him emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008302,_307-242">[238]</a> Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms which began the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, a period of intellectual and cultural revival.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1998102–107-243">[239]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebedev_baptism.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Russian painting by Lebedev depicting first mass baptisms of Kievan Rus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Lebedev_baptism.jpg/220px-Lebedev_baptism.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Lebedev_baptism.jpg/330px-Lebedev_baptism.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Lebedev_baptism.jpg/440px-Lebedev_baptism.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>The Baptism of Kievans, by <a href="/wiki/Klavdiy_Lebedev" class="mw-redirect" title="Klavdiy Lebedev">Klavdiy Lebedev</a></figcaption></figure> The baptism of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir of Kiev">Vladimir of Kiev</a> in 989 is traditionally associated with the conversion of the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe19915–7-244">[240]</a> Their new religious structure included dukes maintaining control of a financially-dependent church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199112-245">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŠtefan2022111-246">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[note 5]</a> Monasticism was the dominant form of piety for both peasants and elites who identified themselves as Christian while retaining many pre-Christian practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008173–174-249">[244]</a> The first traces of the "<a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>" appear at the end of the seventh century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarocci201666-250">[245]</a> In the ninth and tenth centuries, Charlemagne and <a href="/wiki/Otto_the_Great" title="Otto the Great">Otto the Great</a> conceded to the popes the southeastern part of the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> and a large part of central Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarocci201666-250">[245]</a> In the early tenth century, the papacy was still in need of aid and protection from a secular ruler. In Rome, the papacy came under the control of the city's aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarocci201666-250">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann197271-251">[246]</a> Viking raids in the ninth and tenth centuries destroyed many churches and monasteries, inadvertently leading to reform. Patrons competed with each other in rebuilding so that "by the mid-eleventh century, a wealthy, unified, better-organized, better-educated, more spiritually sensitive Latin Church" resulted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe20163-252">[247]</a> There was another rise in papal power in the tenth century when <a href="/wiki/William_IX,_Duke_of_Aquitaine" title="William IX, Duke of Aquitaine">William IX, Duke of Aquitaine</a>, and other powerful lay founders of monasteries, placed their institutions under the protection of the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008287-253">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016177–178-254">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostambeys2000380,_393–394-255">[250]</a> A remarkable expansion of Christianity took place along the Silk Road into Tibet and China; the end of this age saw Christian communities along all the main trade routes of Asia, among the Turks of Inner Mongolia, and the Mongol people from north-western China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003188,_189–191-256">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages_(c._1000–1300)">High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></div> Membership in the Christendom of this Age began with baptism at birth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196057-257">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20094-258">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawson2008282-259">[254]</a> Every follower was supposed to have some knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a>, to rest on Sunday and feast days, attend mass, fast at specified times, take communion at Easter, pay various fees for the needy, and receive last rites at death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986539,_540,_541,_546-260">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolan2016278-261">[256]</a> The medieval papacy gained authority in every domain of European life as it gradually came to resemble the monarchies of its day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014185-262">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann196580–81-263">[258]</a> Canon law became a huge, highly complex, system of laws that omitted Christianity's earlier principles of inclusivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-264">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings2000382-265">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20095–6-266">[261]</a> The High Middle Ages saw the formation of several fundamental Christian doctrines, such as the seven sacraments, the just reward for labour, "the terms of Christian marriage, the nature of clerical celibacy and the appropriate lifestyle for priests". Heresy was defined with new precision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20092–3,_5-267">[262]</a> <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a> became an official doctrine. In 1215, <a href="/wiki/Confession_(religion)" title="Confession (religion)">confession</a> became required for all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood201611-268">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986543-269">[264]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rosary" title="Rosary">rosary</a> was created after veneration of <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary, mother of Jesus</a> became a central aspect of the age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20091–2-270">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monks,_reform,_and_renaissance">Monks, reform, and renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Monks, reform, and renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_(Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris)_23.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_%28Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris%29_23.jpg/220px-P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_%28Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris%29_23.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_%28Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris%29_23.jpg/330px-P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_%28Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris%29_23.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_%28Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris%29_23.jpg/440px-P%C3%A9rigueux_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Front_1047_-_Romanesque_architecture_-_%27restored%27_1852-95_by_Paul_Abadie_%28Architect_of_Basilique_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_in_Paris%29_23.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6024" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>Périgueux – Cathédrale Saint-Front 1047 – Romanesque architecture </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel,_Somerset,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel%2C_Somerset%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/220px-Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel%2C_Somerset%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel%2C_Somerset%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/330px-Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel%2C_Somerset%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel%2C_Somerset%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/440px-Wells_Cathedral_Lady_Chapel%2C_Somerset%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="5359" /></a><figcaption>Wells Cathedral, Lady Chapel, Somerset, UK – Gothic architecture</figcaption></figure> Certain monasteries adopted <a href="/wiki/Cluniac_Reforms" title="Cluniac Reforms">a Cluniac model of self-reform</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998215–216-271">[266]</a> They used <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque architecture</a> to convey a sense of awe and wonder and inspire obedience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephenson20097-272">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[note 6]</a> Their cultural and religious dominance began to decline in the mid-eleventh century when <a href="/wiki/Secular_clergy" title="Secular clergy">secular clergy</a>, who were not members of religious orders, rose in influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196047,_54-275">[269]</a> Monastery schools lost influence as <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a> spread,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196052–53-276">[270]</a> independent schools arose,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014197-277">[271]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a> formed as self-governing corporations chartered by popes and kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerger1995257-278">[272]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDen_Heijer201165"Many_of_the_medieval_universities_in_Western_Europe_were_born_under_the_aegis_of_the_Catholic_Church,_usually_as_cathedral_schools_or_by_papal_bull_as_Studia_Generali"_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDen_Heijer201165"Many_of_the_medieval_universities_in_Western_Europe_were_born_under_the_aegis_of_the_Catholic_Church,_usually_as_cathedral_schools_or_by_papal_bull_as_Studia_Generali"-279">[273]</a> Canon and civil law became professionalized, and a new literate elite formed, further displacing monks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-264">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196053–54-280">[274]</a> Throughout this period, the clergy and the <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">laity</a> became "more literate, more worldly, and more self-assertive".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatter2008530-281">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[note 7]</a> Byzantine art exerted a powerful influence on Western art in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann19663-287">[280]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>, intended to inspire contemplation of the divine, began in the same centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998228–237-288">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephenson20099-289">[282]</a> The twelfth century saw a change in the ideal of a monk, from contemplative devotion to active reform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox1987298-290">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJestice19971,_5–6-291">[284]</a> Among these novel charismatic preachers was <a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Saint Dominic</a>, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican Order</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELégluRistTaylor20138-292">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20094-258">[253]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian movement</a> was a wave of monastic reform after 1098; the Cistercians later became instrumental in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">technological advancement in medieval Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009376–378-293">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter197860-294">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstable19984–5-295">[288]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of students using geometry to study astronomy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/200px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/300px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/400px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Studying astronomy and geometry. Early fifteenth-century painting, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.</figcaption></figure> Between 1150 and 1200, monks gathered the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and other ancient writers from the libraries of formerly Muslim locations in Sicily and Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer201346–47-296">[289]</a> The rediscovery of the complete works of Aristotle led to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_twelfth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance of the twelfth century">renaissance of the twelfth century</a>. It also created conflict between faith and reason, resolved by a revolution in thought called <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongwell1928210,_214,_216-297">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998219–220-298">[291]</a> The scholastic writings of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> provided the foundation for much modern theology, philosophy and law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskins19714–7,_342,_345-299">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongwell1928224-300">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeagrave2009491-301">[294]</a> The renaissance revived the scientific study of natural phenomena which led to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a> in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoll20094-302">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindbergNumbers19865,_12-303">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley2006164-304">[297]</a> There was no parallel renaissance in the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin202112-231">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Centralization">Centralization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Centralization">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reform</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> (1073–1085) began "a new period in church history".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-136">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson20166-305">[298]</a> Previously, the power of kings and emperors had been at least partly founded on connection to the sacred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196056-306">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-264">[259]</a> Gregorian Reform intended to divest Western rulership of its sacramental character, and to establish the preeminence of the church by freeing it from state control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196055-307">[300]</a> This shift reinforced the popes' temporal power, enabling a reorganization of the administration of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> which brought a substantial increase in wealth. This enabled popes to become patrons in their own right,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostambeys2000367,_372,_376-308">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnish1988120-309">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarocci201666,_68,_76,_79-310">[303]</a> consolidated territory, centralized authority, and established a bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELogan20132–3-311">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022xxiii,_277-312">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-264">[259]</a> State administrations were also centralizing, and competition between church and state, who claimed legal and tax jurisdiction over the same populace, created conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20093-284">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998244–247-313">[306]</a> A major example was the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, a conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry IV</a> and Pope Gregory VII over the secular control of appointments and revenues of bishops and abbots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrett19875–7-314">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse2023255,_51-315">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–182-316">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowley2018159-317">[310]</a> For the church, ending lay investiture would support independence from the state, encourage reform, and provide better <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_care" title="Pastoral care">pastoral care</a>. For the kings who could better control the powers and revenues of appointed bishops than those of hereditary noblemen, ending lay investiture meant the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the <a href="/wiki/European_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="European nobility">European nobility</a> would be reduced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202351–52-318">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–177-174">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlthoff2019b173,_175-319">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEichbauer20223-320">[313]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dictatus_Papae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatus Papae">Dictatus Papae</a> of 1075 declared the pope alone could invest bishops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202325-321">[314]</a> Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlthoff2019b175-322">[315]</a> when Henry IV rejected the decree, he was <a href="/wiki/Excommunication_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excommunication (Catholic Church)">excommunicated</a>, which contributed to <a href="/wiki/Saxon_revolt_of_1077%E2%80%931088" title="Saxon revolt of 1077–1088">a civil war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrett19878-323">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202352-324">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009375-325">[318]</a> A similar controversy occurred in England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaughn198061–86-326">[319]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schism,_crusade,_spread,_and_retraction">Schism, crusade, spread, and retraction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Schism, crusade, spread, and retraction">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png/220px-Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png/330px-Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png/440px-Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png 2x" data-file-width="2948" data-file-height="2316" /></a><figcaption>Primary routes to Jerusalem undertaken during the First Crusade</figcaption></figure> By 1054, <a href="/wiki/Western_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Catholicism">Western Catholicism</a> and Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> had <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">schismed apart</a>. Along with geographical separation, there had long been many cultural differences, geopolitical disagreements, and a lack of respect between the two sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008214,_223-327">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff1979intro-328">[321]</a> Nevertheless, the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> still asked <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a> for help with the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Turks</a> in 1081,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014173–174-329">[322]</a> and Urban appealed in 1095 to European Christians to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFolda199536,_141-330">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETyerman199215–16-331">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009346–347-332">[325]</a> Urban's message had great popular appeal and resulted in the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>. Drawing on powerful and prevalent aspects of folk religion, <a href="/wiki/Crusading" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusading">crusading</a> connected pilgrimage, charity, and remission of sin with a willingness to fight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009346–349-333">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986523-334">[327]</a> It gave ordinary Christians a tangible means of expressing brotherhood with the East and carried a sense of historical responsibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009340–342,_346,_349–350,_352-335">[328]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> contributed to the development of national identities in European nations and increased division with the East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKostick20102–6-336">[329]</a> The evolving <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">cult of chivalry</a> of the Christian knight became a social and cultural influence before its decline during the 1400s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009346–348-337">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998208-338">[331]</a> One significant effect of the Crusades was the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009351-339">[332]</a> By the end of the eleventh century, Christianity was disappearing in Mesopotamia and inner Iran, although some communities continued to exist further to the east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373,_378,_381-340">[333]</a> Churches in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq became subject to fervently Muslim militaristic regimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006403-341">[334]</a> Christians were designated as <a href="/wiki/Dhimma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimma">dhimma</a>, which guaranteed their protection but enforced their legal inferiority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373-203">[199]</a> Different communities adopted various survival strategies: some withdrew from interaction, others converted to Islam, and others sought outside help.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006403-341">[334]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a> occurred in two stages: first, in the ninth century, missionaries operated without secular support; then a secular ruler would begin to oversee Christianization in their territory until an organized ecclesiastical network was established.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanmark200414–15-342">[335]</a> By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrink2004xvi-343">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges_and_repression">Challenges and repression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Challenges and repression">edit</a>]</div> Moral misbehaviour and heresy by the laity and clergy were prosecuted in <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">inquisitorial courts</a>, composed of both church and civil authorities, that were only established when needed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018363,_365-344">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmes200916-345">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022xv-346">[339]</a> Though these courts had no actual joint leadership nor joint organization, the Dominican Order held the primary responsibility for conducting inquisitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeters1980189-347">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMout2007229-348">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin20033-349">[342]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition" title="Medieval Inquisition">Medieval Inquisition</a> brought somewhere between 8,000 and 40,000 people to interrogation and sentence, but death sentences were relatively rare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018363,_367-350">[343]</a> The penalty imposed most often was an act of penance which might include public confession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood20169-351">[344]</a> Bishops were the lead inquisitors, but they did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally supported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20095–6-266">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018365-352">[345]</a> Inquisition became stridently contested as public opposition grew and riots against the Dominicans occurred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018363-353">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmes20091–2,_4,_7,_16,_28,_34-354">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiven200114-355">[348]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Lateran_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Lateran Council">Fourth Lateran Council</a> of 1215 empowered inquisitors to search out moral and religious "crimes" even when there was no accuser. In theory, this granted them extraordinary powers. In practice, without sufficient local secular support, their task became so overwhelmingly difficult that inquisitors were endangered and some were murdered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018365,_368-356">[349]</a> A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations occurred when the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> was <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Paris" title="Disputation of Paris">put "on trial" in 1239</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</a> because of contents that mocked the central figures of Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchacter20112-357">[350]</a> Talmudic Judaism came to be seen as so different from biblical Judaism that old Augustinian obligations to leave the Jews alone no longer applied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal195668–72-358">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchacter20112-357">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1974339-359">[352]</a> A rhetoric with elaborate stories grew among the folk casting Jews as enemies accused of ritual murder, the <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libel</a>, and desecration of the Christian eucharist host. The Black Death led to attacks on Jewish communities throughout the Holy Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20096-360">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick20124-361">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundy200058-362">[355]</a> Jews often acted as financial agents for the nobility, providing them <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">loans with interest</a> while being exempt from certain financial obligations. This attracted jealousy and resentment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2007110-363">[356]</a> Count <a href="/wiki/Emicho" title="Emicho">Emicho of Leiningen</a> massacred Jews in search of supplies and protection money, while the <a href="/wiki/Josce_of_York" title="Josce of York">York massacre of 1190</a> also appears to have originated in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose201570-364">[357]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg/220px-Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg/330px-Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg/440px-Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>Baltic tribes c. 1200</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">A military campaign</a> conducted by papal and French forces to eliminate the <a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Catharism</a> heresy began in 1209, and continued until 1229, while Catharism itself lasted until 1350.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarvin20083,_4,_216-365">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKienzle200146,_47-366">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunbabin2003178–179-367">[360]</a> The nobility of Eastern Europe prioritised subduing the <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a>, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, over crusading in the Holy Land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200723,_65-368">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[note 8]</a> In 1147, the <a href="/wiki/Divina_dispensatione" title="Divina dispensatione">Divina dispensatione</a> gave these nobles indulgences for the first of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a>, which intermittently continued until 1316.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristiansen1997287-371">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunyadiLaszlovszky2001606-372">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200765,_75–77,_119-373">[365]</a> The clergy pragmatically accepted the forced conversions the nobles perpetrated despite continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200724-374">[366]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_and_Reformation_(c._1300–1650)">Renaissance and Reformation (c. 1300–1650)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Renaissance and Reformation (c. 1300–1650)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division_in_the_West">Division in the West</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Division in the West">edit</a>]</div> The many calamities of the "long fourteenth century" – <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">famine</a>, wars, and <a href="/wiki/Popular_revolts_in_late_medieval_Europe" title="Popular revolts in late medieval Europe">social unrest</a> – led ordinary European people to believe <a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">the end of the world</a> was imminent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazzariniBlanning20217–9-375">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021109–110-376">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998241–244-377">[369]</a> This belief ran throughout society and became intertwined with anticlerical and anti-papal sentiments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021118–119-378">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20094-258">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-380">[note 9]</a> Criticism of the church became an integral part of late medieval European life, and was expressed in writings alongside movements towards heresy or internal reform;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson20219,_11,_12-381">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeß201378–80,_88–89,_94-382">[373]</a> most attempts at reform between 1300 and 1500 failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson202115–17,_21-383">[374]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009378-384">[375]</a> In 1309, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a> fled Rome's factional politics by moving to <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> in southern France. This <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a>, consisting of seven popes, unintentionally diminished papal prestige and power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021109–110,_118–119-385">[376]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009375,_559,_561-386">[377]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" title="Pope Gregory XI">Pope Gregory XI</a> returned to Rome in 1377.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2009104-387">[378]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhalen201514-388">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021109–110-376">[368]</a> After Gregory's death the following year, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_conclave" title="Papal conclave">papal conclave</a> elected <a href="/wiki/Urban_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban VI">Urban VI</a> to succeed him, but the French cardinals disapproved and elected <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Geneva" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert of Geneva">Robert of Geneva</a> instead. This began the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a>, during which there was more than one pope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson1999348-389">[380]</a> In 1409, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Pisa" title="Council of Pisa">Council of Pisa</a>'s attempted resolution resulted in the election of a third separate pope. The schism was finally resolved in 1417, with the election of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998245–246-390">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann2005xv-391">[382]</a> Throughout the Late Middle Ages, the church faced powerful challenges and vigorous political confrontations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986526,_532,_538,_552-392">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20091,_7-393">[384]</a> The English scholastic philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (1320–1384) urged the Church to again embrace simplicity by giving up its property and wealth, to stop being subservient to secular politics, and to deny papal authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998247-394">[385]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-395">[386]</a> Wycliffe influenced the Czech theologian <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (1369–1415), who spoke out against what he saw as corruption in the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007175–198-396">[387]</a> Both Wycliffe and Hus were convicted of heresy and sentenced to death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-395">[386]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007151–198-397">[388]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] The teachings of Hus were the impetus for the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a> and led to the <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberkern20161–3-398">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007175–198-396">[387]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-395">[386]</a> Meanwhile, a religious culture called the <a href="/wiki/Devotio_Moderna" title="Devotio Moderna">Devotio Moderna</a> attempted to work toward a pious society of ordinary people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998246-399">[390]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_East_and_Renaissance">The East and Renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The East and Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> A proposed reunion agreement between the Orthodox and Catholic churches was negated by the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> to the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowley2018342–343-400">[391]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitromilides2006187-401">[392]</a> which sealed off Orthodoxy from the West for more than a century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitromilides2006187,_191-402">[393]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008173-403">[394]</a> Islamic law did not acknowledge the Byzantine church as an institution, but a concern for societal stability allowed it to survive. Financial handicaps nevertheless impoverished Christians and conversion became an attractive solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006171–181-404">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-405">[396]</a> By the time of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> (1520–1566), the patriarchate had become a part of the Ottoman system, and continued to influence the Orthodox world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006181,_184-406">[397]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-405">[396]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III of Russia</a> adopted the style of the Byzantine imperial court to gain support among the Rus' elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard20068–9-407">[398]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremias_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeremias II">Jeremias II</a> (1536–1595), the first Orthodox patriarch to visit north-eastern Europe, founded the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Orthodox Patriarchate of Russia</a> during his journey.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006185-408">[399]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-405">[396]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Michelangelo's famous sculpture the Pieta. Mary is seated looking at the body of her son draped across her lap." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg/220px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg/330px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg/440px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="1660" /></a><figcaption>Michelangelo's <a href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)">Pietà</a> (1498–1499) in <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a>, Vatican City</figcaption></figure> The flight of <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Eastern Christians from Constantinople</a>, and the manuscripts they carried with them, were important factors in stimulating literary renaissance in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2023-409">[400]</a> The Dutch scholar <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> (1466–1536) taught a simplified faith accessible to any Christian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998377–338-410">[401]</a> Although fifteenth-century popes struggled to reestablish papal authority, the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Renaissance Papacy</a> transformed Rome by rebuilding <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a> and establishing the city as a prestigious centre of learning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon20226,_9–10-411">[402]</a> The church became a leading patron of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">architecture</a>, commissioning many works and supporting renowned artists such as <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brunelleschi" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunelleschi">Brunelleschi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bramante" class="mw-redirect" title="Bramante">Bramante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fra_Angelico" title="Fra Angelico">Fra Angelico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998299,_308–319-412">[403]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHebron2022Heritage_and_Rupture_with_the_Tradition-413">[404]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inquisitions_and_discrimination">Inquisitions and discrimination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Inquisitions and discrimination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">Witch trials in the early modern period</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women in the Middle Ages</a> were considered incapable of moral judgment and authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20095-414">[405]</a><a href="#cite_note-416">[note 10]</a> However, there were women who became distinguished leaders of nunneries, exercising the same powers and privileges as their male counterparts, such as <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a> (d. 1179), <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Sch%C3%B6nau" title="Elisabeth of Schönau">Elisabeth of Schönau</a> (d. 1164/65), and <a href="/wiki/Marie_d%27Oignies" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie d'Oignies">Marie d'Oignies</a> (d. 1213).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons200996–97-417">[407]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarcia2004180-418">[408]</a> Although the Catholic Church had long ruled that <a href="/wiki/Witches" class="mw-redirect" title="Witches">witches</a> did not exist, the conviction that witches were both real and malevolent developed throughout fifteenth-century European society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwiatkowska201030-419">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevack20136-420">[410]</a> No single cause of "witch frenzy" is known, although the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> is thought to have been a factor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehringer201969–72-421">[411]</a> Approximately 100,000 people, of whom 80% were women, were prosecuted between 1561 and 1670, and 40,000 to 50,000 were executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonter2023-422">[412]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevack20136-420">[410]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expulsion_judios-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/330px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/495px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/660px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="8960" data-file-height="6672" /></a><figcaption>Expulsions of Jews from Europe between 1100 and 1600</figcaption></figure> While the medieval church never officially repudiated Augustine's doctrine of protecting the Jews, defining them as heretical outsiders became increasingly common throughout society during the fifteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeß201383-423">[413]</a> Local rulers repeatedly <a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">evicted Jews from their lands</a> and confiscated Jewish property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBejczy1997374_fn43,_368-424">[414]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1998396-425">[415]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacopo20162–3-426">[416]</a> Between 1478 and 1542, the Spanish, Portuguese, and Roman inquisitions were created with a much broader reach than previous inquisitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings20061–2-427">[417]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcocci20131–7-428">[418]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer20142–3-429">[419]</a> Authorized by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV" title="Pope Sixtus IV">Pope Sixtus IV</a> in 1478, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> was established to combat fears that Jewish converts were conspiring with Muslims to sabotage <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_Monarchy_(political_entity)" title="Hispanic Monarchy (political entity)">the new state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarverSlape2016210–212-430">[420]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernardiniFiering2001371-431">[421]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> incorporated anti-Judaism before the end of the fifteenth century and forced conversion led many Jewish converts to <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese colonies in India</a>, where they suffered as targets of the <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlannery201311-432">[422]</a> The bureaucratic and intellectual <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a>, best known for its condemnation of <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>, served the papacy's political aims in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer20142–3,_5-433">[423]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reformation">Reformation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reformation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Martin Luther" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/255px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/340px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="645" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Luther_95_Thesen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of a page listing Luther's 95 theses." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Luther_95_Thesen.png/170px-Luther_95_Thesen.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Luther_95_Thesen.png/255px-Luther_95_Thesen.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Luther_95_Thesen.png/340px-Luther_95_Thesen.png 2x" data-file-width="3228" data-file-height="4611" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">In 1517, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> initiated the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> with his <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a>.</div></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> is traditionally said to have begun when the Catholic monk <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> nailed his <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a> to the church door in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a> in 1517. Luther's theses challenged the church's selling of indulgences, the authority of the Pope, and other church teachings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon2017535–536,_553-434">[424]</a> The three primary traditions to emerge from the Reformation were the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> traditions. At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups including <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a>, Spiritualists, and <a href="/wiki/Theistic_rationalism" title="Theistic rationalism">Evangelical Rationalists</a>, began the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a> in Germany and Switzerland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1995xxx–xxix-435">[425]</a> Edicts of the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a> condemned Luther.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFahlbuschBromiley2003362-436">[426]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199928-437">[427]</a> The Roman Catholic Church responded to his challenge in the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, spearheaded by ten reforming popes between 1534 to 1605. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of modern Catholic policies. New monastic orders were formed, including the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> – the "Jesuits" – who adopted military-style discipline and strict loyalty to the Pope and who soon became the chief weapon against Protestantism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998329,_335–336-438">[428]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-441">[note 11]</a> Quarreling royal houses, already involved in dynastic disagreements, became polarized into the two religious camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998329–331-442">[431]</a> In 1562, France became the centre of <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">a series of wars</a>, of which the largest and most destructive was the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink20163-443">[432]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2023-444">[433]</a> While some scholars argue that these wars were varieties of the <a href="/wiki/Just_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Just war">just war</a> tradition for liberty and freedom,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink201610-445">[434]</a> most historians argue that the wars were more about nationalistic state-building and economics, and less about religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2014481-446">[435]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink20163,_6-447">[436]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2023-444">[433]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_period_(1650–1945)">Modern period (1650–1945)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Modern period (1650–1945)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ideological_movements">Ideological movements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ideological movements">edit</a>]</div> The era of <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">politically absolutist</a> states followed the breakdown of Christian universalism in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet2015141-448">[437]</a> Abuses from absolutist Catholic kings gave rise to a virulent critique of Christianity that first emerged among the more extreme Protestant reformers in the 1680s as an aspect of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob2006265–268,_270-449">[438]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAston200613–15-450">[439]</a> By the 1690s, many secular thinkers had rethought the state's reasons for persecution and begun advocating for religious toleration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson199764-451">[440]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMout2007227–233,_242-452">[441]</a> as Protestants and other Christian moderates had long argued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffey1998961-453">[442]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffey201412-454">[443]</a> Secularisation spread at every level of European society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob2006272–273,_279-455">[444]</a> Concepts of freedom of religion, speech, and thought became established in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMout2007225–243-456">[445]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplan2009119-457">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranck1997594–595-458">[447]</a> The rise of Protestantism contributed to <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> formation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoppartFalkingerGrossmann2014874–895-459">[448]</a> the development of <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">a new work ethic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchalteggerTorgler201099–101-460">[449]</a> economic growth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpaterTranvik20191963–1994-461">[450]</a> the European state system,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin2016-462">[451]</a> and the development of modern <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> in Northern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeberKalberg2012xi,_xxviii–xxxvi,_xl,_3–5,_103–126-463">[452]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> created a plethora of new social problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkocpolTrimberger1977101–104-464">[453]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20064–5-465">[454]</a> In Europe and North America, both Protestants and Catholics provided massive aid to the poor, supporting family welfare, and providing medicine and education.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20065-466">[455]</a> Pioneered by Protestants, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a> advocated historicism and rationalism to make study of the Bible more scholarly and secular in the 1700s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw20128,_224-467">[456]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaird1992118,_201-468">[457]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20063-469">[458]</a> In reaction to rationalism, the growth of <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> contributed to the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> between the 1730s and the 1770s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2006329,_347-470">[459]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2014b19-471">[460]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValkenburgh1994172-472">[461]</a> Beginning among the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a>, this movement created <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism_in_the_United_States" title="Evangelicalism in the United States">American Evangelicalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_theology" title="Wesleyan theology">Wesleyan Methodism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesWhite2012xi,_xv-473">[462]</a> Divisions over the movement turned political and eventually led to support for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeimert20062-474">[463]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarty2006524-475">[464]</a> In 1791, the new United States became the first Christian nation to mandate a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>, and so theological pluralism became the norm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20068-476">[465]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2006347-477">[466]</a> The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> led to a 1794 attempt by radical revolutionaries to violently <a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">de-Christianize France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyleHightower200310-478">[467]</a> As a result, the Eastern Orthodox church rejected Enlightenment ideas as too dangerous to embrace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-405">[396]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonialism_and_missions">Colonialism and missions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Colonialism and missions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_colonialism" title="Christianity and colonialism">Christianity and colonialism</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea" title="Christianity in Korea">Christianity in Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Vietnam" title="Christianity in Vietnam">Christianity in Vietnam</a></div> Economic and political <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> also opened the door for Christianity in new regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowellMagdoffWebster2022-479">[468]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-480">[469]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1952152-481">[470]</a> While Christian missionaries and colonial empires had separate agendas that were often in direct opposition, Catholic Christianity gained followers worldwide through missionaries from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French</a> empires between 1500 and 1800.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-480">[469]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert2009105-482">[471]</a> Many missionaries worked alongside colonial governments, while many others challenged colonial oppression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007134-483">[472]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-484">[473]</a> Sixteenth-century missions to China were undertaken primarily by the Jesuits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonald201531-485">[474]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_Japan" title="History of the Catholic Church in Japan">sixteenth-century success of Christianity in Japan</a> was followed by one of the greatest persecutions in Christian history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonald201531-485">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins200814–15-486">[475]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries">Nineteenth and twentieth centuries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nineteenth and twentieth centuries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavery19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="example of an anti-slavery tract concerning the separation of black families" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Slavery19.jpg/220px-Slavery19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Slavery19.jpg/330px-Slavery19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Slavery19.jpg/440px-Slavery19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>American anti-slavery tract, 1853</figcaption></figure> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> (1800s–1830s) – which produced the <a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restoration Movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a> – extolled moral reform,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECairns201526-487">[476]</a> focusing on <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance</a>, literacy and <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">the abolition of slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMastersYoung2022abstract-488">[477]</a> The 300-year-old <a href="/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Atlantic slave trade">trans-Atlantic slave trade</a>, in which some Christians had participated, had always garnered moral objections: by the eighteenth century, individual <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a>, Presbyterians and <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> began a written campaign against it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006517–524-489">[478]</a> Congregations led by black preachers kept abolitionism alive into the early nineteenth century when some American Protestants organized the first <a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Slavery_Society" title="American Anti-Slavery Society">anti-slavery societies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006525–530-490">[479]</a> This ideological opposition eventually ended the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, changing economic and human history on three continents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEltis1987chapter_13-491">[480]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006525–526-492">[481]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a> began in 1857 and took root throughout the world, especially in English-speaking countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECairns201526-487">[476]</a> <a href="/wiki/Restorationists" class="mw-redirect" title="Restorationists">Restorationists</a> were prevalent in America, giving rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, <a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes2004635-493">[482]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMannionMudge2008217-494">[483]</a> Protestant missionaries, many of them women, played a significant role in shaping nations and societies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20062-495">[484]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert20091-496">[485]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzalez2010302-497">[486]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20065-466">[455]</a> Missionaries translated the Bible into local languages, generating in the process a written <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> of native traditions, and a <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> of the local language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007xx-498">[487]</a> These were used to teach in missionary schools, resulting in the spread of literacy and <a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">indigenization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETáíwò201068–70-499">[488]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2016279,_285-500">[489]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei19959-501">[490]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Lamin_Sanneh" title="Lamin Sanneh">Lamin Sanneh</a>, Protestant missionaries thus stimulated the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal" in African history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2016xx-502">[491]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-484">[473]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_JuanPierskalla2017161-503">[492]</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Christians">Liberal Christians</a> embraced seventeenth-century rationalism, but its disregard of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity, led to its decline and the birth of <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist Christianity">Fundamentalist Christianity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobson20131,_3–4-504">[493]</a> which arose in the late 1800s and early 1900s as a reaction against <a href="/wiki/Modernist_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist Christianity">modern rationalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202013-505">[494]</a> The Roman Catholic Church became increasingly centralized, conservative, and focused on loyalty to the Pope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20063-469">[458]</a> By 1930, Protestant fundamentalism appeared to be dying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202014,_18-506">[495]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199822-507">[496]</a> However, in the second half of the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a>, which included a theology against liberalism based on a reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202019-508">[497]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199842,_57-509">[498]</a> In the early twentieth century, authoritarian European governments tended to establish state-supported churches. Such consanguinity would implicate the church in abuses of power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20067–8-510">[499]</a> Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a> declared that <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with totalitarian fascist states which placed the nation above God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes1981116-511">[500]</a> Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the <a href="/wiki/German_Evangelical_Church" title="German Evangelical Church">German Evangelical Church</a>, supported the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> when they came to power in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museun.d.-512">[501]</a> About a third of German Protestants formed the <a href="/wiki/Confessing_Church" title="Confessing Church">Confessing Church</a> which opposed Nazism; its members were harassed, arrested, and otherwise targeted. In Poland, Catholic priests were arrested and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_persecution_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_Poland" title="Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland">Polish priests and nuns were executed</a> en masse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossino200372,_169,_185,_285-513">[502]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Orthodoxy">Russian Orthodoxy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Russian Orthodoxy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of "Cathedral of Christ the Savior" in Moscow turning to dust as it collapses on the orders of Joseph Stalin in 1931.[503]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/220px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/330px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/440px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Demolition of the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a> in Moscow on the orders of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, 5 December 1931, consistent with the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a> in the USSR</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Church_reform_of_Peter_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Church reform of Peter I">Church reform of Peter I</a> in the early 1700s had placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a> who involved the church in various campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">russification</a> which contributed to antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShlikhta2004361–273-515">[504]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlierLambroza2004306-516">[505]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">communist revolutionaries</a> who established the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> saw the Church as an <a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemy of the people</a> and part of the tsarist state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouteneff1998vi–1-517">[506]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan2006-518">[507]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalciu-Dumitreasa19835–8-519">[508]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEidintas200123-520">[509]</a> The communist Soviet Union heavily persecuted the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008178-521">[510]</a> executing up to 8,000 people by 1922.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995356-522">[511]</a> The <a href="/wiki/League_of_Militant_Atheists" title="League of Militant Atheists">League of Militant Atheists</a> adopted a five-year plan in 1932 "aimed at the total eradication of religion by 1937".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalters200515-523">[512]</a> Despite this, the Orthodox Church continued to contribute to theology and culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008177–178-524">[513]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_World_War_II">After World War II</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: After World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_Christianity" title="World Christianity">World Christianity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of worldwide Christianity in 2011" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg/220px-Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg/330px-Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg/440px-Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="261" /></a><figcaption>Christian distribution globally based on PEW research in 2011<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEW_Research_Center2022-525">[514]</a></figcaption></figure> Before 1945, about a third of the people in the world were Christians, and about 80% of them lived in Europe, Russia, and the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061-526">[515]</a> After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role in many colonial societies, moving them toward independence through <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFontaine20166–8-527">[516]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007285-528">[517]</a> By 2000, the percentage of Christians living in Asia and Africa had risen to 32 percent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061-526">[515]</a><a href="#cite_note-543">[note 12]</a> In the first quarter of the twenty-first century, most Christians live outside North America and Western Europe, white Christians are a global minority, and slightly over half of worldwide Christians are female.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFord2013429-544">[532]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEW_global2020-545">[533]</a> It is the world's largest religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers constituting around 31.2% of the world's population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-480">[469]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20068-476">[465]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Center2017-546">[534]</a> In 2000, approximately one-quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess2006xiii-547">[535]</a> By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide making it the largest branch of Protestantism and the fastest-growing religious movement in worldwide Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeininger20141–2,_5-548">[536]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20064-549">[537]</a> Traditional Christianity faced multiple challenges in the twentieth century leading to a decline in church attendance in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20062,_7–8-550">[538]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFahmy2022section_1-551">[539]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061,_3-552">[540]</a> The challenges of secularism, and the changing moral climate concerning sexual ethics, gender, and exclusivity produced a demand for greater individual freedom. "New Age" spirituality formed. It is private, individualistic, embraces the sacred as a deeper understanding of the self, and differs radically from Christian tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20062,_7–8-550">[538]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007315,_317-553">[541]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer-Fernandes1991511–512-554">[542]</a> Hugh McLeod writes that political criticisms concerning power have had an even wider impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612-555">[543]</a> Highly authoritarian and totalitarian governments have brought about crises and decline in many areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061,_7–8-556">[544]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-484">[473]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007305-557">[545]</a> The world's first Marxist super-power, and other communist governments, pursued anti-religious policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20067–8-510">[499]</a> In 2013, 17 Muslim majority states reported discrimination against religious minorities, including Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2013abstract-558">[546]</a> Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen_Jr.2016x–xi-559">[547]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franciscus_in_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Pope Francis in 2015" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Franciscus_in_2015.jpg/180px-Franciscus_in_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Franciscus_in_2015.jpg/270px-Franciscus_in_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Franciscus_in_2015.jpg/360px-Franciscus_in_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1086" data-file-height="1598" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Commonality and unity between Protestants and Catholics</a> made little progress until 11 October 1962, when <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> opened the <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Collins201416–23-560">[548]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069-561">[549]</a> Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches, however there is no agreement amongst evangelicals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinnici201222-562">[550]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassidy2005106,_544-563">[551]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPintarić2014abstract-564">[552]</a> Since then, the ecumenical movement has stalled, however there is also a trend at the local level toward discussion, pulpit exchanges, and shared social action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsprey20083-565">[553]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069-561">[549]</a> In Hugh MacLeod's view, "A liberal Catholic is likely to have a lot in common with a liberal Methodist," and the influence of the internet will probably increase this unofficial ecumenism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200610,_14-566">[554]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theological_revolution">Theological revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Theological revolution">edit</a>]</div> For theologians writing after 1945, theology depended on the context of those applying it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpoensky20045-567">[555]</a> The multiple wars of the twentieth century brought questions of <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a> to the forefront.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200611-568">[556]</a> For the first time since the pre-Constantinian era, <a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Christian pacifism</a> became an alternative to war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612-555">[543]</a> The Holocaust forced many to realize supersessionism can underlie hatred, ethnocentrism, and racism. Supersessionist texts are increasingly challenged in the twenty first century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevine20226-569">[557]</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a> combined with the <a href="/wiki/Social_gospel" class="mw-redirect" title="Social gospel">social gospel</a> to redefine <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> and expose institutionalized sin to aid Latin American poor, but it was limited by its context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins201724–28-570">[558]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERauschenbusch19175-571">[559]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWogaman2011325-572">[560]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoppRegan2013469-573">[561]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpoensky20045-567">[555]</a> Different historical and socio-political situations produced <a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">black theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a>. Combining Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims produced a black theology that spread to the United Kingdom, parts of Africa, and confronted apartheid in South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkanji2010177–178-574">[562]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200613-575">[563]</a> The feminist movement of the mid-twentieth century began with an anti-Christian ethos but soon developed an influential feminist theology dedicated to transforming churches and society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995abstract-576">[564]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuers2013431-577">[565]</a> Feminist theology developed at the local level as <a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">womanist theology</a> of African-American women, the <a href="/wiki/Ada_Maria_Isasi-Diaz" title="Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz">"mujerista" theology</a> of Hispanic women, and <a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian feminist theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995327-578">[566]</a> In the mid to late 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_theology" title="Postcolonial theology">postcolonial theology</a> emerged globally from multiple sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20074–5-579">[567]</a> It analyzes structures of power and ideology to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20076,_11-580">[568]</a> The missionary movement of the twenty-first century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network of <a href="/wiki/NGO%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO's">NGO's</a>, short-term amateur volunteers, and traditional long-term bilingual, bicultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing' native people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert200973-581">[569]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20053–4-582">[570]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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history </th></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"> <td colspan="11" style="padding:0;display:none"> <table style="margin:0; border-spacing:0; border-collapse:collapse;width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td style="border-left:#aaa 1px solid; border-right:#aaa 1px solid"> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">BC</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">C1</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">C2</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">C3</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">C4</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">C5</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">C6</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">C7</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">C8</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">C9</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">C10</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">C11</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">C12</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">C13</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">C14</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">C15</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">C16</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">C17</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">C18</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">C19</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">C20</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">C21</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Ross Kraemer theorizes that the ascetic life was attractive to large numbers of women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraemer1980298,_300–301,_306–307-64">[64]</a> Monasticism was one area of antique life that gave women some control over their destinies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308-65">[65]</a> It offered an escape from marriage and motherhood and offered an intellectual life with access to social and economic power that would otherwise have eluded them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastelli2004251-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilnor2011abstract-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308-65">[65]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Popular support for the polytheistic religions had been declining since the second century BC and continued to decline throughout Late Antiquity. This is likely a result of economic factors such as the decline of urbanism and prosperity during the economic crisis of the third century. Further economic disruption occurred during <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">the chaotic migrations of Germanic peoples</a> in the fourth and fifth centuries. Such disruption made fewer public funds and private donations available to support expensive pagan festivals and temples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998641-109">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201510,_17,_42,_50-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2015685-111">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> In North Africa during the reign of Constantine, <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a> formed as a schism. Donatists refused, sometimes violently, to accept back into the Church those who had handed over sacred texts during Diocletian's persecution. After many appeals, the empire responded with force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETilley2006389-160">[158]</a> In 408 in his Letter 93, <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> defended the government's action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETilley2006389-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrend2020172,_173,_222,_241-161">[159]</a> Augustine's authority on the use of coercion for conversion was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity, and according to Peter Brown, "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1964107–116-162">[160]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Coptic</a> missionaries spread <a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">miaphysite</a> up the Nile through <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorfmann-Lazarev200866–67-200">[197]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service, satisfied their material needs, determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions, and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199115-247">[243]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> During this same period, the monk <a href="/wiki/Guido_of_Arezzo" title="Guido of Arezzo">Guido of Arezzo</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Music_staff" class="mw-redirect" title="Music staff">music staff</a> of lines and spaces and named musical notes making modern music possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallBattaniNeitz2004100-273">[268]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">parish</a> emerged as one of the fundamental institutions of medieval Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20092–3-282">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986542-283">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatter2008530-281">[275]</a> After the eleventh century, education began at home then continued in the parish of one's birth instead of in the monastery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20093-284">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantor196050,_52-285">[279]</a> The parish priest (secular clergy) celebrated the liturgy, visited the sick, instructed the young, gave aid to the poor, ministered to the dying, and monitored and maintained his parish's income from land, livestock, rents and tithes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20093-284">[278]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, and the empowerment of their own nascent church and state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirlej2021–2022121-369">[362]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> Some claimed the clergy did little to help the suffering, although the high mortality rate amongst clerics indicates many continued to care for the sick. Other medieval folk claimed it was the "corrupted" and "vice-ridden" clergy that had caused the many calamities they believed were punishments from God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021114–115-379">[371]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-416"><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a> Women had no access to education within institutions associated with the church, such as cathedral schools and most universities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20095-414">[405]</a> The boundary between men and women was absolute in clerical matters. The church often used the participation of women to demonize a heretical movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeß201384-415">[406]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> Monastic reform also led to developments within orthodox spirituality, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_mystics" title="Spanish mystics">Spanish mystics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_school_of_spirituality" title="French school of spirituality">French school of spirituality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2004404-439">[429]</a> The Counter-Reformation also created the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Uniate church</a> which used Eastern liturgy but recognized Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175–176-440">[430]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-543"><a href="#cite_ref-543">^</a> In 1900, under colonial rule, there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa. By 1960, and the end of colonialism, there were about 60 million. By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half of the continent's total population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007xx-498">[487]</a> Population in Africa has continued to grow with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEW_Research_Center2022-525">[514]</a> This expansion has been labeled a "fourth great age of Christian expansion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofchristi0000isicpagen13mode2up_1]-529">[518]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Examples include Simon Kimbangu's movement, the <a href="/wiki/Kimbanguism" title="Kimbanguism">Kimbanguist church</a>, which had a radical reputation in its early days in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo</a>, was suppressed for forty years, and has now become the largest independent church in Africa with upwards of 3 million members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernandez1979284,_285-530">[519]</a> In 2019, 65% of <a href="/wiki/Melillans" class="mw-redirect" title="Melillans">Melillans</a> in Northern Africa across from Spain identified themselves as Roman Catholic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonce_HerreroMartí_Ciriquián2019101–124-531">[520]</a> In the early twenty-first century, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> has the largest yearly meeting of <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> outside the United States. In <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, more <a href="/wiki/Anglicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicans">Anglicans</a> attend church than do so in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. Ahafo, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> is recognized as more vigorously Christian than any place in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei19951-532">[521]</a> There is revival in East Africa, and vigorous women's movements called Rukwadzano in <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and Manyano in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Apostles_of_Johane_Maranke" title="Apostles of Johane Maranke">The Apostles of John Maranke</a>, which began in Rhodesia, now have branches in seven countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei19952-533">[522]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Christianity has grown rapidly in China and the rest of Southeast Asia, especially Korea, where it grew faster after colonialism ended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins201189–90-534">[523]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZurlo20203–9-535">[524]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20066-536">[525]</a> A rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingapore_Management_University2017-537">[526]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonTang20052-538">[527]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations" title="Council on Foreign Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a> data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979. Increasingly, this includes young people more than any other group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoo201927_fn.7-539">[528]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert2018Introduction-540">[529]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmerica_magazine2018-541">[530]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>After the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, Christianity grew and expanded in Eastern Europe and Russia while at the same time, it spread in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Africa" title="Christianity in Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Asia" title="Christianity in Asia">Asia</a>, shifting Christianity's population center east and south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-480">[469]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061,_8-542">[531]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=30" 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007315,_317_553-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoutmanAupers2007">Houtman & Aupers 2007</a>, pp. 315, 317. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer-Fernandes1991511–512-554"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer-Fernandes1991511–512_554-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer-Fernandes1991">Palmer-Fernandes 1991</a>, pp. 511–512. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612-555">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612_555-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612_555-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2006">McLeod 2006</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061,_7–8-556"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061,_7–8_556-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2006">McLeod 2006</a>, pp. 1, 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007305-557"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007305_557-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoutmanAupers2007">Houtman & Aupers 2007</a>, p. 305. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2013abstract-558"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2013abstract_558-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFox2013">Fox 2013</a>, abstract. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen_Jr.2016x–xi-559"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen_Jr.2016x–xi_559-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen_Jr.2016">Allen Jr. 2016</a>, pp. x–xi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Collins201416–23-560"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Collins201416–23_560-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Collins2014">O'Collins 2014</a>, pp. 16–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069-561">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069_561-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069_561-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2006">McLeod 2006</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinnici201222-562"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChinnici201222_562-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChinnici2012">Chinnici 2012</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECassidy2005106,_544-563"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassidy2005106,_544_563-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCassidy2005">Cassidy 2005</a>, pp. 106, 544. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPintarić2014abstract-564"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPintarić2014abstract_564-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPintarić2014">Pintarić 2014</a>, abstract. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsprey20083-565"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsprey20083_565-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAsprey2008">Asprey 2008</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200610,_14-566"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200610,_14_566-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2006">McLeod 2006</a>, pp. 10, 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpoensky20045-567">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOpoensky20045_567-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOpoensky20045_567-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOpoensky2004">Opoensky 2004</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200611-568"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200611_568-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2006">McLeod 2006</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevine20226-569"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevine20226_569-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevine2022">Levine 2022</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins201724–28-570"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkins201724–28_570-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkins2017">Wilkins 2017</a>, pp. 24–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERauschenbusch19175-571"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERauschenbusch19175_571-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRauschenbusch1917">Rauschenbusch 1917</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWogaman2011325-572"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWogaman2011325_572-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWogaman2011">Wogaman 2011</a>, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoppRegan2013469-573"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoppRegan2013469_573-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoppRegan2013">Chopp & Regan 2013</a>, p. 469. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkanji2010177–178-574"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkanji2010177–178_574-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAkanji2010">Akanji 2010</a>, pp. 177–178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200613-575"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200613_575-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLeod2006">McLeod 2006</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995abstract-576"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995abstract_576-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHilkert1995">Hilkert 1995</a>, abstract. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuers2013431-577"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuers2013431_577-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuers2013">Muers 2013</a>, p. 431. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995327-578"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995327_578-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHilkert1995">Hilkert 1995</a>, p. 327. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20074–5-579"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20074–5_579-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSegoviaMoore2007">Segovia & Moore 2007</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20076,_11-580"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20076,_11_580-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSegoviaMoore2007">Segovia & Moore 2007</a>, pp. 6, 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert200973-581"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobert200973_581-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobert2009">Robert 2009</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20053–4-582"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper20053–4_582-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCooper2005">Cooper 2005</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_&_periodicals">Books & periodicals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Books & periodicals">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbrams2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Abrams" title="Lesley Abrams">Abrams, Lesley</a> (2016). "The conversion of the Danelaw". Vikings and the Danelaw: Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, Nottingham and York, 21-30 August 1997 (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 31–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78570-453-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78570-453-6"><bdi>978-1-78570-453-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1kw29nj.7">j.ctt1kw29nj.7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+conversion+of+the+Danelaw&rft.btitle=Vikings+and+the+Danelaw%3A+Select+Papers+from+the+Proceedings+of+the+Thirteenth+Viking+Congress%2C+Nottingham+and+York%2C+21-30+August+1997&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxbow&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1kw29nj.7%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-78570-453-6&rft.aulast=Abrams&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbulafia2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anna_Abulafia" title="Anna Abulafia">Abulafia, Anna Sapir</a> (2002). "Introduction". In Abulafia, Anna Sapir (ed.). Religious Violence Between Christians and Jews: Medieval Roots, Modern Perspectives. Palgrave. pp. xi–xviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-42499-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-42499-3"><bdi>978-1-349-42499-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Religious+Violence+Between+Christians+and+Jews%3A+Medieval+Roots%2C+Modern+Perspectives&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Exi-%3C%2Fspan%3Exviii&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-349-42499-3&rft.aulast=Abulafia&rft.aufirst=Anna+Sapir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAguilera-Barchet2015" class="citation book cs1">Aguilera-Barchet, Bruno (2015). "Popes vs. Emperors: The Rise and Fall of Papal Power". A History of Western Public Law. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-11803-1">10.1007/978-3-319-11803-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-11802-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-11802-4"><bdi>978-3-319-11802-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Popes+vs.+Emperors%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Papal+Power&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Public+Law&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-11803-1&rft.isbn=978-3-319-11802-4&rft.aulast=Aguilera-Barchet&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgosti2015" class="citation book cs1">Agosti, Gianfranco (2015). "Greek poetry". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 361–404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027753-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027753-6"><bdi>978-0-19-027753-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greek+poetry&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E361-%3C%2Fspan%3E404&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft.aulast=Agosti&rft.aufirst=Gianfranco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkanji2010" class="citation book cs1">Akanji, Israel (2010). "Black Theology". In <a href="/wiki/Abiola_Irele" title="Abiola Irele">Irele, Abiola</a> (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533473-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533473-9"><bdi>978-0-19-533473-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+Theology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+African+Thought&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533473-9&rft.aulast=Akanji&rft.aufirst=Israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert2018" class="citation web cs1">Albert, Eleanor (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/christianity-china">"Christianity in China"</a>. Council on Foreign Relations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210707164822/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/christianity-china">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Council+on+Foreign+Relations&rft.atitle=Christianity+in+China&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cfr.org%2Fbackgrounder%2Fchristianity-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen_Jr.2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Allen_Jr." title="John L. Allen Jr.">Allen Jr., John L.</a> (2016). The Global War on Christians: Dispatches from the Front Lines of Anti-Christian Persecution. Crown Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7704-3737-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7704-3737-4"><bdi>978-0-7704-3737-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+War+on+Christians%3A+Dispatches+from+the+Front+Lines+of+Anti-Christian+Persecution&rft.pub=Crown+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7704-3737-4&rft.aulast=Allen+Jr.&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlthoff2019b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerd_Althoff" title="Gerd Althoff">Althoff, Gerd</a> (2019). "Communicating Papal Primacy: the Impact of Gregory VII's Ideas (11th–13th Century)". Rules and Rituals in Medieval Power Games. Brill. pp. 189–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004415317_015">10.1163/9789004415317_015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00441-531-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-00441-531-7"><bdi>978-9-00441-531-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211661394">211661394</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Communicating+Papal+Primacy%3A+the+Impact+of+Gregory+VII%27s+Ideas+%2811th%E2%80%9313th+Century%29&rft.btitle=Rules+and+Rituals+in+Medieval+Power+Games&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E202&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211661394%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004415317_015&rft.isbn=978-9-00441-531-7&rft.aulast=Althoff&rft.aufirst=Gerd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmes2009" class="citation book cs1">Ames, Christine Caldwell (2009). Righteous Persecution: Inquisition, Dominicans, and Christianity in the Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4133-4"><bdi>978-0-8122-4133-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Righteous+Persecution%3A+Inquisition%2C+Dominicans%2C+and+Christianity+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4133-4&rft.aulast=Ames&rft.aufirst=Christine+Caldwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonTang2005" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmund (2005). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. Oxford Centre for Mission Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-870345-43-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-870345-43-9"><bdi>978-1-870345-43-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+and+Pentecostal%3A+The+Charismatic+Face+of+Christianity+in+Asia&rft.pub=Oxford+Centre+for+Mission+Studies&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-870345-43-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft.au=Tang%2C+Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_H._Arnold_(historian)" title="John H. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521816052.003">10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05412-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05412-6"><bdi>978-1-139-05412-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Continental+Catholic+Europe&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521816052.003&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05412-6&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachrach1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bachrach" title="Bernard Bachrach">Bachrach, Bernard S.</a> (1977). Early medieval Jewish policy in Western Europe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0814-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0814-0"><bdi>978-0-8166-0814-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+medieval+Jewish+policy+in+Western+Europe&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-0814-0&rft.aulast=Bachrach&rft.aufirst=Bernard+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1992" class="citation book cs1">Baird, William (1992). History of New Testament Research, Volume One: From Deism to Tübingen. 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Holy Writings, Sacred Text: The Canon in Early Christianity (Repr. ed.). Westminster John Knox. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25778-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25778-1"><bdi>978-0-664-25778-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holy+Writings%2C+Sacred+Text%3A+The+Canon+in+Early+Christianity&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25778-1&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_F._Barton" title="Simon F. 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"Genres of Ethiopian-Eritrean Christian Literature with a Focus on Hagiography". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gddyAEACAAJ">A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea</a>. Brill. pp. 252–281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41943-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41943-8"><bdi>978-90-04-41943-8</bdi></a>. 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The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-026653-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-026653-5"><bdi>978-0-14-026653-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northern+Crusades&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-14-026653-5&rft.aulast=Christiansen&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCloke1995" class="citation book cs1">Cloke, Gillian (1995). This Female Man of God: Women and Spiritual Power in the Patristic Age, 350–450 AD. 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Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88442-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88442-2"><bdi>978-1-317-88442-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persecution+and+Toleration+in+Protestant+England+1558%E2%80%931689&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-88442-2&rft.aulast=Coffey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1998" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Jeremy (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36098249">"'Slay Them Not': Augustine and the Jews in Modern Scholarship"</a>. Medieval Encounters. 4 (1). E. 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Genocide and Resistance Research Center of Lithuania. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9986-757-41-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9986-757-41-2"><bdi>978-9986-757-41-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=President+of+Lithuania%3A+Prisoner+of+the+Gulag%3A+a+Biography+of+Aleksandras+Stulginskis&rft.pub=Genocide+and+Resistance+Research+Center+of+Lithuania&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-9986-757-41-2&rft.aulast=Eidintas&rft.aufirst=Alfonsas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY4q0AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltis1987" class="citation book cs1">Eltis, David (1987). 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London: Profile. pp. 7–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-744-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-744-1"><bdi>978-1-86197-744-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heretic+Lives%3A+Medieval+Heresy+from+Bogomil+and+the+Cathars+to+Wyclif+and+Hus&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E198&rft.pub=Profile&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-86197-744-1&rft.aulast=Frassetto&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3C4lAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrend2020" class="citation book cs1">Frend, W. H. C. 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There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24104-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24104-6"><bdi>978-0-520-24104-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=There+Is+No+Crime+for+Those+Who+Have+Christ%3A+Religious+Violence+in+the+Christian+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24104-6&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcia2004" class="citation journal cs1">Garcia, Cheryl Crozier (2004). 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New York: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-56087-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-56087-7"><bdi>978-0-395-56087-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Worlds&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-395-56087-7&rft.aulast=Gerberding&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Moran+Cruz%2C+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerdmar2009" class="citation book cs1">Gerdmar, Anders (2009). Roots of Theological Anti-Semitism German Biblical Interpretation and the Jews, from Herder and Semler to Kittel and Bultmann. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16851-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16851-0"><bdi>978-90-04-16851-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roots+of+Theological+Anti-Semitism+German+Biblical+Interpretation+and+the+Jews%2C+from+Herder+and+Semler+to+Kittel+and+Bultmann&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16851-0&rft.aulast=Gerdmar&rft.aufirst=Anders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilley2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Sheridan_Gilley" title="Sheridan Gilley">Gilley, Sheridan</a> (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 8: World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81456-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81456-0"><bdi>978-0-521-81456-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81456-0&rft.aulast=Gilley&rft.aufirst=Sheridan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiven2001" class="citation book cs1">Given, James Buchanan (2001). Inquisition and Medieval Society: Power, Discipline, and Resistance in Languedoc (Illustrated ed.). Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8759-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8759-0"><bdi>978-0-8014-8759-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inquisition+and+Medieval+Society%3A+Power%2C+Discipline%2C+and+Resistance+in+Languedoc&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8759-0&rft.aulast=Given&rft.aufirst=James+Buchanan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzalez2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Justo_L._Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Justo L. González">Gonzalez, Justo L.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=98cou2YIuUIC">The Story of Christianity</a>. Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-185589-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-185589-4"><bdi>978-0-06-185589-4</bdi></a>. 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London: A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-03250-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-03250-8"><bdi>978-0-567-03250-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+The+First+Three+Centuries&rft.place=London&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-567-03250-8&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2023" class="citation book cs1">Grzymała-Busse, Anna M. (2023). Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State (Illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24513-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-24513-3"><bdi>978-0-691-24513-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Foundations%3A+The+Religious+and+Medieval+Roots+of+the+European+State&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-691-24513-3&rft.aulast=Grzyma%C5%82a-Busse&rft.aufirst=Anna+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy2011" class="citation book cs1">Guy, Laurie (2011). Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs Practices. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028074-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-028074-1"><bdi>978-0-19-028074-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patron+Saint+and+Prophet%3A+Jan+Hus+in+the+Bohemian+and+German+Reformations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-028074-1&rft.aulast=Haberkern&rft.aufirst=Phillip+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaight2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Haight" title="Roger Haight">Haight, Roger D.</a> (2004). Christian Community in History. Vol. 1: Historical Ecclesiology. New York: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8"><bdi>978-0-8264-1630-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Community+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-1630-8&rft.aulast=Haight&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallBattaniNeitz2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Hall_(author)" title="John R. Hall (author)">Hall, John R.</a>; Battani, Marshall; Neitz, Mary Jo (2004). Sociology On Culture. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-45237-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-45237-8"><bdi>978-1-134-45237-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology+On+Culture&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-134-45237-8&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft.au=Battani%2C+Marshall&rft.au=Neitz%2C+Mary+Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton2003" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Bernard (2003). The Christian world of the Middle Ages. Sutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0750924055" title="Special:BookSources/0750924055"><bdi>0750924055</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+world+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Sutton&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0750924055&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarnett2017" class="citation journal cs1">Harnett, Benjamin (2017). "The Diffusion of the Codex". <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity_(journal)" title="Classical Antiquity (journal)">Classical Antiquity</a>. 36 (2). University of California Press: 183–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fca.2017.36.2.183">10.1525/ca.2017.36.2.183</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26362608">26362608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Diffusion+of+the+Codex&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E235&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fca.2017.36.2.183&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26362608%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harnett&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarney2017" class="citation journal cs1">Harney, Lorcan (2017). "Christianising Pagan Worlds in Conversion-Era Ireland: Archaeological Evidence for the Origins of Irish Ecclesiastical Sites". <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Irish_Academy:_Archaeology,_Culture,_History,_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature">Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature</a>. 117C: 103–130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3318%2Fpriac.2017.117.07">10.3318/priac.2017.117.07</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Irish+Academy%3A+Archaeology%2C+Culture%2C+History%2C+Literature&rft.atitle=Christianising+Pagan+Worlds+in+Conversion-Era+Ireland%3A+Archaeological+Evidence+for+the+Origins+of+Irish+Ecclesiastical+Sites&rft.volume=117C&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E103-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3318%2Fpriac.2017.117.07&rft.aulast=Harney&rft.aufirst=Lorcan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2015" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Kyle (2015). 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 351–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812399.021">10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81239-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81239-9"><bdi>978-0-521-81239-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria+and+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E351-%3C%2Fspan%3E365&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812399.021&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81239-9&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Susan+Ashbrook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskins1971" class="citation book cs1">Haskins, Charles Homer (1971). 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Reinventing Liberal Christianity. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6840-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6840-4"><bdi>978-0-8028-6840-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reinventing+Liberal+Christianity&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-6840-4&rft.aulast=Hobson&rft.aufirst=Theo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes1981" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, J. Derek (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k24JAAAAIAAJ">The Papacy in the Modern World, 1914–1978</a>. 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Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10722-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10722-9"><bdi>978-90-04-10722-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wayward+Monks+and+the+Religious+Revolution+of+the+Eleventh+Century&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10722-9&rft.aulast=Jestice&rft.aufirst=Phyllis+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesWhite2012" class="citation book cs1">Jones, David Ceri; White, Eryn Mant (2012). The Elect Methodists: Calvinistic Methodism in England and Wales, 1735–1811. University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-2502-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-2502-5"><bdi>978-0-7083-2502-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elect+Methodists%3A+Calvinistic+Methodism+in+England+and+Wales%2C+1735%E2%80%931811&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-2502-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=David+Ceri&rft.au=White%2C+Eryn+Mant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudge2010" class="citation book cs1">Judge, E. A. (2010). Nobbs, Alanna (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=21d1rHfWahoC">Jerusalem and Athens: Cultural Transformation in Late Antiquity</a>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150572-0"><bdi>978-3-16-150572-0</bdi></a>. 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University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0241-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0241-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-0241-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Procopius+of+Caesarea%3A+Tyranny%2C+History%2C+and+Philosophy+at+the+End+of+Antiquity&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0241-0&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Kaplan" title="Benjamin J. Kaplan">Kaplan, Benjamin J.</a> (2009). Divided by Faith Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03930-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03930-8"><bdi>978-0-674-03930-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divided+by+Faith+Religious+Conflict+and+the+Practice+of+Toleration+in+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03930-8&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2009" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLrn2Nx-g2YC&pg=PA104">The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History</a>. 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Cistercians, Heresy, and Crusade in Occitania, 1145–1229: Preaching in the Lord's Vineyard. Boydell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-00-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-00-0"><bdi>978-1-903153-00-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cistercians%2C+Heresy%2C+and+Crusade+in+Occitania%2C+1145%E2%80%931229%3A+Preaching+in+the+Lord%27s+Vineyard&rft.pub=Boydell&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-903153-00-0&rft.aulast=Kienzle&rft.aufirst=Beverly+Mayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2013" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Hyun Jin (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06722-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06722-6"><bdi>978-1-107-06722-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Huns%2C+Rome+and+the+Birth+of+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-06722-6&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hyun+Jin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2006" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Lloyd (2006). Polemic in the Book of Hebrews: Anti-Judaism, Anti-Semitism, Supersessionism?. 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Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-03-219934-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-03-219934-4"><bdi>978-1-03-219934-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+II%3A+Christian+Origins+and+Development+%E2%80%93+Paul+and+the+Development+of+Gentile+Christianity&rft.btitle=The+Early+Christian+World&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.series=Routledge+Worlds&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-03-219934-4&rft.aulast=Klutz&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6fyCAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolbaba2008" class="citation book cs1">Kolbaba, Tia M. (2008). "Latin and Greek Christians". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3. 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"Christianity and Ideological change in Kievan Rus': The First Hundred Years". 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M. (2015). The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021962-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021962-8"><bdi>978-0-19-021962-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Murder+of+William+of+Norwich%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Blood+Libel+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-021962-8&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthal1956" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenthal, Judah M. (1956). "The Talmud on Trial: The Disputation at Paris in the Year 1240". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 47 (1): 58–76. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453186">1453186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Quarterly+Review&rft.atitle=The+Talmud+on+Trial%3A+The+Disputation+at+Paris+in+the+Year+1240&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E58-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1453186%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Judah+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenwein2014" class="citation book cs1">Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2014). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1 (Fourth ed.). University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0611-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0611-1"><bdi>978-1-4426-0611-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0611-1&rft.aulast=Rosenwein&rft.aufirst=Barbara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossino2003" class="citation book cs1">Rossino, Alexander B. (2003). Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Rev. ed.). University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1392-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1392-2"><bdi>978-0-7006-1392-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+Strikes+Poland%3A+Blitzkrieg%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Atrocity&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1392-2&rft.aulast=Rossino&rft.aufirst=Alexander+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRousseau2017" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Philip (2017). "Inheriting the fifth century: Who bequeathed what?". In Allen, Pauline; Jeffreys, Elizabeth (eds.). The Sixth Century: End or Beginning?. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86420-074-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86420-074-4"><bdi>978-1-86420-074-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inheriting+the+fifth+century%3A+Who+bequeathed+what%3F&rft.btitle=The+Sixth+Century%3A+End+or+Beginning%3F&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-86420-074-4&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinSimons2009" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (2009). "Introduction". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05602-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05602-1"><bdi>978-1-139-05602-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05602-1&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Miri&rft.au=Simons%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabo2018" class="citation book cs1">Sabo, Theodore (2018). From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0959-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0959-7"><bdi>978-1-5275-0959-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Monophysitism+to+Nestorianism%3A+AD+431%E2%80%93681&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-0959-7&rft.aulast=Sabo&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSághySchoolman2017" class="citation book cs1">Sághy, Marianne; Schoolman, Edward M. (2017). Pagans and Christians in the Late Roman Empire: New Evidence, New Approaches (4th–8th centuries). Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-386-256-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-386-256-8"><bdi>978-963-386-256-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pagans+and+Christians+in+the+Late+Roman+Empire%3A+New+Evidence%2C+New+Approaches+%284th%E2%80%938th+centuries%29&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-963-386-256-8&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1ghy&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rft.au=Schoolman%2C+Edward+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michele_R._Salzman" title="Michele R. Salzman">Salzman, Michele Renee</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9JGzYaUQyt4C">The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00641-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00641-6"><bdi>978-0-674-00641-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+a+Christian+Aristocracy%3A+Social+and+Religious+Change+in+the+Western+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00641-6&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michele+Renee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9JGzYaUQyt4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michele_R._Salzman" title="Michele R. Salzman">Salzman, Michele Renee</a> (1993). "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 42 (3). Franz Steiner Verlag: 362–378. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436297">4436297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=The+Evidence+for+the+Conversion+of+the+Roman+Empire+to+Christianity+in+Book+16+of+the+%27Theodosian+Code&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E362-%3C%2Fspan%3E378&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436297%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michele+Renee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman2021" class="citation book cs1">Salzman, Michelle Renee (2021). The Falls of Rome: Crises, Resilience, and Resurgence in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11142-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11142-4"><bdi>978-1-107-11142-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Falls+of+Rome%3A+Crises%2C+Resilience%2C+and+Resurgence+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-107-11142-4&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michelle+Renee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanmark2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Sanmark" title="Alexandra Sanmark">Sanmark, Alexandra</a> (2004). Power and Conversion. A Comparative Study of Christianization in Scandinavia. The University of Uppsala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-506-1739-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-506-1739-9"><bdi>978-91-506-1739-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Conversion.+A+Comparative+Study+of+Christianization+in+Scandinavia&rft.pub=The+University+of+Uppsala&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-91-506-1739-9&rft.aulast=Sanmark&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanneh2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lamin_Sanneh" title="Lamin Sanneh">Sanneh, Lamin O.</a> (2007). Disciples of all nations: Pillars of world Christianity. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-804084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-804084-2"><bdi>978-0-19-804084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disciples+of+all+nations%3A+Pillars+of+world+Christianity&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-804084-2&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Lamin+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanneh2016" class="citation book cs1">Sanneh, Lamin O. (2016). "Bible Translation, Culture, and Religion". In Sanneh, Lamin; McClymond, Michael (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to World Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 263–281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-55604-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-55604-7"><bdi>978-1-118-55604-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bible+Translation%2C+Culture%2C+and+Religion&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Companion+to+World+Christianity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E281&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-118-55604-7&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Lamin+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacter2011" class="citation book cs1">Schacter, Jacob J. (2011). Carlebach, Elisheva; Schacter, Jacob J. (eds.). New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations: In Honor of David Berger. Netherlands: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00422-118-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-00422-118-5"><bdi>978-9-00422-118-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Jewish-Christian+Relations%3A+In+Honor+of+David+Berger&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9-00422-118-5&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=Jacob+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäferdiek2007" class="citation book cs1">Schäferdiek, Knut (2007). "Germanic and Celtic Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812443">10.1017/CHOL9780521812443</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05413-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05413-3"><bdi>978-1-139-05413-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germanic+and+Celtic+Christianities&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812443&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4ferdiek&rft.aufirst=Knut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaff1953" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Schaff, Philip</a> (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v5CV_-6BGFgC&pg=PT161">History of the Christian Church</a>. Vol. IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590–1073. CCEL. pp. 161–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61025-043-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61025-043-6"><bdi>978-1-61025-043-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E162&rft.pub=CCEL&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-1-61025-043-6&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv5CV_-6BGFgC%26pg%3DPT161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchalteggerTorgler2010" class="citation journal cs1">Schaltegger, Christoph A.; Torgler, Benno (1 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf">"Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital"</a> (PDF). 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Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-5162-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-5162-8"><bdi>978-1-4744-5162-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Demographic+Profile+of+Christianity+in+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-5162-8&rft.aulast=Zurlo&rft.aufirst=Gina+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedia_&_web_sources">Encyclopedia & web sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Encyclopedia & web sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerica_magazine2018" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2018/05/01/chinese-government-targeting-young-christians-229592">"Why the Chinese government is targeting young Christians in its latest crackdown"</a>. America magazine. 14 May 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720202015/https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2018/05/01/chinese-government-targeting-young-christians-229592">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=America+magazine&rft.atitle=Why+the+Chinese+government+is+targeting+young+Christians+in+its+latest+crackdown&rft.date=2018-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americamagazine.org%2Ffaith%2F2018%2F05%2F01%2Fchinese-government-targeting-young-christians-229592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPentarchy2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/pentarchy">"pentarchy"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica. 2016. 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New York: Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies at the <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220321165741/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/icono-cncl754.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2022. 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Springer. pp. 2446–2449. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-14169-5_1150">10.1007/978-3-319-14169-5_1150</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-14168-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-14168-8"><bdi>978-3-319-14168-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Patronage+in+the+Renaissance&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Renaissance+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2446-%3C%2Fspan%3E2449&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-14169-5_1150&rft.isbn=978-3-319-14168-8&rft.aulast=Hebron&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hudson, Miles (22 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453">"Fall of Constantinople"</a>. 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Retrieved 4 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Find+Easy+population+%26+more&rft.atitle=Religion+in+Africa+2022&rft.date=2022-10-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.findeasy.in%2Fafrica-population-by-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingapore_Management_University2017" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cmp.smu.edu.sg/perspectives/2012/06/26/understanding-rapid-rise-charismatic-christianity-southeast-asia">"Understanding the rapid rise of Charismatic Christianity in Southeast Asia"</a>. cmp.smu.edu.sg. <a href="/wiki/Singapore_Management_University" title="Singapore Management University">Singapore Management University</a>. 27 October 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129203830/https://cmp.smu.edu.sg/perspectives/2012/06/26/understanding-rapid-rise-charismatic-christianity-southeast-asia">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cmp.smu.edu.sg&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+rapid+rise+of+Charismatic+Christianity+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.date=2017-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcmp.smu.edu.sg%2Fperspectives%2F2012%2F06%2F26%2Funderstanding-rapid-rise-charismatic-christianity-southeast-asia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2006" class="citation news cs1">Sullivan, Patricia (26 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/25/AR2006112500783.html">"Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. p. C09. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200203130801/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/25/AR2006112500783.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Anti-Communist+Priest+Gheorghe+Calciu-Dumitreasa&rft.pages=C09&rft.date=2006-11-26&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F11%2F25%2FAR2006112500783.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museun.d." class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-german-churches-and-the-nazi-state">"The German churches and the Nazi state"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729142708/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005206">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=The+German+churches+and+the+Nazi+state&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fthe-german-churches-and-the-nazi-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValkenburgh1994" class="citation web cs1">Valkenburgh, Sarah (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.schoolinfosystem.org/pdf/2014/04/EPGreatAwakening62.pdf">"A Dramatic Revival: The first great awakening in Connecticut"</a> (PDF). schoolinfosystem.org. The Concord Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230719182526/http://www.schoolinfosystem.org/pdf/2014/04/EPGreatAwakening62.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=schoolinfosystem.org&rft.atitle=A+Dramatic+Revival%3A+The+first+great+awakening+in+Connecticut&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Valkenburgh&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.schoolinfosystem.org%2Fpdf%2F2014%2F04%2FEPGreatAwakening62.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoo2019" class="citation web cs1">Yoo, Wonji (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2279903082">"The making of god's subject: Christian conversion and urban youth in china"</a>. ProQuest. University of Pittsburgh. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2279903082">2279903082</a>. Retrieved 1 November 2024. <q>recent Chinese converts in Beijing seem to be mainly young people. In her study on churches in Beijing, Gao Shining (2005) points out that Christians under 35 accounted for 39% of Beijing's Christian population until 1990s, but the number increased by 70% in 2000s. Moreover, a survey of college students at Renmin University of China in Beijing shows that 61.5% of respondents were interested in Christianity (Goossaert and Palmer 2011). See – Page 27 Footnote 7</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ProQuest&rft.atitle=The+making+of+god%27s+subject%3A+Christian+conversion+and+urban+youth+in+china&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Yoo&rft.aufirst=Wonji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F2279903082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0CPM1XS9K9">Historical Christianity: The Ancient Communal Faith</a>: Print, ebook, and audiobook</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/history">History of Christianity Reading Room:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190828102942/https://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/history">Archived</a> 28 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20071016200443/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1%E2%80%9349">Dictionary of the History of Ideas</a>: Christianity in History</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111152750/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1%E2%80%9350">Dictionary of the History of Ideas</a>: Church as an Institution</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblestudytools.com/history/sketches-of-church-history/">Sketches of Church History</a> From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Church_History">"Church History" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 330–345.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Church+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E330-%3C%2Fspan%3E345&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170420050908/http://historyofchristianity.org.uk/">A History of Christianity in 15 Objects</a> online series in association with Faculty of Theology, Uni. of Oxford from September 2011</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Christianity" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>.</div></div> </div> The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thearda.com/">American Religion Data Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202101418/http://baptistpillar.com/bd0547.htm">Historical Christianity</a>, A timeline with references to the descendants of the early church.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101404/http://www.shol.com/featheredprop/Timeline.htm">Reformation Timeline</a>, A short timeline of the Protestant Reformation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126010821/http://www.fourthcentury.com/">Fourth-Century Christianity</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five solae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity965" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity965" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">Auto-da-fé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_apathy" title="Divine apathy">Divine apathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">Fall of man</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Judgement">Final Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">Good works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven_in_Christianity" title="Heaven in Christianity">Heaven</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hell_in_Christianity" title="Hell in Christianity">Hell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_water" title="Holy water">Holy water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Kingdom of God (Christianity)">Kingdom of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_Christ" title="Love of Christ">of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_God" title="Love of God">of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_(theology)" title="Mortification (theology)">Mortification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_in_Catholic_theology" title="Mortification in Catholic theology">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh" title="Mortification of the flesh">Of the flesh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Old Covenant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_prayer" title="Christian prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Sin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_sin" title="Eternal sin">Eternal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">Mortal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sins_that_cry_to_Heaven_for_Vengeance" title="Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance">Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venial_sin" title="Venial sin">Venial sin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_values" title="Christian values">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mortgage" title="Social mortgage">Social mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_destination_of_goods" title="Universal destination of goods">Universal destination of goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Option_for_the_poor" title="Option for the poor">Option for the poor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worldview" title="Christian worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_alcohol" title="Christian views on alcohol">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atonement" title="Atonement">Atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Lists of cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">Crucifix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupio_dissolvi" title="Cupio dissolvi">Cupio dissolvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">Evangelism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Catechesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Catholic priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk Christianity">Folk Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-air_preaching" title="Open-air preaching">Open-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">Pastor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallen_woman" title="Fallen woman">Fallen woman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magdalene_asylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Magdalene asylum">Magdalene asylum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellant" title="Flagellant">Flagellant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marriage in the Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">Choir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">Hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introit" title="Introit">Introit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music" title="Contemporary Christian music">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalm" class="mw-redirect" title="Psalm">Psalm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requiem" title="Requiem">Requiem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemptive_suffering" title="Redemptive suffering">Redemptive suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-flagellation" title="Self-flagellation">Self-flagellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross" title="Sign of the cross">Sign of the cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">Evangelism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_supremacy" title="Christian supremacy">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_terrorism" title="Christian terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">... and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">... and other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_violence" title="Christianity and violence">... and violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">... as an ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jesus" title="Criticism of Jesus">Jesus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_Christian" title="Nominal Christian">Nominal Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_love" title="Religious views on love">Religious views on love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role of Christianity in civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_homosexuality" title="Christianity and homosexuality">Views on homosexuality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1402" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q235329#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4030720-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85025619">United States</a></li><li><a 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-55c98588c7-pkkqm","wgBackendResponseTime":167,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"6.337","walltime":"6.780","ppvisitednodes":{"value":56561,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":997861,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":64709,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":35,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1223495,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 5874.943 1 -total"," 38.40% 2255.904 637 Template:Sfn"," 27.06% 1589.958 257 Template:Cite_book"," 8.12% 477.209 82 Template:Cite_journal"," 3.29% 193.215 652 Template:Main_other"," 2.75% 161.614 1 Template:Christianity"," 2.60% 152.993 7 Template:Lang"," 2.50% 146.938 2 Template:Reflist"," 2.18% 127.817 12 Template:Refn"," 2.14% 125.915 1 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[\"CITEREFBernardiniFiering2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerndtSteinacher2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBokenkotter2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonser1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoppartFalkingerGrossmann2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBouteneff1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradbury1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBremmer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrink2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrita2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroadhead2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruce1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBull2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBundy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgess2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBury1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButler1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCairns2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalciu-Dumitreasa1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantor1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarocci2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrington1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasidayNorris2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassidy2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastelli2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChinnici2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoppRegan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristiansen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCloke1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoffey1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoffey2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstable1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstable2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostambeys2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrislip2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroix2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroke2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCross2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCullmann2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Jonge2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeane2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeininger2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDen_Heijer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorfmann-Lazarev2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowley2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyleHightower2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunbabin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEichbauer2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEidintas2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEltis1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsler2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEstep1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahlbuschBromiley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahmy2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerguson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernandez1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerzoco2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirlej2021–2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlannery2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFolda1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFonnesberg-Schmidt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFontaine2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranck1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrassetto2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrend2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaddis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarcia2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrett1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGasper2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerberdingMoran_Cruz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerdmar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiven2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzalez2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodenough1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabar2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaberkern2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaight2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallBattaniNeitz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsall2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarnett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarney2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaskins1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastings2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHebron2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeimert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelvétiusKaplan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeß2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHighamRyan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilkert1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopkins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoutmanAupers2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowe2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumfress2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumfress2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunyadiLaszlovszky2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInglebert2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIricinschiZellentin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsichei1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanič2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJestice1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesWhite2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudge2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudith_Anne_Testa\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaplan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenworthy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKienzle2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirby2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitromilides2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlierLambroza2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlutz2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolbaba2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKostick2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraemer1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKwiatkowska2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöstenbergerKellumQuarles2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaFosse2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLacopo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazzariniBlanning2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevack2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevine2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieu1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLogan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongwell1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouth2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLégluRistTaylor2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLöhr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonald2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMannionMudge2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcocci2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcus2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkus1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarty2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastersYoung2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathews1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathisen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGill2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinn2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGowan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLeod2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeeks2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyendorff1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMicheau2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilnor2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonter2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMout2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuers2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMundy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeusner1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNowellMagdoffWebster2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Collins2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakley1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnnekink2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOpoensky2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstling2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPEW_Research_Center2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPEW_global2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer-Fernandes1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennington2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennington2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPentarchy2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPew_Center2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhipps1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPintarić2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPomeroy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPonce_HerreroMartí_Ciriquián2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoppe1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPraet1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadić2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahner2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRankin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRapp2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRappaport1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRauschenbusch1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawlings2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFResnick2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRives1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthal1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenwein2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossino2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRousseau2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubinSimons2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanmark2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanneh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanneh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchacter2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaff1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchalteggerTorgler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchäferdiek2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeagrave2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegoviaMoore2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeifrid1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShatzmiller1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlikhta2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiker2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingapore_Management_University2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkocpolTrimberger1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2014b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpaterTranvik2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrout2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwanson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSághySchoolman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTapie2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarverSlape2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThiessen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTilley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTov2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrebilco2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrombley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruran2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTulloch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyerman1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTáíwò2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllmann1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllmann1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museun.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValkenburgh1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Engen1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughn1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerger1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalters2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeberKalberg2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzmann1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzmann1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelchPulham2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestcott2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhalen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilken2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWogaman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsCanizares2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWylen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoo2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZachariadou2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZagorin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZurlo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_JuanPierskalla2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŠtefan2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Bsn\"] = 1,\n [\"Christian History\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity by century\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 257,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 82,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 12,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-1-of-2\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-2-of-2\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Endash\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Googlebooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 8,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religion\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religions\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 6,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"Page range too broad\"] = 1,\n [\"Paragraph break\"] = 3,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"ProQuest\"] = 2,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 12,\n [\"Reign\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 637,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 5,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","800","17.1"],["?","520","11.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","460","9.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","440","9.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","420","9.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","200","4.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","180","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","140","3.0"],["type","120","2.6"],["[others]","1260","26.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-77b44c4d85-268tl","timestamp":"20250217194149","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of 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