CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Early Muslim conquests - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"73c2ffe0-912a-407e-a6d4-8c8f40ce14a1","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Early_Muslim_conquests","wgTitle":"Early Muslim conquests","wgCurRevisionId":1256767612,"wgRevisionId":1256767612,"wgArticleId":2867231,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia pending changes protected pages","Use dmy dates from March 2024","Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from June 2024","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023","Articles containing Arabic-language text","Articles containing Latin-language text","All articles with dead external links", "Articles with dead external links from February 2024","Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles containing Tagalog-language text","Early Muslim conquests","7th century in Iran","8th century in al-Andalus","8th century in Iran","History of the Arabs","History of the Levant","History of the Mediterranean","Islam in Egypt","Wars involving the Rashidun Caliphate","Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Early_Muslim_conquests","wgRelevantArticleId":2867231,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgStableRevisionId":1256767612,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr", "pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q275918","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles": "ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.flaggedRevs.basic":"ready","mediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.flaggedRevs.advanced","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.flaggedRevs.basic%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/1200px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="551"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/800px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="367"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/640px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="294"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Early Muslim conquests - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Early_Muslim_conquests rootpage-Early_Muslim_conquests skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Early+Muslim+conquests" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Early+Muslim+conquests" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Early+Muslim+conquests" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Early+Muslim+conquests" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Background </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Background subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Islamic_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Islamic_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Pre-Islamic Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Islamic_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine–Sasanian_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Byzantine–Sasanian Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Arab invasion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Armies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Armies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Armies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Armies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Arab </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Byzantine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Persian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethiopian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethiopian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Ethiopian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethiopian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Berber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Berber </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Turkic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visigoth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visigoth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Visigoth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visigoth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frankish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Frankish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Campaigns </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Campaigns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Campaigns subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Levant:_634–641" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Levant:_634–641"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Conquest of the Levant: 634–641 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Levant:_634–641-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Egypt:_639–642" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Egypt:_639–642"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Conquest of Egypt: 639–642 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Egypt:_639–642-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab–Byzantine_naval_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab–Byzantine_naval_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Arab–Byzantine naval warfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab–Byzantine_naval_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_and_Persia:_633–651" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_and_Persia:_633–651"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia: 633–651 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_and_Persia:_633–651-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Fitna:_Fall_of_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Fitna:_Fall_of_the_Rashidun_Caliphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 First Fitna: Fall of the Rashidun Caliphate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Fitna:_Fall_of_the_Rashidun_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Founding of the Umayyad Caliphate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanations_for_the_Muslim_armies'_success" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanations_for_the_Muslim_armies'_success"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Explanations for the Muslim armies' success </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanations_for_the_Muslim_armies'_success-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Sindh:_711–714" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Sindh:_711–714"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Conquest of Sindh: 711–714 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Sindh:_711–714-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Maghreb:_647–742" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Maghreb:_647–742"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Conquest of the Maghreb: 647–742 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Maghreb:_647–742-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Hispania_and_Septimania:_711–721" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Hispania_and_Septimania:_711–721"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Conquest of Hispania and Septimania: 711–721 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Hispania_and_Septimania:_711–721-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Transoxiana:_673–751" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Transoxiana:_673–751"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Conquest of Transoxiana: 673–751 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Transoxiana:_673–751-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raids_into_Afghanistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raids_into_Afghanistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Raids into Afghanistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raids_into_Afghanistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Other expeditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyprus,_Armenia,_and_Georgia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyprus,_Armenia,_and_Georgia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11.1 Cyprus, Armenia, and Georgia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyprus,_Armenia,_and_Georgia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_incursions_into_Greece_and_Afghanistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_incursions_into_Greece_and_Afghanistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11.2 Failed incursions into Greece and Afghanistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_incursions_into_Greece_and_Afghanistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_conquests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_conquests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11.3 End of the conquests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_conquests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Significance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-political_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-political_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Socio-political developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-political_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_Arab_settlements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Arab_settlements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 New Arab settlements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Arab_settlements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxation_policies_and_conversions_to_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxation_policies_and_conversions_to_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Taxation policies and conversions to Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxation_policies_and_conversions_to_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tax_evasion_and_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tax_evasion_and_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Tax evasion and reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tax_evasion_and_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sharia_and_non-Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sharia_and_non-Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Sharia and non-Muslims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sharia_and_non-Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jews_and_Christians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jews_and_Christians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Jews and Christians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jews_and_Christians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 General and cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Early Muslim conquests</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 57 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-57" aria-hidden="true" > 57 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamische_Expansion" title="Islamische Expansion – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Islamische Expansion" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فتوحات إسلامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فتوحات إسلامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espardimientu_del_Islam" title="Espardimientu del Islam – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Espardimientu del Islam" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99b_f%C9%99thl%C9%99ri" title="Ərəb fəthləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ərəb fəthləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="ایسلامین یاییلیشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایسلامین یاییلیشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="প্রাথমিক মুসলিম বিজয় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাথমিক মুসলিম বিজয়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Арабскія заваяванні – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арабскія заваяванні" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Арабски завоевания – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арабски завоевания" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3_de_l%27islam" title="Expansió de l'islam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Expansió de l'islam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A1msk%C3%A1_expanze" title="Islámská expanze – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Islámská expanze" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamiske_ekspansion" title="Islamiske ekspansion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Islamiske ekspansion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9" title="لفتوحات لإسلامية اللولة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لفتوحات لإسلامية اللولة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamische_Expansion" title="Islamische Expansion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Islamische Expansion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansi%C3%B3n_musulmana" title="Expansión musulmana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Expansión musulmana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islama_ekspansio" title="Islama ekspansio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Islama ekspansio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musulmanen_konkistak" title="Musulmanen konkistak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Musulmanen konkistak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فتوحات مسلمانان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فتوحات مسلمانان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_de_l%27islam" title="Expansion de l'islam – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expansion de l'islam" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%86%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%A3%E0%AB%8B" title="ઇસ્લામિક આક્રમણો – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઇસ્લામિક આક્રમણો" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EA%B8%B0_%EB%AC%B4%EC%8A%AC%EB%A6%BC_%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B5" title="초기 무슬림 정복 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초기 무슬림 정복" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasarar_Musulunci" title="Nasarar Musulunci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Nasarar Musulunci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Արաբական արշավանքներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արաբական արշավանքներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapska_osvajanja" title="Arapska osvajanja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapska osvajanja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_Muslim_Awal" title="Penaklukan Muslim Awal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penaklukan Muslim Awal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espansione_islamica" title="Espansione islamica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Espansione islamica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A7%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="არაბთა დაპყრობითი ომები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არაბთა დაპყრობითი ომები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Араб басқыншылығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Араб басқыншылығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belavb%C3%BBna_%C3%AEslam%C3%AA" title="Belavbûna îslamê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Belavbûna îslamê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C5%B3_u%C5%BEkariavimai" title="Arabų užkariavimai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Arabų užkariavimai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B0" title="Муслимански освојувања – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Муслимански освојувања" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الفتوحات الإسلاميه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الفتوحات الإسلاميه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_oleh_Muslim" title="Penaklukan oleh Muslim – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penaklukan oleh Muslim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamitische_veroveringen" title="Islamitische veroveringen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Islamitische veroveringen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_islamske_ekspansjonen" title="Den islamske ekspansjonen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den islamske ekspansjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اسلامی فتوحات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اسلامی فتوحات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="د مسلمانانو لومړني فتوحات – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مسلمانانو لومړني فتوحات" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podboje_arabskie" title="Podboje arabskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podboje arabskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expans%C3%A3o_isl%C3%A2mica" title="Expansão islâmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Expansão islâmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansiunea_musulman%C4%83" title="Expansiunea musulmană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Expansiunea musulmană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Арабские завоевания – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арабские завоевания" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispainadura_isl%C3%A0mica" title="Ispainadura islàmica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Ispainadura islàmica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspansioni_islam" title="Ekspansioni islam – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ekspansioni islam" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests" title="Muslim conquests – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Muslim conquests" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%86" title="شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%B5%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="داگیرکاریی موسڵمانەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="داگیرکاریی موسڵمانەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B0" title="Муслиманска освајања – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Муслиманска освајања" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimanska_osvajanja" title="Muslimanska osvajanja – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Muslimanska osvajanja" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabien_valloitusretket" title="Arabien valloitusretket – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arabien valloitusretket" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamiska_expansionen" title="Islamiska expansionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islamiska expansionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF_%D1%8F%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Гарәп яулары – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гарәп яулары" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1" title="การพิชิตดินแดนโดยมุสลิม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การพิชิตดินแดนโดยมุสลิม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam%27%C4%B1n_yay%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="İslam'ın yayılışı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İslam'ın yayılışı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Арабські завоювання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арабські завоювання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اسلامی فتوحات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسلامی فتوحات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%E1%BB%AFng_cu%E1%BB%99c_x%C3%A2m_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c_c%E1%BB%A7a_ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_H%E1%BB%93i_gi%C3%A1o" title="Những cuộc xâm lược của người Hồi giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Những cuộc xâm lược của người Hồi giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herabiyay%C4%B1%C5%9F%C3%AA_islami" title="Herabiyayışê islami – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Herabiyayışê islami" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97%E7%9A%84%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D" title="穆斯林的征服 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="穆斯林的征服" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q275918#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Early_Muslim_conquests" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Early_Muslim_conquests" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&oldid=1256767612" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Early_Muslim_conquests&id=1256767612&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEarly_Muslim_conquests">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEarly_Muslim_conquests">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Islamic_conquests" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q275918" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-indicator-fr-review-status" class="mw-indicator"><indicator name="fr-review-status" class="mw-fr-review-status-indicator" id="mw-fr-revision-toggle">Checked</indicator></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-autoreview" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pending" title="All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users"><img alt="Page protected with pending changes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2>This is an accepted version of this page</div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Early_Muslim_conquests">reviewed</a> on 11 November 2024.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Expansion of the Islamic state (622–750)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For later military territorial expansion of Islamic states, see <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Early Muslim conquests</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/350px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/525px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/700px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Expansion under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, 622–632</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Expansion under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, 632–661</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Expansion under the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, 661–750</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>622–750 CE</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Europe">Mediterranean Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Muslim victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> Arab dominion (<a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a>) established from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Hispania</a> in the west to <a href="/wiki/Sind_(caliphal_province)" title="Sind (caliphal province)">Sindh</a> in the east</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad in Medina">Islamic Rule of Medina</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Umayyad_Flag.svg/23px-Umayyad_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Umayyad_Flag.svg/35px-Umayyad_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Umayyad_Flag.svg/46px-Umayyad_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> (after Rashidun period)</li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/New_Ghassanid_Banner.png/23px-New_Ghassanid_Banner.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/New_Ghassanid_Banner.png/35px-New_Ghassanid_Banner.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/New_Ghassanid_Banner.png/46px-New_Ghassanid_Banner.png 2x" data-file-width="2509" data-file-height="1473" /> <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian Empire</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Makuria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Makuria">Kingdom of Makuria</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyid dynasty</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khaganate">Khazar Khaganate</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Turgesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Turgesh">Turgesh Khaganate</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürk Khaganate</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdian</a> rebels </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_tribes" title="Kurdish tribes">Kurdish tribes</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom#Legacy" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Romano-Berber kingdoms</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Visigoths" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Visigoths">Kingdom of the Visigoths</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Franks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Franks">Kingdom of the Franks</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Kingdom of the Lombards</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aquitaine" title="Duchy of Aquitaine">Duchy of Aquitaine</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Brahmin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmin dynasty">Brahmin dynasty</a> of Sindh </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Turk_shahi_tamga.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Turk_shahi_tamga.png/11px-Turk_shahi_tamga.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Turk_shahi_tamga.png/17px-Turk_shahi_tamga.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Turk_shahi_tamga.png/22px-Turk_shahi_tamga.png 2x" data-file-width="434" data-file-height="640" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Turk Shahi">Turk Shahi</a><a href="#cite_note-NileGreen-1">[1]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a><a href="#cite_note-NileGreen-1">[1]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Hepthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepthalite">Hepthalite</a> principalities<a href="#cite_note-Shaban-2">[2]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar I</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Muthanna_ibn_Haritha" title="Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha">Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubayd_al-Thaqafi" title="Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi">Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saad_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" class="mw-redirect" title="Saad ibn Abi Waqqas">Saad ibn Abi Waqqas</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Qasim">Muhammad bin Qasim</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zuhra_ibn_al-Hawiyya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zuhra ibn al-Hawiyya (page does not exist)">Zuhra ibn al-Hawiyya</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Hashim_ibn_Utba" title="Hashim ibn Utba">Hashim ibn Utba</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27qa%27_ibn_Amr_al-Tamimi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi">Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa_al-Ashari" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Musa al-Ashari">Abu Musa al-Ashari</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ammar_ibn_Yasir" title="Ammar ibn Yasir">Ammar ibn Yasir</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Nu%27man_ibn_Muqrin" title="Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin">Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Hudhayfah_ibn_al-Yaman" title="Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman">Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mughira" title="Al-Mughira">Al-Mughira</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Abi_al-As" title="Uthman ibn Abi al-As">Uthman ibn Abi al-As</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Asim_ibn_Amr_al-Tamimi" title="Asim ibn Amr al-Tamimi">Asim ibn Amr al-Tamimi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ahnaf_ibn_Qais" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahnaf ibn Qais">Ahnaf ibn Qais</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Amir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdallah ibn Amir">Abdallah ibn Amir</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubaidah_ibn_al-Jarrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah">Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_Abi_Sufyan" title="Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan">Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Shurahbil_ibn_Hasana" title="Shurahbil ibn Hasana">Shurahbil ibn Hasana</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Samh_ibn_Malik_al-Khawlani" title="Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani">Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Al_Ghafiqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi">Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_%27Abd_al-Rahman_al-Fihri" class="mw-redirect" title="Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri">Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Zubayr_ibn_al-Awwam" title="Zubayr ibn al-Awwam">Zubayr ibn al-Awwam</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Miqdad_bin_Al-Aswad" class="mw-redirect" title="Miqdad bin Al-Aswad">Miqdad bin Al-Aswad</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ubadah_ibn_al-Samit" title="Ubadah ibn al-Samit">Ubadah ibn al-Samit</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kharija_bin_Huzafa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharija bin Huzafa">Kharija bin Huzafa</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Sa%27d" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdallah ibn Sa'd">Abdallah ibn Sa'd</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Musa_bin_Nusayr" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa bin Nusayr">Musa bin Nusayr</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn al-Nu'man">Hasan ibn al-Nu'man</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_ibn_Rabiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah">Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Maslamah_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik">Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Jarrah_ibn_Abdallah" title="Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah">Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutayba ibn Muslim</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_ibn_Sa%27id_al-Kilabi" title="Muslim ibn Sa'id al-Kilabi">Muslim ibn Sa'id al-Kilabi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Junayd_ibn_Abd_al-Rahman_al-Murri" class="mw-redirect" title="Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri">Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sawra_ibn_al-Hurr_al-Abani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sawra ibn al-Hurr al-Abani (page does not exist)">Sawra ibn al-Hurr al-Abani</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_ibn_Amr_al-Harashi" title="Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi">Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Asad_ibn_Abdallah_al-Qasri" title="Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri">Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Sayyar" title="Nasr ibn Sayyar">Nasr ibn Sayyar</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhallab_ibn_Abi_Sufra" title="Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra">Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Habib_ibn_Maslama_al-Fihri" title="Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri">Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri</a></li></ul> </div>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Infoboxes#Purpose" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Infoboxes">infobox clutter?</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Early_Muslim_conquests#Infobox" title="Talk:Early Muslim conquests">discuss</a>]</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhz%C4%81d" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostam Farrokhzād">Rostam Farrokhzād</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Mahbuzan </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Huzail ibn Imran </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Hormuz </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Anoshagan </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Andarzaghar </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/B%C4%81hman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bāhman">Bāhman</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Pirouzan </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Jaban </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Mihran </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Hormuzan" title="Hormuzan">Hormuzan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Mardan Shah </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Bahram </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Isandi </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Karinz ibn Karianz </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Wahman Mardanshah </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Jalinus" title="Jalinus">Jalinus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> Mihran-i Bahram-i Razi </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Beerzan" class="mw-redirect" title="Beerzan">Beerzan</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Jabalah_Ibn_Al-Aiham" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabalah Ibn Al-Aiham">Jabalah Ibn Al-Aiham</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Trithyrius" title="Theodore Trithyrius">Theodore Trithyrius</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Vahan_(given_name)" title="Vahan (given name)">Vahan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Vardan </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Thomas </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Buccinator </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Gregory </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tervel_of_Bulgaria" title="Tervel of Bulgaria">Tervel of Bulgaria</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Roderic" title="Roderic">Roderic</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Agila_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Agila II">Agila II</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Ardo" title="Ardo">Ardo</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Odo_of_Aquitaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Odo of Aquitaine">Odo of Aquitaine</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Childebrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Childebrand">Childebrand</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Liutprand,_King_of_the_Lombards" title="Liutprand, King of the Lombards">Liutprand</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9pin_le_Bref" class="mw-redirect" title="Pépin le Bref">Pépin le Bref</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Leontius" title="Leontius">Leontius</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_III" title="Tiberius III">Tiberius III</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Theodorus </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Aretion </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_of_Alexandria" title="Cyrus of Alexandria">Cyrus of Alexandria</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Patrician" title="Gregory the Patrician">Gregory the Patrician</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Dihya" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihya">Dihya</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Kusaila" title="Kusaila">Kusaila</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> John the Patrician </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Barjik" title="Barjik">Barjik</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Farrukhan_the_Great" title="Farrukhan the Great">Farrukhan the Great</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Staurakios_(eunuch)" title="Staurakios (eunuch)">Staurakios</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lachanodrakon" title="Michael Lachanodrakon">Michael Lachanodrakon</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> <a href="/wiki/Tatzates" title="Tatzates">Tatzates</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/8px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/13px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png/17px-Byzantine_Calvary_cross_potent_%28transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="1855" /> Anthony the Domestic </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Suluk_(Turgesh_khagan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suluk (Turgesh khagan)">Suluk Khagan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Kül Chor </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Gurek" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurek">Gurek</a>  <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Surayj" title="Al-Harith ibn Surayj">al-Harith ibn Surayj</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kapagan_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapagan Khan">Kapagan Khan</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Bilge Qaghan </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Kul Tigin </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Gao_Xianzhi" title="Gao Xianzhi">Gao Xianzhi</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Raja_Dahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja Dahir">Raja Dahir</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Nezak <a href="/wiki/Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">Tarkhan</a><a href="#cite_note-Shaban-2">[2]</a></li></ul> </div>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Infoboxes#Purpose" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Infoboxes">infobox clutter?</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Early_Muslim_conquests#Infobox" title="Talk:Early Muslim conquests">discuss</a>]</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_Muslim_conquests" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Early_Muslim_Expansions" title="Template:Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Early_Muslim_Expansions" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Early_Muslim_Expansions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_Muslim_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"> Early Muslim conquests</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim%E2%80%93Meccan_conflict" title="Early Muslim–Meccan conflict">Mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim%E2%80%93Quraysh_War" title="Muslim–Quraysh War">Quraysh</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Arab conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages#Arab_conquest_and_Arab-Byzantine_condominium" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="List of sieges of Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Southern Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(636-637)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (636-637)">Israel</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Sassanid Persia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Fars" title="Arab conquest of Fars">Fars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Kerman" title="Muslim conquest of Kerman">Kerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Northern_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Northern Persia">Northern Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sistan" title="Muslim conquest of Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Khorasan" title="Muslim conquest of Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania#Islamic_era" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Caucasian Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_wars" title="Arab–Khazar wars">Khazar Khaganate</a></li></ul> Other regions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makuria#Early_period_(5th–8th_century)" title="Makuria">Makurian Nubia</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_battle_of_Dongola" title="First battle of Dongola">1st</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_Dongola" title="Second battle of Dongola">2nd</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Visigothic Hispania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_invasion_of_Gaul" title="Umayyad invasion of Gaul"> Frankish Gaul</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: al-Futūḥāt al-ʾIslāmiyya),<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> also known as the Arab conquests,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> were initiated in the 7th century by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. He established a new unified polity in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> based in <a href="/wiki/State_of_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Medina">Medina</a> that expanded rapidly under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, culminating in Muslim rule being established on three continents (<a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>) over the next century. According to Scottish historian <a href="/wiki/James_Buchan" title="James Buchan">James Buchan</a>: "In speed and extent, the first Arab conquests were matched only by those of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and they were more lasting."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> At their height, the territory that was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Arab Muslims</a> stretched from <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> (at the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>) in the west to <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a> (at <a href="/wiki/Sind_(caliphal_province)" title="Sind (caliphal province)">Sind</a>) in the east; Muslim control spanned <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. It was the first time since the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in 539 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a>, that Mesopotamia and Levant were ruled again by neighboring <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>-speaking people, after centuries of Persian (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> empires), and Roman-Greek (<a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> empires) ruling periods. And the first time since the fall of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a> in 146 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Siege of Carthage</a>, that parts of North Africa and <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Iberia" title="Carthaginian Iberia">Iberia</a> were reconquered by Semitic-speaking people. Among other drastic changes, the early Muslim conquests brought about the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> and great territorial losses for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Explanations for the Muslim victories have been difficult to discover, primarily because only fragmentary sources have survived from the period. American scholar <a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Fred McGraw Donner</a> suggests that Muhammad's establishment of an <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad in Medina">Islamic polity in Arabia</a> coupled with ideological (i.e., religious) coherence and mobilization constituted the main factor that propelled the early Muslim armies to successfully establish, in the timespan of roughly a century, <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">one of the largest empires in history</a>. Estimates of the total area of the combined territory held by the early Muslim polities at the conquests' peak have been as high as 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Most historians also agree that, as another primary factor determining the early Muslim conquests' success, the Sasanians and the Byzantines were militarily and economically exhausted from <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Byzantine–Sasanian_wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">decades of warfare against each other</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> in Sasanian and Byzantine territory were dissatisfied and welcomed the invading Muslim troops, largely because of religious conflict in both empires.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> However, confederations of <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a>, initially allied themselves with the Byzantines. There were also instances of alliances between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, such as when they fought together against the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun army</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Firaz" title="Battle of Firaz">Battle of Firaz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Some of the lands lost by the Byzantines to the Muslims (namely <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Palestine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>) had been reclaimed from the Sasanians only a few years prior to the Muslim conquests. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sassanid Wars">Byzantine–Sassanid Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">Siege of Constantinople (626)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png/300px-Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png/450px-Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png/600px-Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine and Sasanian Empires in 600 AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Islamic_Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-Islamic Arabia">edit</a>]</div> Arabia was a region that hosted several cultures, some urban and others nomadic <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200914–15-11">[11]</a> Arabian society was divided along tribal and clan lines, with the most important divisions being between the "southern" and "northern" tribal associations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200915-12">[12]</a> Both the Byzantine and Sasanian empires competed for influence in Arabia by sponsoring clients, and in turn Arabian tribes sought the patronage of the two rival empires to bolster their own ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200915-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmid kingdom</a> which covered parts of what is now southern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia was a client of Persia, and in 602 the Persians deposed the Lakhmids to take over the defense of the southern frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200917–18-13">[13]</a> This left the Persians exposed and over-extended, helping to set the stage for the collapse of Persia later that century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">[14]</a> Southern Arabia, especially what is now Yemen, had for thousands of years been a wealthy region that had been a center of the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">[14]</a> Yemen had been at the center of an international trading network linking Eurasia to Africa, and Yemen had been visited by merchants from East Africa, Europe, the Middle East, India and even from as far away as China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">[14]</a> In turn, the Yemeni were great sailors, travelling up the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> to Egypt and across the Indian Ocean to India and down the east African coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">[14]</a> Inland, the valleys of Yemen had been cultivated by a system of irrigation that had been set back when the <a href="/wiki/Marib_Dam" title="Marib Dam">Marib Dam</a> was destroyed by an earthquake in about 450 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">Frankincense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a> had been greatly valued in the Mediterranean region, being used in religious ceremonies. However, the conversion of the Mediterranean world to Christianity had significantly reduced the demand for these commodities, causing a major economic slump in southern Arabia which helped to create the impression that Arabia was a backward region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">[14]</a> Little is known of the pre-Islamic religions of Arabia, but it is known that the Arabs worshipped gods such as al-Lat, Manat, al-Uzza and Hubal, with the most important being Allah (God).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200919-15">[15]</a> There were also Jewish and Christian communities in Arabia, and aspects of Arab religion reflected their influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200919-15">[15]</a> Pilgrimage was a major part of Arabian paganism, and one of the most important pilgrimage sites was <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, which housed the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>, considered an especially holy place to visit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200919-15">[15]</a> Muhammad, a merchant of Mecca, started to have visions in which he claimed that the archangel <a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a> had told him that he was the last of the prophets continuing the work of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a> and the prophets of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200922-16">[16]</a> After coming into conflict with the elite of Mecca, Muhammad fled to the city of Yathrib, which was renamed <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200922-16">[16]</a> At Yathrib, Muhammad founded an Islamic state and by 630 conquered Mecca.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200922-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine–Sasanian_Wars">Byzantine–Sasanian Wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Byzantine–Sasanian Wars">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muslim_Conquest.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Muslim_Conquest.PNG/240px-Muslim_Conquest.PNG" decoding="async" width="240" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Muslim_Conquest.PNG/360px-Muslim_Conquest.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Muslim_Conquest.PNG/480px-Muslim_Conquest.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="893" /></a><figcaption>Arab conquests of the Sasanian Empire and Syria 620–630</figcaption></figure> The prolonged and escalating <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Byzantine–Sasanian_wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</a> of the 6th and 7th centuries and the recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague (<a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>) left both empires exhausted and weakened in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Arabs. The last of these wars ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> regained all lost territories and restored the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in 629.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The war against <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> Persia, whose people worshiped the fire god <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, had been portrayed by Heraclius as a holy war in defense of the Christian faith and the Wood of the Holy Cross, as splinters of wood said to be from the True Cross were known, had been used to inspire Christian fighting zeal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200949-18">[18]</a> The idea of a holy war against the "fire worshipers", as the Christians called the Zoroastrians, had aroused much enthusiasm, leading to an all-out effort to defeat the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200949-18">[18]</a> Nevertheless, neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were overrun by the advances of the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> (newly united by Islam), which, according to James Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami".<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab_invasion">Arab invasion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arab invasion">edit</a>]</div> In late 620s Muhammad had already managed to conquer and unify much of Arabia under Muslim rule, and it was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantine skirmishes took place in response to Byzantine incursions. Just a few months after Heraclius and the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mu%27tah" title="Battle of Mu'tah">Battle of Mu'tah</a> as a result of Byzantine vassals murdering a Muslim emissary.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Muhammad died in 632 and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">caliph</a> with undisputed control of the entire Arab peninsula after the successful <a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a>, which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Byzantine sources, such as Short History written by <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople" title="Nikephoros I of Constantinople">Nikephoros</a>, claim that the Arab invasion came about as a result of restrictions imposed on Arab traders curtailing their ability to trade within Byzantine territory, and to send the profits of their trade out of Byzantine territory. As a result, the Arabs murdered a Byzantine official named <a href="/wiki/Sergius_and_Bacchus" title="Sergius and Bacchus">Sergius</a> whom they held responsible for convincing the Emperor Heraclius to impose the trade restrictions. Nikephoros relates that: <blockquote>The Saracens, having flayed a camel, enclosed him in the hide and sewed it up. As the skin hardened, the man who was left inside also withered and so perished in a painful manner. The charge against him was that he had persuaded Heraclius not to allow the Saracens to trade from the Byzantine country and send out of the Byzantine state the thirty pounds of gold which they normally received by way of commercial gain; and for this reason they began to lay waste the Byzantine land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland199759–60-24">[24]</a></blockquote> Some scholars assert that this is the same Sergius, called "the Candidatus", who was "killed by the Saracens" as related in the 7th century <a href="/wiki/Teaching_of_Jacob" title="Teaching of Jacob">Doctrina Jacobi</a> document.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland199759–60-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armies">Armies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Armies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab">Arab</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arab">edit</a>]</div> In Arabia, swords from India were greatly esteemed as being made of the finest steel and were the favorite weapons of the <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">Mujahideen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200926-25">[25]</a> The Arab sword known as the sayfy closely resembled the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Gladius" title="Gladius">gladius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200922-16">[16]</a> Swords and spears were the major weapons of the Muslims, and armour was either mail or leather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200926-25">[25]</a> In northern Arabia, Byzantine influence predominated; in eastern Arabia, Persian influence predominated; and in Yemen, Indian influence was felt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200926-25">[25]</a> As the caliphate spread, the Muslims were influenced by the peoples they conquered—the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> in Central Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a>, and the Byzantines in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200926–27-26">[26]</a> The Bedouin tribes of Arabia favored archery, though contrary to popular belief Bedouin archers usually fought on foot instead of horseback.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200928-27">[27]</a> The Arabs usually fought defensive battles with their archers placed on both flanks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200928–29-28">[28]</a> By the Umayyad period, the caliphate had a standing army, including the elite Ahl al-Sham ("people of Syria"), raised from the Arabs who settled in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200930-29">[29]</a> The caliphate was divided into jund, or regional armies, stationed in the provinces being made of mostly Arab tribes who were paid monthly by the Diwan al-Jaysh (War Ministry).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200930-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine">Byzantine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Byzantine">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg/280px-The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg/420px-The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg/560px-The_Arabs_drive_the_Byzantines_to_flight_at_Azazion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Arab cavalry pursue fleeing Byzantines</figcaption></figure> The infantry of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a> continued to be recruited from within the Byzantine Empire, but much of the cavalry were either recruited from "martial" peoples in the Balkans or in Asia Minor or alternatively were Germanic mercenaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200931–32-30">[30]</a> Most of the Byzantine troops in Syria were indigenae (local), and it seems that at the time of the Muslim conquest, the Byzantine forces in Syria were Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200933-31">[31]</a> In response to the loss of Syria, the Byzantines developed the phylarch system of using Armenian and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christian</a> auxiliaries living on the frontier to provide a "shield" to counter raiding by the Muslims into the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200934–35-32">[32]</a> Overall, the Byzantine army remained a small but professional force of foederati.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200936–37-33">[33]</a> Unlike the foederati who were sent where they were needed, the stradioti lived in the frontier provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200937-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian">Persian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persian">edit</a>]</div> During the last decades of the Sasanian empire, the frequent use of royal titles by Persian governors in Central Asia, especially in what is now Afghanistan, indicates a weakening of the power of the Shahinshah (King of Kings), suggesting the empire was already breaking down at the time of the Muslim conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200938-35">[35]</a> Persian society was rigidly divided into castes with the nobility being of supposed "Aryan" descent, and this division of Persian society along caste lines was reflected in the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200938-35">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Azadan" title="Azadan">azatan</a> aristocracy provided the cavalry, the <a href="/wiki/Paighan" class="mw-redirect" title="Paighan">paighan</a> infantry came from the peasantry and most of the greater Persian nobility had slave soldiers, this last being based on the Persian example.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200938-35">[35]</a> Much of the Persian army consisted of tribal mercenaries recruited from the plains south of the Caspian Sea and from what is now Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200938–39-36">[36]</a> The Persian tactics were cavalry based with the Persian forces usually divided into a center, based upon a hill, and two wings of cavalry on either side.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200941-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethiopian">Ethiopian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ethiopian">edit</a>]</div> Little is known about the military forces of the Christian state of Ethiopia other than that they were divided into sarawit professional troops and the ehzab auxiliaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200941-37">[37]</a> The Ethiopians made much use of camels and elephants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200941-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berber">Berber</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Berber">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> peoples of North Africa had often served as a federates (auxiliaries) to the Byzantine Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200943-38">[38]</a> The Berber forces were based around the horse and camel but seemed to have been hampered by a lack of weapons or protection, with both Byzantine and Arab sources mentioning the Berbers lacked armour and helmets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200943-38">[38]</a> The Berbers went to war with their entire communities, and the presence of women and children both slowed down the Berber armies and tied down Berber tribesmen who tried to protect their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200943-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkic">Turkic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Turkic">edit</a>]</div> The British historian David Nicolle called the Turkic peoples of Central Asia the "most formidable foes" faced by the Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200944-39">[39]</a> The Jewish Turkic <a href="/wiki/Khazar_khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar khanate">Khazar khanate</a>, based in what is now southern Russia and Ukraine, had a powerful heavy cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200944-39">[39]</a> The Turkic heartland of Central Asia was divided into five khanates whose khans variously recognized the shahs of Iran or the emperors of China as their overlords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200945-40">[40]</a> Turkic society was feudal with the khans only being pater primus among the aristocracy of dihquans who lived in castles in the countryside, with the rest of Turkic forces being divided into kadivar (farmers), khidmatgar (servants) and atbai (clients).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200945-40">[40]</a> The heavily armored Turkic cavalry played a significant role in influencing subsequent Muslim tactics and weapons; the Turkic peoples, who were mostly Buddhists at the time of the Islamic conquest, later converted to Islam and came to be regarded as the foremost Muslim warriors, to the extent of replacing the Arabs as the dominant peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Dar_al-islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar al-islam">Dar al-Islam</a> (House of Islam).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200946–47-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visigoth">Visigoth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Visigoth">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Migration_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period">migration period</a>, the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> had traveled from their homeland north of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> to settle in the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>, creating a kingdom upon the wreckage of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200946-42">[42]</a> The Visigothic state in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> was based around forces raised by the nobility whom the king could call out in the event of war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> The king had his gardingi and fideles loyal to himself, while the nobility had their bucellarii.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> The Visigoths favored cavalry with their favorite tactics being to repeatedly charge a foe combined with <a href="/wiki/Feigned_retreat" title="Feigned retreat">feigned retreats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> The Muslim conquest of most of Iberia in less than a decade does suggest serious deficiencies with the Visigothic kingdom, though the limited sources make it difficult to discern the precise reasons for the collapse of the Visigoths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frankish">Frankish</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Frankish">edit</a>]</div> Another Germanic people who founded a state upon the ruins of the Western Roman Empire were the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> who settled in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> Like the Visigoths, the Frankish cavalry played a "significant part" in their wars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> The Frankish kings expected all of their male subjects to perform three months of military service every year, and all serving under the king's banner were paid a regular salary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> Those called up for service had to provide their own weapons and horses, which contributed to the "militarisation of Frankish society".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> At least part of the reason for the victories of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> was he could call up a force of experienced warriors when faced with Muslim raids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Campaigns">Campaigns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Campaigns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_the_Levant:_634–641">Conquest of the Levant: 634–641</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Conquest of the Levant: 634–641">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a></div> The province of Syria was the first to be wrested from Byzantine control. Arab-Muslim raids that followed the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a> prompted the Byzantines to send a major expedition into southern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, which was defeated by the Arab forces under command of <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ajnadayn" title="Battle of Ajnadayn">Battle of Ajnadayn</a> in 634.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> Ibn al-Walid had converted to Islam around 627, becoming one of Muhammad's most successful generals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200963-45">[45]</a> Ibn al-Walid had been fighting in Iraq against the Sasanians when he led his force on a trek across the deserts to Syria to attack the Byzantines from the rear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200964-46">[46]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fahl" title="Battle of Fahl">Battle of the Mud</a> fought at or near <a href="/wiki/Pella,_Jordan" title="Pella, Jordan">Pella (Fahl)</a> and nearby <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Scythopolis (Beisan)</a>, both in the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Valley" title="Jordan Valley">Jordan Valley</a>, in December 634 or January 635, the Arabs scored another victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200950-47">[47]</a> After a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Damascus_(634)" title="Siege of Damascus (634)">siege of six months</a> the Arabs took Damascus, but Emperor Heraclius later retook it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200950-47">[47]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Yarmuk" title="Battle of the Yarmuk">battle of Yarmuk</a> (636), the Arabs were victorious, defeating Heraclius.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200951-48">[48]</a> Ibn al-Walid appears to have been the "real military leader" at Yarmuk "under the nominal command of others".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200964-46">[46]</a> Syria was ordered to be abandoned to the Muslims with Heraclius reportedly saying: "Peace be with you Syria; what a beautiful land you will be for your enemy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200951-48">[48]</a> On the heels of their victory, the Arab armies took <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> again in 636, with <a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> to follow soon afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> However, other fortified towns continued to resist despite the rout of the imperial army and had to be conquered individually.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> fell in 638, <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a> in 640, while others held out until 641.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG/220px-Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG/330px-Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG/440px-Mohammad_adil_rais-Invasion_of_Anatolia_and_Armenia.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1532" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>Arab campaigns in Anatolia 637–638</figcaption></figure> After a two-year siege, the garrison of Jerusalem surrendered rather than starve to death; under the terms of the surrender Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> promised to tolerate the Christians of Jerusalem and not to turn churches into mosques.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200954-49">[49]</a> True to his word, Umar allowed the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre" title="Church of the Holy Sepulchre">Church of the Holy Sepulchre</a> to remain, with the caliph praying on a prayer rug outside of the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200954-49">[49]</a> The loss to the Muslims of Jerusalem, the holiest city to Christians, proved to be the source of much resentment in Christendom. The city of <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> continued to withstand the Muslim siege—as it could be supplied by sea—until it was taken by assault in 640.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200954-49">[49]</a> It was the first time since the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in 539 BC, that the Levant was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>), and Roman-Greek (<a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> empires) ruling periods. In the mountains of Asia Minor, the Muslims enjoyed less success, with the Byzantines adopting the tactic of "shadowing warfare" — refusing to give battle to the Muslims, while the people retreated into castles and fortified towns when the Muslims invaded; instead, Byzantine forces ambushed Muslim raiders as they returned to Syria carrying plunder and people <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">they had enslaved</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200952-50">[50]</a> In the frontier area where <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> met Syria, the Byzantine state evacuated the entire population and laid waste to the countryside, creating a <a href="/wiki/No_man%27s_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a> where any invading army would find no food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200952-50">[50]</a> For decades afterwards, a guerrilla war was waged by Christians in the hilly countryside of north-western Syria supported by the Byzantines.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=52-51">[51]</a> At the same time, the Byzantines began a policy of launching raids via sea on the coast of the caliphate with the aim of forcing the Muslims to keep at least some of their forces to defend their coastlines, thus limiting the number of troops available for an invasion of Anatolia.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=52-51">[51]</a> Unlike Syria with its plains and deserts — which favored the offensive — the mountainous terrain of Anatolia favored the defensive, and for centuries afterwards the line between Christian and Muslim lands ran along the border between Anatolia and Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200952-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Egypt:_639–642">Conquest of Egypt: 639–642</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Conquest of Egypt: 639–642">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/280px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/420px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/560px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> after the Arabs conquered the provinces of Syria and Egypt c. 650</figcaption></figure> The Byzantine province of Egypt held strategic importance for its grain production, naval yards, and as a base for further conquests in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> The Muslim general <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> began the conquest of the province on his own initiative in 639.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The majority of the Byzantine forces in Egypt were locally raised <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Coptic</a> forces, intended to serve more as a police force; since the vast majority of Egyptians lived in the Nile River valley, surrounded on both the eastern and western sides by desert, Egypt was felt to be a relatively secure province.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200955-53">[53]</a> In December 639, Amr entered the Sinai with a large force and took <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a>, on the edge of the Nile River valley, and then defeated a Byzantine counter-attack at <a href="/wiki/Bilbeis" title="Bilbeis">Bibays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> Contrary to expectations, the Arabs did not head for <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, the capital of Egypt, but instead for a major fortress known as <a href="/wiki/Babylon_Fortress" title="Babylon Fortress">Babylon</a> located at what is now Cairo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200955-53">[53]</a> Amr was planning to divide the Nile River valley in two.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> The Arab forces won a major victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heliopolis" title="Battle of Heliopolis">Battle of Heliopolis</a> in 640, but they found it difficult to advance further because major cities in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> were protected by water and because Amr lacked the <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">machinery</a> to break down city fortifications.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The Arabs laid siege to Babylon, and its starving garrison surrendered on 9 April 641.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> Nevertheless, the province was scarcely urbanized and the defenders lost hope of receiving reinforcements from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> when the emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> died in 641.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Afterwards, the Arabs turned north into the Nile Delta and laid siege to Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> The last major center to fall into Arab hands was Alexandria, which capitulated in September 642.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Hugh Kennedy</a>, "Of all the early Muslim conquests, that of Egypt was the swiftest and most complete. [...] Seldom in history can so massive a political change have happened so swiftly and been so long lasting."<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In 644, the Arabs suffered a major defeat by the Caspian Sea when an invading Muslim army was almost wiped out by the cavalry of the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khanate">Khazar Khanate</a>, and, seeing a chance to take back Egypt, the Byzantines launched an amphibious attack which took back Alexandria for a short period of time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> Though most of Egypt is desert, the Nile Delta has some of the most productive and fertile farmland in the entire world, which had made Egypt the "granary" of the Byzantine empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> Control of Egypt meant that the caliphate could weather droughts without the fear of famine, laying the basis for the future prosperity of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab–Byzantine_naval_warfare">Arab–Byzantine naval warfare</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Arab–Byzantine naval warfare">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg/280px-Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg/420px-Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg/560px-Byzantine-Arab_naval_struggle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="977" /></a><figcaption>Map of the main Byzantine-Muslim naval operations and battles in the Mediterranean</figcaption></figure> The Byzantine Empire had traditionally dominated the Mediterranean and the Black Sea with major naval bases at <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, Alexandria and <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> In 652, the Arabs won their first victory at sea off Alexandria, which was followed by the temporary Muslim conquest of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">[54]</a> As Yemen had been a center of maritime trade, Yemeni sailors were brought to Alexandria to start building an Islamic fleet for the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> The Muslim fleet was based in Alexandria and used Acre, <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> as its forward bases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> The core of the fleet's sailors were Yemeni, but the shipwrights who built the ships were Iranian and Iraqi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Masts" title="Battle of the Masts">Battle of the Masts</a> off <a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Chelidonia</a> in Anatolia in 655, the Muslims defeated the Byzantine fleet in a series of boarding actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> As a result, the Byzantines began a major expansion of their navy, which was matched by the Arabs, leading to a naval arms race.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> From the early 8th century onward, the Muslim fleet would launch annual raids on the coastline on the Byzantine empire in Anatolia and Greece.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> As part of the arms race, both sides sought new technology to improve their warships. The Muslim warships had a larger <a href="/wiki/Forecastle" title="Forecastle">forecastle</a>, which was used to mount a stone-throwing engine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">[59]</a> The Byzantines invented <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>, an incendiary weapon that led the Muslims to cover their ships with water-soaked cotton.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200958-60">[60]</a> A major problem for the Muslim fleet was the shortage of timber, which led the Muslims to seek qualitative instead of quantitative superiority by building bigger warships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200958-60">[60]</a> To save money, the Muslim shipwrights switched from the hull-first method of building ships to the frame-first method.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200958-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Mesopotamia_and_Persia:_633–651">Conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia: 633–651</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia: 633–651">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg/220px-WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg/330px-WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg/440px-WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2008" data-file-height="3020" /></a><figcaption>Sasanian weaponry, 7th century</figcaption></figure> After an Arab incursion into Sasanian territories, the <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">shah</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdgerd_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazdgerd III">Yazdgerd III</a>, who had just ascended the Persian throne, raised an army to resist the conquerors,<a href="#cite_note-Vaglieri60-61-61">[61]</a> although many <a href="/wiki/Marzban" title="Marzban">marzbans</a> refused to help.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58-62">[62]</a> The Persians suffered a devastating defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of al-Qādisiyyah">Battle of al-Qadisiyyah</a> in 636.<a href="#cite_note-Vaglieri60-61-61">[61]</a> Little is known about the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah other than it lasted for several days by the banks of the river <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> in what is now Iraq and ended with the Persian force being annihilated.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59-63">[63]</a> Abolishing the Lakhmid Arab buffer state had forced the Persians to take over the desert defense themselves, leaving them overextended.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58-62">[62]</a> As a result of al-Qadisiyyah, the Arab-Muslims gained control over the whole of Iraq, including <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, the capital city of the Sassanids.<a href="#cite_note-Vaglieri60-61-61">[61]</a> The Persians lacked sufficient forces to make use of the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a> to stop the Arabs, having lost the prime of their army at al-Qadisiyyah.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59-63">[63]</a> The Persian forces withdrew over the Zagros, and the Arab army pursued them across the Iranian plateau, where the fate of the Sasanian Empire was sealed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nah%C4%81vand" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nahāvand">Battle of Nahavand</a> in 642.<a href="#cite_note-Vaglieri60-61-61">[61]</a> The crushing Muslim victory at Nahavand is known in the Muslim world as the "Victory of Victories".<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58-62">[62]</a> As with the Levant, this was the first time since the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in 539 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a>, that Mesopotamia was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> empires), and Roman-Greek (<a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> empires) ruling periods. After Nahavand, the Persian state collapsed with Yezdegird III fleeing further east and various marzbans surrendering to the Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59-63">[63]</a> As the conquerors slowly covered the vast distances of Iran punctuated by hostile towns and fortresses, Yazdgerd III retreated, finally taking refuge in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, where he was assassinated by a local <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> in 651.<a href="#cite_note-Vaglieri60-61-61">[61]</a> In the aftermath of their victory over the imperial army, the Muslims still had to contend with a collection of militarily weak but geographically inaccessible principalities of Persia.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> It took decades to bring them all under control of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus49-44">[44]</a> In what is now Afghanistan—a region where the authority of the shah was always disputed—the Muslims met fierce guerrilla resistance from the militant Buddhist tribes of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66-64">[64]</a> Despite the complete Muslim triumph over Sasanid Iran as compared to the only partial defeat of the Byzantine Empire, the Muslims borrowed far more from the vanished Sassanian state than they ever did from the Byzantines.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> However, for the Persians the defeat remained bitter. Some 400 years later, the Persian poet <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a> lets Yazdgerd III speak in his popular poem <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a> (Book of Kings): <blockquote><div class="poem"> Damn this world, damn this time, damn this fate, That uncivilized Arabs have come to Make me a Muslim Where are your valiant warriors and priests Where are your hunting parties and your feats? Where is that warlike mien and where are those Great armies that destroyed our county's foes? Count Iran as a ruin, as the lair Of lions and leopards. Look now and despair<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Fitna:_Fall_of_the_Rashidun_Caliphate">First Fitna: Fall of the Rashidun Caliphate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: First Fitna: Fall of the Rashidun Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> Right from the start of the caliphate, it was realized that there was a need to write down the sayings and story of Muhammad, which had been memorized by his followers before they all died.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=60-61-67">[67]</a> Most people in Arabia were illiterate, and the Arabs had a strong culture of remembering history orally.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=60-61-67">[67]</a> To preserve the story of Muhammad and to prevent any corruptions from entering the oral history, Abu Bakr had ordered scribes to write down the story of Muhammad as told to them by his followers, which was the origin of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61-68">[68]</a> Disputes had emerged over which version of the Quran was the correct one and, by 644 different versions of the Quran were accepted in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Hims</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61-68">[68]</a> To settle the dispute, the <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Caliph Uthman</a> had proclaimed the version of the Quran possessed by one of Muhammad's widows, <a href="/wiki/Hafsa_bint_Umar" title="Hafsa bint Umar">Hafsa</a>, to be the definitive and correct version, which offended some Muslims who held to the rival versions.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61-68">[68]</a> This, together with the favoritism shown by 'Uthman to his own clan, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Banu Umayya</a>, in government appointments, led to a mutiny in Medina in 656 and <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Uthman" title="Assassination of Uthman">'Uthman's murder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Founding_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate">Founding of the Umayyad Caliphate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Founding of the Umayyad Caliphate">edit</a>]</div> Uthman's successor <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> was faced with a civil war, known to Muslims as the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">fitna</a>, when the governor of Syria <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan</a> revolted against him.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62-69">[69]</a> During this time, the first period of Muslim conquests stopped, as the armies of Islam turned against one another.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62-69">[69]</a> A group known as the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharaji</a> decided to end the civil war by assassinating the leaders of both sides.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62-69">[69]</a> However, the fitna ended in January 661 when Ali was killed by a kharaji assassin, allowing <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya</a> to become caliph and found the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The fitna also marked the beginning of the split between <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> Muslims who supported Ali, and <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Muslims who opposed him.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62-69">[69]</a> Mu'awiya moved the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Damascus, which had a major effect on the politics and culture of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Mu'awiya followed the conquest of Iran by invading Central Asia and trying to finish off the Byzantine Empire by taking Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> In 670, a Muslim fleet seized <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and then laid siege to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> Nicolle wrote the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">siege of Constantinople</a> from 670 to 677 was "more accurately" a blockade rather than a siege proper, which ended in failure as the "mighty" walls built by the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> in the 5th century proved their worth.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> The majority of the people in Syria remained Christian, and a substantial Jewish minority remained as well; both communities were to teach the Arabs much about science, trade and the arts.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> The Umayyad caliphs are well-remembered for sponsoring a cultural "golden age" in Islamic history—for example, by building the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in Jerusalem and for making Damascus into the capital of a "superpower" that stretched from Portugal to Central Asia, covering the vast territory from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanations_for_the_Muslim_armies'_success">Explanations for the Muslim armies' success</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Explanations for the Muslim armies' success">edit</a>]</div> The rapidity of the early conquests has received various explanations.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Contemporary Christian writers conceived them as God's punishment visited on their fellow Christians for their sins.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland93-95-74">[74]</a> Early Muslim historians viewed them as a reflection of the religious zeal of the conquerors and evidence of divine favor.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The theory that the conquests are explainable as an Arab migration triggered by economic pressures enjoyed popularity early in the 20th century but has largely fallen out of favor among historians, especially those who distinguish the migration from the conquests that preceded and enabled it.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> There are indications that the conquests started as initially disorganized pillaging raids launched partly by non-Muslim Arab tribes in the aftermath of the Ridda Wars and were soon extended into a war of conquest by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun caliphs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> although other scholars argue that the conquests were a planned military venture already underway during Muhammad's lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Fred Donner</a> writes that the advent of Islam "revolutionized both the ideological bases and the political structures of the Arabian society, giving rise for the first time to a state capable of an expansionist movement."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> According to Chase F. Robinson, it is likely that Muslim forces were often outnumbered, but unlike their opponents, they were fast, well coordinated and highly motivated.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Another key reason was the weakness of the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, caused by the wars they had waged against each other in the preceding decades with alternating success.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> It was aggravated by a <a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">plague</a> that had struck densely populated areas and impeded conscription of new imperial troops, while the Arab armies could draw recruits from nomadic populations.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland93-95-74">[74]</a> The Sasanian Empire, which had lost the latest round of hostilities with the Byzantines, was also affected by a crisis of confidence, and its elites suspected that the ruling dynasty had forfeited the favor of the gods.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland93-95-74">[74]</a> The Arab military advantage was increased when Christianized Arab tribes who had served imperial armies as regular or auxiliary troops switched sides and joined the West Arabian coalition.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland93-95-74">[74]</a> Arab commanders also made liberal use of agreements to spare lives and property of inhabitants in case of surrender and extended exemptions from paying tribute to groups who provided military services to the conquerors.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Additionally, the Byzantine persecution of Christians opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Definition" title="Chalcedonian Definition">Chalcedonian creed</a> in Syria and Egypt alienated elements of those communities and made them more open to accommodation with the Arabs once it became clear that the latter would let them practice their faith undisturbed as long as they paid tribute.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The conquests were further secured by the subsequent large-scale migration of Arabian peoples into the conquered lands.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus50-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hoyland" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Hoyland">Robert Hoyland</a> argues that the failure of the Sasanian empire to recover was due in large part to the geographically and politically disconnected nature of Persia, which made coordinated action difficult once the established Sasanian rule collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland127-85">[85]</a> Similarly, the difficult terrain of Anatolia made it difficult for the Byzantines to mount a large-scale attack to recover the lost lands, and their offensive action was largely limited to organizing guerrilla operations against the Arabs in the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland127-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Sindh:_711–714">Conquest of Sindh: 711–714</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Conquest of Sindh: 711–714">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_campaigns_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate campaigns in India">Caliphate campaigns in India</a></div> Although there were sporadic incursions by Arab generals in the direction of India in the 660s and a small Arab garrison was established in the arid region of <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a> in the 670s,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> the first large-scale Arab campaign in the Indus valley occurred when the general <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Qasim">Muhammad bin Qasim</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> in 711 after a coastal march through Makran.<a href="#cite_note-EI-9-632-87">[87]</a> Three years later the Arabs controlled all of the lower <a href="/wiki/Indus_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus valley">Indus valley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EI-9-632-87">[87]</a> Most of the towns seem to have submitted to Arab rule under peace treaties, although there was fierce resistance in other areas, including by the forces of <a href="/wiki/Raja_Dahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja Dahir">Raja Dahir</a> at the capital city <a href="/wiki/Debal" title="Debal">Debal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EI-9-632-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoyland192-88">[88]</a> Arab incursions southward from Sindh were repulsed by the armies of <a href="/wiki/Gurjaras_of_Lata" title="Gurjaras of Lata">Gurjara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalukya" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalukya">Chalukya</a> kingdoms, and further Islamic expansion was checked by the <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta dynasty</a>, which gained control of the region shortly after.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland192-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_the_Maghreb:_647–742">Conquest of the Maghreb: 647–742</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Conquest of the Maghreb: 647–742">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a></div> Arab forces began launching sporadic raiding expeditions into <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> (modern northeast <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>) and beyond soon after their conquest of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Byzantine rule in northwest Africa at the time was largely confined to the coastal plains, while autonomous <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> polities controlled the rest.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland124-90">[90]</a> In 670 Arabs founded the settlement of <a href="/wiki/Qayrawan" class="mw-redirect" title="Qayrawan">Qayrawan</a>, which gave them a forward base for further expansion.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland124-90">[90]</a> Muslim historians credit the general <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> with subsequent conquest of lands extending to the Atlantic coast, although it appears to have been a temporary incursion.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland124-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-EI-5-1189-91">[91]</a> The Berber chief <a href="/wiki/Kusayla" class="mw-redirect" title="Kusayla">Kusayla</a> and an enigmatic leader referred to as <a href="/wiki/Kahina" title="Kahina">Kahina</a> (prophetess or priestess) seem to have mounted effective, if short-lived resistance to Muslim rule at the end of the 7th century, but the sources do not give a clear picture of these events.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland142-92">[92]</a> Arab forces were able to capture <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in 698 and <a href="/wiki/Tangiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangiers">Tangiers</a> by 708.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland142-92">[92]</a> After the fall of Tangiers, many Berbers joined the Muslim army.<a href="#cite_note-EI-5-1189-91">[91]</a> In 740 Umayyad rule in the region was shaken by a major <a href="/wiki/Berber_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber revolt">Berber revolt</a>, which also involved Berber <a href="/wiki/Kharijite" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharijite">Kharijite</a> Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland180-93">[93]</a> After a series of defeats, the caliphate was finally able to crush the rebellion in 742, although local Berber dynasties continued to drift away from imperial control from that time on.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland180-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Hispania_and_Septimania:_711–721">Conquest of Hispania and Septimania: 711–721</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Conquest of Hispania and Septimania: 711–721">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Hispania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_invasion_of_Gaul" title="Umayyad invasion of Gaul">Umayyad invasion of Gaul</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic-Latin_Umayyad_dinar_from_Spain,_715-717_AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Arabic-Latin_Umayyad_dinar_from_Spain%2C_715-717_AD.jpg/250px-Arabic-Latin_Umayyad_dinar_from_Spain%2C_715-717_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Arabic-Latin_Umayyad_dinar_from_Spain%2C_715-717_AD.jpg/375px-Arabic-Latin_Umayyad_dinar_from_Spain%2C_715-717_AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Arabic-Latin_Umayyad_dinar_from_Spain%2C_715-717_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="223" /></a><figcaption>Bilingual Latin-Arabic dinar minted in Iberia AH 98 (716/7 AD)</figcaption></figure> The Muslim conquest of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> is notable for the brevity and unreliability of the available sources.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-492-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoyland146-95">[95]</a> After the Visigothic king of Spain <a href="/wiki/Wittiza" title="Wittiza">Wittiza</a> died in 710, the kingdom experienced a period of political division.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland146-95">[95]</a> The Visigothic nobility was divided between the followers of Wittiza and his successor <a href="/wiki/Roderic" title="Roderic">Roderic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200965-96">[96]</a> Akhila, Wittiza's son, had fled to Morocco after losing the succession struggle, and Muslim tradition states that he asked the Muslims to invade Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200965-96">[96]</a> Starting in the summer of 710, the Muslim forces in Morocco had launched several successful raids into Spain, which demonstrated the weakness of the Visigothic state.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71-97">[97]</a> Taking advantage of the situation, the Muslim Berber commander, <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a>, who was stationed in Tangiers at the time, crossed the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a> with an army of Arabs and Berbers in 711.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland146-95">[95]</a> Most of the invasion force of 15,000 were Berbers, with the Arabs serving as an "elite" force.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71-97">[97]</a> Ziyad landed on the <a href="/wiki/Rock_of_Gibraltar" title="Rock of Gibraltar">Rock of Gibraltar</a> on 29 April 711.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66-64">[64]</a> After defeating Roderic at the river <a href="/wiki/Guadalete" title="Guadalete">Guadalete</a> on 19 July 711, Muslim forces advanced, capturing cities one after another.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-492-94">[94]</a> The capital of <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a> surrendered peacefully.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71-97">[97]</a> Some of the cities surrendered with agreements to pay tribute and local aristocracy retained a measure of former influence.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland146-95">[95]</a> The Spanish Jewish community welcomed the Muslims as liberators from the oppression of the Catholic Visigothic kings.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=65-98">[98]</a> In 712, another larger force of 18,000 from Morocco, led by Musa Ibn Nusayr, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to link up with Ziyad's force at <a href="/wiki/Talavera_de_la_Reina" title="Talavera de la Reina">Talavera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=65-98">[98]</a> The invasion seemed to have been on the initiative of Ziyad: the caliph, al-Walid, in Damascus reacted as if he was surprised to see him.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> By 713 Iberia was almost entirely under Muslim control.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-492-94">[94]</a> In 714, al-Walid summoned Ziyad to Damascus to explain his campaign in Spain, but Ziyad took his time travelling through North Africa and Palestine, and was finally imprisoned when he arrived in Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66-64">[64]</a> The events of the subsequent ten years, the details of which are obscure, included the capture of <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a>, and a raid against <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, followed by an expedition into <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy" title="Kingdom of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> in 725.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-492-94">[94]</a> The last large-scale raid to the north ended with a Muslim defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> at the hands of the Franks in 732.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-492-94">[94]</a> The victory of the Franks, led by Charles Martel, over 'Abd al-Rahman Ibn 'Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi has often been misrepresented as the decisive battle that stopped the Muslim conquest of France, but the Umayyad force had been raiding <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> with a particular interest in sacking churches and monasteries, not seeking its conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200972-73-100">[100]</a> The battle itself is a shadowy affair with the few sources describing it in poetic terms that are frustrating for the historian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200975-101">[101]</a> The battle occurred between 18 and 25 October 732 with the climax being an attack on the Muslim camp led by Martel that ended with al-Ghafiqi being killed and the Muslims withdrawing when night fell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200975-101">[101]</a> Martel's victory ended whatever plans there may have been to conquer France, but a series of Berber revolts in North Africa and in Spain against Arab rule may have played a greater role in ruling out conquests north of the Pyrenees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200975-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Transoxiana:_673–751">Conquest of Transoxiana: 673–751</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Conquest of Transoxiana: 673–751">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Muslim conquest of Transoxiana</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Talas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Battle_of_Talas.png/250px-Battle_of_Talas.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Battle_of_Talas.png/375px-Battle_of_Talas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Battle_of_Talas.png/500px-Battle_of_Talas.png 2x" data-file-width="1081" data-file-height="738" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a> between <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> and Abbasid Caliphate c. 751</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> is the region northeast of Iran beyond the <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Amu Darya</a> or Oxus River roughly corresponding with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and parts of Kazakhstan. Initial incursions across the Oxus River were aimed at <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> (673) and <a href="/wiki/Samarqand" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarqand">Samarqand</a> (675), and the results were limited to promises of tribute payments.<a href="#cite_note-Daniel456-102">[102]</a> In 674, a Muslim force led by Ubaidullah Ibn Zayyad attacked Bukhara, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>, which ended with the Sogdians agreeing to recognize the Umayadd caliph Mu'awiaya as their overlord and to pay tribute.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> In general, the campaigns in Central Asia were "hard fought" with the Buddhist Turkic peoples fiercely resisting efforts to incorporate them into the caliphate. China, which saw Central Asia as its own sphere of influence, particularly because of the economic importance of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, supported the Turkic defenders.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> Further advances were hindered for a quarter century by political upheavals within the Umayyad caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-Daniel456-102">[102]</a> This was followed by a decade of rapid military progress under the leadership of the new governor of <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutayba ibn Muslim</a>, which included the conquest of Bukhara and Samarqand in 706–712.<a href="#cite_note-Daniel457-103">[103]</a> The expansion lost its momentum when Qutayba was killed during an army mutiny and the Arabs were placed on the defensive by an alliance of <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdian</a> and <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a> forces with support from <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Daniel457-103">[103]</a> However, reinforcements from Syria helped turn the tide and most of the lost lands were reconquered by 741.<a href="#cite_note-Daniel457-103">[103]</a> Muslim rule over Transoxania was consolidated in 751 when a Chinese-led army was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Daniel458-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raids_into_Afghanistan">Raids into Afghanistan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Raids into Afghanistan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests of Afghanistan</a></div> Medieveal Islamic scholars divided the area of modern-day Afghanistan into two regions: the provinces of Khorasan and <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a>. Khorasan was the eastern <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a> of the Sasanian Empire, containing <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>. Sistan included <a href="/wiki/Ghazna" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazna">Ghazna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zarang" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarang">Zarang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lashkargah" title="Lashkargah">Bost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qandahar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qandahar">Qandahar</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">al-Rukhkhaj</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zamindawar" title="Zamindawar">Zamindawar</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabulistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Before Muslim rule, the regions of Balkh (<a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> or Tokharistan), Herat and Sistan were under Sasanian rule. Further south in the Balkh region, in <a href="/wiki/Bamiyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamiyan">Bamiyan</a>, indication of Sasanian authority diminishes, with a local dynasty apparently ruling from <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, probably <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a> subject to the <a href="/wiki/Yabghu" title="Yabghu">Yabghu</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>. While Herat was controlled by the Sasanians, its hinterlands were controlled by northern Hepthalites who continued to rule the <a href="/wiki/Ghur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghur">Ghurid</a> mountains and river valleys well into the Islamic era. Sistan was under Sasanian administration, but Qandahar remained out of Arab hands. Kabul and Zabulistan housed Indic religions, with the <a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahis</a> (for the most part) offering stiff resistance to Muslim rule for two centuries until the <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a> conquests.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The Umayyad Caliphate regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils and Kabul Shahis, and in 711 <a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutayba ibn Muslim</a> managed to force them to pay tribute.<a href="#cite_note-JLL167-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_expeditions">Other expeditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other expeditions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Khazar Wars">Arab–Khazar Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of Armenia">Arab conquest of Armenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgia" title="Arab rule in Georgia">Arab rule in Georgia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cyprus,_Armenia,_and_Georgia">Cyprus, Armenia, and Georgia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Cyprus, Armenia, and Georgia">edit</a>]</div> In 646 a Byzantine naval expedition was able to briefly recapture Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland90-108">[108]</a> The same year <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Mu'awiya</a>, the governor of Syria and future founder of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>, ordered construction of a fleet.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland90-108">[108]</a> Three years later it was put to use in a pillaging raid of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, followed by a raid in 650 that concluded with a treaty under which Cypriots surrendered many of their riches and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland90-108">[108]</a> In 688 the island was made into a joint dominion of the caliphate and the Byzantine Empire under a pact which was to last for almost 300 years.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In 639–640 Arab forces began to make advances into Armenia, which had been partitioned into a <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Byzantine province</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Persian_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Armenia">Sasanian province</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-636-110">[110]</a> There is considerable disagreement among ancient and modern historians about events of the following years, and nominal control of the region may have passed several times between Arabs and Byzantines.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-636-110">[110]</a> Although Muslim dominion was finally established by the time the Umayyads acceded to power in 661, it was not able to implant itself solidly in the country, and Armenia experienced a national and literary efflorescence over the next century.<a href="#cite_note-EI-1-636-110">[110]</a> As with Armenia, Arab advances into other lands of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region, including <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, had as their end assurances of tribute payment and these principalities retained a large degree of autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-EI-4-343-111">[111]</a> This period also saw a series of clashes with the <a href="/wiki/Khazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar">Khazar</a> kingdom whose center of power was in the lower <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a> steppes, and which vied with the caliphate over control of the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-EI-4-343-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Failed_incursions_into_Greece_and_Afghanistan">Failed incursions into Greece and Afghanistan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Failed incursions into Greece and Afghanistan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg/350px-Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg/525px-Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg/700px-Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3013" data-file-height="1543" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine manuscript illustration showing <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a> in action</figcaption></figure> Other Muslim military ventures were met with outright failure. Despite a naval victory over the Byzantines in 654 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Masts" title="Battle of the Masts">Battle of the Masts</a>, the subsequent attempt to besiege Constantinople was frustrated by a storm which damaged the Arab fleet.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="List of sieges of Constantinople">Later sieges of Constantinople</a> in <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">668–669</a> (674–678 according to other estimates) and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">717–718</a> were thwarted with the help of the recently invented <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In the east, although Arabs were able to establish control over most Sasanian-controlled areas of modern Afghanistan after the fall of Persia, the Kabul region resisted repeated attempts at invasion and would continue to do so until it was conquered by the Saffarids three centuries later.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="End_of_the_conquests">End of the conquests</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: End of the conquests">edit</a>]</div> By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> in the middle of the 8th century, Muslim armies had come against a combination of natural barriers and powerful states that impeded any further military progress.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland207-115">[115]</a> The wars produced diminishing returns in personal gains and fighters increasingly left the army for civilian occupations.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland207-115">[115]</a> The priorities of the rulers also shifted from conquest of new lands to administration of the acquired empire.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland207-115">[115]</a> Although the Abbasid era witnessed some new territorial gains, such as the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Crete</a>, the period of rapid centralized expansion would now give way to an era when further spread of Islam would be slow and accomplished through the efforts of local dynasties, missionaries, and traders.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland207-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg/310px-The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg/465px-The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg/620px-The_Early_Muslim_Conquests_630s_to_820s.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>The early Muslim conquests by reign</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Significance">Significance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Significance">edit</a>]</div> Nicolle writes that the series of Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries was "one of the most significant events in world history", leading to the creation of "a new civilisation", the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Islamicised</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabised</a> Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200991-116">[116]</a> Islam, which had previously been confined to Arabia, became a major world religion, while the synthesis of Arab, Byzantine, and Sasanian elements led to distinctive new styles of art and architecture emerging in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200980–84-117">[117]</a> English historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> writes in <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Under the last of the Umayyads, the Arabian empire extended two hundred days journey from east to west, from the confines of <a href="/wiki/Tartary" title="Tartary">Tartary</a> and India to the shores of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> ... We should vainly seek the indissoluble union and easy obedience that pervaded the government of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Antonines</a>; but the progress of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> diffused over this ample space a general resemblance of manners and opinions. The language and laws of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> were studied with equal devotion at <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarcand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Indian</a> embraced as countrymen and brothers in the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">pilgrimage of Mecca</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabian language</a> was adopted as the popular idiom in all the provinces to the westward of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socio-political_developments">Socio-political developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Socio-political developments">edit</a>]</div> The military victories of armies from the Arabian Peninsula heralded the expansion of Arab culture and religion. The conquests were followed by a large-scale migration of families and whole tribes from Arabia into the lands of the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus50-84">[84]</a> The conquering Arabs had already possessed a complex and sophisticated society.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus50-84">[84]</a> Emigrants from Yemen brought with them agricultural, urban, and monarchical traditions; members of the Ghassanid and Lakhmid tribal confederations had experience collaborating with the empires.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus50-84">[84]</a> The rank and file of the armies was drawn from both nomadic and sedentary tribes, while the leadership came mainly from the merchant class of the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus50-84">[84]</a> Two fundamental policies were implemented during the reign of the second caliph Umar (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 634–644): the Bedouins would not be allowed to damage agricultural production of the conquered lands, and the leadership would cooperate with the local elites.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus52-118">[118]</a> To that end, the Arab-Muslim armies were settled in segregated quarters or new garrison towns such as <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus52-118">[118]</a> The latter two became the new administrative centers of Iraq and Egypt, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus52-118">[118]</a> Soldiers were paid a stipend and prohibited from seizing lands.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus52-118">[118]</a> Arab governors supervised collection and distribution of taxes but otherwise left the old religious and social order intact.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus52-118">[118]</a> At first, many provinces retained a large degree of autonomy under the terms of agreements made with Arab commanders.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus52-118">[118]</a> As the time passed, the conquerors sought to increase their control over local affairs and make existing administrative machinery work for the new regime.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus53-119">[119]</a> This involved several types of reorganization. In the Mediterranean region, city-states which traditionally governed themselves and their surrounding areas were replaced by a territorial bureaucracy separating town and rural administration.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus56-120">[120]</a> In Egypt, fiscally independent estates and municipalities were abolished in favor of a simplified administrative system.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus57-121">[121]</a> In the early 8th century, Syrian Arabs began to replace Coptic functionaries and communal levies gave way to individual taxation.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In Iran, the administrative reorganization and construction of protective walls prompted agglomeration of quarters and villages into large cities such as <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qum" class="mw-redirect" title="Qum">Qum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-123">[123]</a> Local notables of Iran, who at first had almost complete autonomy, were incorporated into the central bureaucracy by the Abbasid period.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-123">[123]</a> The similarity of Egyptian and Khurasanian official paperwork at the time of the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 754–775) suggests a highly centralized empire-wide administration.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Arab_settlements">New Arab settlements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: New Arab settlements">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg/350px-Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg/525px-Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg/700px-Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic from <a href="/wiki/Hisham%27s_Palace" title="Hisham's Palace">Hisham's Palace</a>, an Umayyad residence near <a href="/wiki/Jericho" title="Jericho">Jericho</a> (c. 724–743)</figcaption></figure> The society of new Arab settlements gradually became stratified into classes based on wealth and power.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> It was also reorganized into new communal units that preserved clan and tribal names but were in fact only loosely based around old kinship bonds.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> Arab settlers turned to civilian occupations and in eastern regions established themselves as a landed aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> At the same time, distinctions between the conquerors and local populations began to blur.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> In Iran, the Arabs largely assimilated into local culture, adopting the Persian language and customs and marrying Persian women.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> In Iraq, non-Arab settlers flocked to garrison towns.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> Soldiers and administrators of the old regime came to seek their fortunes with the new masters, while slaves, laborers and peasants fled there seeking to escape the harsh conditions of life in the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> Non-Arab converts to Islam were absorbed into the Arab-Muslim society through an adaptation of the tribal Arabian institution of clientage, in which protection of the powerful was exchanged for loyalty of the subordinates.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> The clients (<a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">mawali</a>) and their heirs were regarded as virtual members of the clan.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> The clans became increasingly economically and socially stratified.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> For example, while the noble clans of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Tamim" title="Banu Tamim">Tamim tribe</a> acquired Persian cavalry units as their mawali, other clans of the same tribe had slave laborers as theirs.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> Slaves often became mawali of their former masters when they were freed.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">[124]</a> Contrary to the belief of earlier historians, there is no evidence of mass conversions to Islam in the immediate aftermath of the conquests.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">[125]</a> The first groups to convert were Christian Arab tribes, although some of them retained their religion into the Abbasid era even while serving as troops of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">[125]</a> They were followed by former elites of the Sasanian empire, whose conversion ratified their old privileges.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">[125]</a> With time, the weakening of non-Muslim elites facilitated the breakdown of old communal ties and reinforced the incentives of conversion which promised economic advantages and social mobility.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">[125]</a> By the beginning of the 8th century, conversions became a policy issue for the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus61-62-126">[126]</a> They were favored by religious activists, and many Arabs accepted the equality of Arabs and non-Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus61-62-126">[126]</a> However, conversion was associated with economic and political advantages, and Muslim elites were reluctant to see their privileges diluted.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus61-62-126">[126]</a> Public policy towards converts varied depending on the region and was changed by successive Umayyad caliphs.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus61-62-126">[126]</a> These circumstances provoked opposition from non-Arab converts, whose ranks included many active soldiers, and helped set the stage for the civil war which ended with the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">fall of the Umayyad dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation_policies_and_conversions_to_Islam">Taxation policies and conversions to Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Taxation policies and conversions to Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></div> The Arab-Muslim conquests followed a general pattern of nomadic conquests of settled regions, whereby the conquering peoples became the new military elite and reached a compromise with the old elites by allowing them to retain local political, religious, and financial authority.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus53-119">[119]</a> Peasants, workers, and merchants paid taxes, while members of the old and new elites collected them.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus53-119">[119]</a> Payment of taxes, which for peasants often reached half of the value of their produce, was an economic burden as well as a mark of social inferiority.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus53-119">[119]</a> Scholars differ in their assessment of relative tax burdens before and after the conquests. <a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">John Esposito</a> states that in effect this meant lower taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito199834-128">[128]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>, available evidence suggests that the change from Byzantine to Arab rule was "welcomed by many among the subject peoples, who found the new yoke far lighter than the old, both in taxation and in other matters".<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Stillman" title="Norman Stillman">Norman Stillman</a> writes that although the tax burden of the Jews under early Islamic rule was comparable to that under previous rulers, Christians of the Byzantine Empire (though not Christians of the Persian empire, whose status was similar to that of the Jews) and Zoroastrians of Iran shouldered a considerably heavier burden in the immediate aftermath of the conquests.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PERF_558,_recto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/PERF_558%2C_recto.jpg/220px-PERF_558%2C_recto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/PERF_558%2C_recto.jpg/330px-PERF_558%2C_recto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/PERF_558%2C_recto.jpg/440px-PERF_558%2C_recto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4412" data-file-height="3048" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian papyrus <a href="/wiki/PERF_558" title="PERF 558">PERF 558</a> containing a bilingual Greek-Arabic tax receipt dated from 643 AD</figcaption></figure> In the wake of the early conquests taxes could be levied on individuals, on the land, or as collective tribute.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> During the first century of Islamic expansion, the words <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">kharaj</a> were used in all three senses, with context distinguishing between individual and land taxes.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Regional variations in taxation at first reflected the diversity of previous systems.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> The Sasanian Empire had a general tax on land and a poll tax having several rates based on wealth, with an exemption for aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> This poll tax was adapted by Arab rulers, so that the aristocracy exemption was assumed by the new Arab-Muslim elite and shared by local aristocracy who converted to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> The nature of Byzantine taxation remains partly unclear, but it appears to have been levied as a collective tribute on population centers and this practice was generally followed under the Arab rule in former Byzantine provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> Collection of taxes was delegated to autonomous local communities on the condition that the burden be divided among its members in the most equitable manner.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> In most of Iran and Central Asia local rulers paid a fixed tribute and maintained their autonomy in tax collection.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tax_evasion_and_reforms">Tax evasion and reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Tax evasion and reforms">edit</a>]</div> Difficulties in tax collection soon appeared.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> Egyptian Copts, who had been skilled in tax evasion since Roman times, were able to avoid paying the taxes by entering monasteries, which were initially exempt from taxation, or simply by leaving the district where they were registered.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> This prompted imposition of taxes on monks and introduction of movement controls.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen560-133">[133]</a> In Iraq, many peasants who had fallen behind with their tax payments converted to Islam and abandoned their land for Arab garrison towns in hope of escaping taxation.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Faced with a decline in agriculture and a treasury shortfall, the governor of Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a>, forced peasant converts to return to their lands and subjected them to the taxes again, effectively forbidding them from converting to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen561-136">[136]</a> In Khorasan, a similar phenomenon forced the native aristocracy to compensate for the shortfall in tax collection out of their own pockets, and they responded by persecuting peasant converts and imposing heavier taxes on poor Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen561-136">[136]</a> The situation where conversion to Islam was penalized in an Islamic state could not last, and the Umayyad caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 717–720) has been credited with changing the taxation system.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen561-136">[136]</a> Modern historians doubt this account, although details of the transition to the system of taxation elaborated by Abbasid-era jurists are unclear.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen561-136">[136]</a> Umar II ordered governors to cease collection of taxes from Muslim converts, but his successors obstructed this policy and some governors sought to stem the tide of conversions by introducing additional requirements such as circumcision and the ability to recite passages from the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Taxation-related grievances of non-Arab Muslims contributed to the opposition movements which resulted in the Abbasid Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Under the new system that was eventually established, kharaj came to be regarded as a tax levied on the land, regardless of the taxpayer's religion.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen561-136">[136]</a> The poll-tax was no longer levied on Muslims, but the treasury did not necessarily suffer and converts did not gain as a result, since they had to pay <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a>, which was probably instituted as a compulsory tax on Muslims around 730.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> The terminology became specialized during the Abbasid era, so that kharaj no longer meant anything more than land tax, while the term jizya was restricted to the poll-tax on <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cahen561-136">[136]</a> The influence of jizya on conversion has been a subject of scholarly debate.<a href="#cite_note-Tramontana-140">[140]</a> Julius Wellhausen holds that the poll tax amounted to so little that exemption from it did not constitute sufficient economic motive for conversion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennett195010-141">[141]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Thomas Arnold</a> states that jizya was "too moderate" to constitute a burden, "seeing that it released them from the compulsory military service that was incumbent on their Muslim fellow subjects." He further adds that converts escaping taxation would have to pay the legal alms, zakat, that is annually levied on most kinds of movable and immovable property.<a href="#cite_note-ArnoldPoI7-142">[142]</a> Other early 20th century scholars suggest that non-Muslims converted to Islam en masse in order to escape the poll tax, but this theory has been challenged by more recent research.<a href="#cite_note-Tramontana-140">[140]</a> Daniel Dennett has shown that other factors, such as desire to retain social status, had greater influence on this choice in the early Islamic period.<a href="#cite_note-Tramontana-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sharia_and_non-Muslims">Sharia and non-Muslims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Sharia and non-Muslims">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></div> The Arab conquerors did not repeat the mistakes which had been made by the governments of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, which had tried and failed to impose an official religion on subject populations, which had caused resentments that made the Muslim conquests more acceptable to them.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis19-143">[143]</a> Instead, the rulers of the new empire generally respected the traditional middle-Eastern pattern of religious pluralism, which was not one of equality but rather of dominance by one group over the others.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis19-143">[143]</a> After the end of military operations, which involved sacking of some monasteries and confiscation of Zoroastrian <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire temples</a> in Syria and Iraq, the early caliphate was characterized by religious tolerance and peoples of all ethnicities and religions blended in public life.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Before Muslims were ready to build mosques in Syria, they accepted Christian churches as holy places and shared them with local Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">[125]</a> In Iraq and Egypt, Muslim authorities cooperated with Christian religious leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">[125]</a> Numerous churches were repaired and new ones built during the Umayyad era.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The first Umayyad caliph <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muawiyah</a> made deliberate efforts to convince those whom he had conquered that he was not opposed to their religion, and tried to enlist support from Christian Arab elites.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> There is no evidence for public display of Islam by the state before the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> (685–705), when Quranic verses and references to Muhammad suddenly became prominent on coins and official documents.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland195-147">[147]</a> This change was motivated by a desire to unify the Muslim community after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">second civil war</a> and rally them against their chief common enemy, the Byzantine Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland195-147">[147]</a> A further change of policy occurred during the reign of Umar II (717–720).<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland196-148">[148]</a> The disastrous failure of the siege of Constantinople in 718 which was accompanied by massive Arab casualties led to a spike of popular animosity among Muslims toward Byzantium and Christians in general.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland196-148">[148]</a> At the same time, many Arab soldiers left the army for civilian occupations and they wished to emphasize their high social status among the conquered peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland196-148">[148]</a> These events prompted introduction of <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Umar" title="Pact of Umar">restrictions on non-Muslims</a>, which, according to Hoyland, were modeled both on Byzantine curbs on Jews, starting with the <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosian Code">Theodosian Code</a> and later codes, which contained prohibitions against building new synagogues and giving testimony against Christians, and on Sassanid regulations that prescribed distinctive attire for different social classes.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland196-148">[148]</a> In the following decades Islamic jurists elaborated a legal framework in which other religions would have a protected but subordinate status.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland195-147">[147]</a> Islamic law followed the Byzantine precedent of classifying subjects of the state according to their religion, in contrast to the Sasanian model which put more weight on social than on religious distinctions.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland196-148">[148]</a> In theory, like the Byzantine empire, the caliphate placed severe restrictions on paganism, but in practice most non-Abrahamic communities of the former Sasanian territories were classified as possessors of a scripture (ahl al-kitab) and granted protected (<a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a>) status.<a href="#cite_note-Hoyland196-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jews_and_Christians">Jews and Christians</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Jews and Christians">edit</a>]</div> In Islam, Christians and Jews are seen as "Peoples of the Book" as the Muslims accept both Jesus Christ and the Jewish prophets as their own prophets, which accorded them a respect that was not reserved to the "heathen" peoples of Iran, Central Asia and India.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=84-149">[149]</a> In places like the Levant and Egypt, both Christians and Jews were allowed to maintain their churches and synagogues and keep their own religious organizations in exchange for paying the jizya tax.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=84-149">[149]</a> At times, the caliphs engaged in triumphalist gestures, like building the famous Dome of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem from 690 to 692 on the site of the Jewish Second Temple, which had been destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD—though the use of Roman and Sassanian symbols of power in the mosque suggests its purpose was partly to celebrate the Arab victories over the two empires.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Those Christians out of favor with the prevailing orthodoxy in the Roman Empire often preferred to live under Muslim rule as it meant the end of persecution.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85-151">[151]</a> As both the Jewish and Christian communities of the Levant and North Africa were better educated than their conquerors, they were often employed as civil servants in the early years of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">[72]</a> However, a reported saying of Muhammad that "Two religions may not dwell together in Arabia" led to different policies being pursued in Arabia with conversion to Islam being imposed rather than merely encouraged.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85-151">[151]</a> With the notable exception of Yemen, where a large Jewish community existed right up until the middle of the 20th century, all of the Christian and Jewish communities in Arabia "completely disappeared".<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85-151">[151]</a> The Jewish community of Yemen seems to have survived as Yemen was not regarded as part of Arabia proper in the same way that the Hejaz and the Nejd were.<a href="#cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_R._Cohen" title="Mark R. Cohen">Mark R. Cohen</a> writes that the jizya paid by Jews under Islamic rule provided a "surer guarantee of protection from non-Jewish hostility" than that possessed by Jews in the Latin West, where Jews "paid numerous and often unreasonably high and arbitrary taxes" in return for official protection, and where treatment of Jews was governed by charters which new rulers could alter at will upon accession or refuse to renew altogether.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-152">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Umar" title="Pact of Umar">Pact of Umar</a>, which stipulated that Muslims must "do battle to guard" the dhimmis and "put no burden on them greater than they can bear", was not always upheld, but it remained "a steadfast cornerstone of Islamic policy" into early modern times.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_(warrior)" title="Ghazi (warrior)">Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">Islam and war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Europe" title="Islam in Europe">Islam in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-modern_human_migration" title="Pre-modern human migration">Pre-modern human migration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NileGreen-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NileGreen_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NileGreen_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNile_Green2016" class="citation book cs1">Nile Green (12 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46">Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520294134" title="Special:BookSources/9780520294134"><bdi>9780520294134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Islam%3A+From+Conversion+to+the+Taliban&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft.isbn=9780520294134&rft.au=Nile+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg6swDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaban-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shaban_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaban_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._A._Sabhan1979" class="citation book cs1">M. A. Sabhan (8 March 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11">The 'Abbāsid Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521295345" title="Special:BookSources/9780521295345"><bdi>9780521295345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Abb%C4%81sid+Revolution&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979-03-08&rft.isbn=9780521295345&rft.au=M.+A.+Sabhan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1_03AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaegi1995">Kaegi (1995)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFDonner2014">Donner (2014)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2007">Kennedy (2007)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchan2007" class="citation news cs1">Buchan, James (21 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2007/jul/21/historybooks.featuresreviews">"Children of empire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 27 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Children+of+empire&rft.date=2007-07-21&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Buchan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2007%2Fjul%2F21%2Fhistorybooks.featuresreviews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankinship1994" class="citation book cs1">Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C&q=umayyad+caliphate+square+miles&pg=PA37">The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads</a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1827-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1827-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-1827-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Jihad+State%2C+the+Reign+of+Hisham+Ibn+%27Abd-al+Malik+and+the+collapse+of+the+Umayyads&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7&rft.aulast=Blankinship&rft.aufirst=Khalid+Yahya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJz0Yy053WS4C%26q%3Dumayyad%2Bcaliphate%2Bsquare%2Bmiles%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardnerKobtzeff2012" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, Hall; Kobtzeff, Oleg, eds. (2012). The Ashgate Research Companion to War: Origins and Prevention. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 208–209.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ashgate+Research+Companion+to+War%3A+Origins+and+Prevention&rft.pages=208-209&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenwein2004" class="citation book cs1">Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2004). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Ontario: Broadview Press. pp. 71–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-290-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-290-9"><bdi>978-1-55111-290-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Ontario&rft.pages=71-72&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-55111-290-9&rft.aulast=Rosenwein&rft.aufirst=Barbara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJandora1985" class="citation journal cs1">Jandora, John W. (1985). "The battle of the Yarmūk: A reconstruction". Journal of Asian History. 19 (1): 8–21. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41930557">41930557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+History&rft.atitle=The+battle+of+the+Yarm%C5%ABk%3A+A+reconstruction&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-21&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41930557%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jandora&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2011" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Reg G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s4njwZGrZg4C&q=battle+of+firaz&pg=PA108">"Yarmuk"</a>. 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History. Universe Pub. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7893-2233-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7893-2233-3"><bdi>978-0-7893-2233-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yarmuk&rft.btitle=1001+Battles+That+Changed+the+Course+of+World+History&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Universe+Pub.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7893-2233-3&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Reg+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds4njwZGrZg4C%26q%3Dbattle%2Bof%2Bfiraz%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200914–15-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200914–15_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200915-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200915_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200915_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200917–18-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200917–18_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200918-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200918_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200918_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200918_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200918_14-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200918_14-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200918_14-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200919-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200919_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200919_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200919_15-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200922-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200922_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200922_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200922_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200922_16-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 317–327 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227; Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), passim; Speck (1984), 178 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200949-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200949_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200949_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoss1975" class="citation journal cs1">Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the end of antiquity". The English Historical Review. 90 (357): 721–747. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FXC.CCCLVII.721">10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/567292">567292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Persians+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+end+of+antiquity&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=357&rft.pages=721-747&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FXC.CCCLVII.721&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F567292%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Foss&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward-Johnston2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Howard-Johnston" title="James Howard-Johnston">Howard-Johnston, James</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&q=Howard-Johnston,+East+Rome,+Sasanian+Persia+and+the+End+of+Antiquity">East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies</a>. Ashgate Publishing. p. xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-992-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-992-5"><bdi>978-0-86078-992-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Rome%2C+Sasanian+Persia+And+the+End+of+Antiquity%3A+Historiographical+And+Historical+Studies&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-86078-992-5&rft.aulast=Howard-Johnston&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1U4rUaLdYnQC%26q%3DHoward-Johnston%2C%2BEast%2BRome%2C%2BSasanian%2BPersia%2Band%2Bthe%2BEnd%2Bof%2BAntiquity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiska1998" class="citation book cs1">Liska, George (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oaPlJgAACAAJ&q=Liska,+Expanding+Realism">"Projection contra prediction: Alternative futures and options"</a>. Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8680-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8680-3"><bdi>978-0-8476-8680-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Projection+contra+prediction%3A+Alternative+futures+and+options&rft.btitle=Expanding+Realism%3A+The+Historical+Dimension+of+World+Politics&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-8680-3&rft.aulast=Liska&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoaPlJgAACAAJ%26q%3DLiska%2C%2BExpanding%2BRealism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaegi1995">Kaegi (1995)</a>, p. 66 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle1994">Nicolle (1994)</a>, p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyland199759–60-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoyland199759–60_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoyland199759–60_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland1997">Hoyland 1997</a>, pp. 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200926-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200926_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200926_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200926_25-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200926–27-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200926–27_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200928-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200928_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200928–29-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200928–29_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200930-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200930_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200930_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200931–32-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200931–32_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200933-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200933_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200934–35-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200934–35_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 34–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200936–37-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200936–37_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200937-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200937_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200938-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200938_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200938_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200938_35-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200938–39-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200938–39_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 38–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200941-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200941_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200941_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200941_37-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200943-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200943_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200943_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200943_38-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200944-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200944_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200944_39-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200945-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200945_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200945_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200946–47-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200946–47_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 46–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200946-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200946_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, pp. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200947-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200947_43-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus49-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus49_44-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200963-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200963_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, pp. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200964-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200964_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200964_46-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, pp. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200950-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200950_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200950_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200951-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200951_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200951_48-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200954-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200954_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200954_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200954_49-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200952-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200952_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200952_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200952_50-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=52-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=52_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=52_51-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 70; in 641 according to <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200955-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200955_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200955_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200956-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200956_54-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 70–72 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 73–75, <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 73–75; in 643 according to <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2007">Kennedy (2007)</a>, p. 165 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200957-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200957_59-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200958-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200958_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200958_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200958_60-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vaglieri60-61-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vaglieri60-61_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vaglieri60-61_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vaglieri60-61_61-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vaglieri60-61_61-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vaglieri60-61_61-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFVaglieri1977">Vaglieri (1977)</a>, pp. 60–61 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=58_62-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 58 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=59_63-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=66_64-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 66 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 60 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPagden2008">Pagden (2008)</a>, p. 145–146 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=60-61-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=60-61_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=60-61_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 60-61 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61_68-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61_68-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=61_68-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 61 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62_69-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62_69-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=62_69-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 629 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 66-68 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=68_72-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2014">Donner (2014)</a>, pp. 3–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland93-95-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland93-95_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland93-95_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland93-95_74-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland93-95_74-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 93–95 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2014">Donner (2014)</a>, p. 3, <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 93 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2014">Donner (2014)</a>, p. 5, <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> "The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories [in the Ridda Wars] was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires." <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 48 See also <a href="#CITEREFDonner2014">Donner (2014)</a>, pp. 5–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 48, <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2014">Donner (2014)</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2010" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Chase F. (2010). "The rise of Islam, 600 705". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521838238" title="Special:BookSources/9780521838238"><bdi>9780521838238</bdi></a>. <q>it is probably safe to assume that Muslims were often outnumbered. Unlike their adversaries, however, Muslim armies were fast, agile, well coordinated and highly motivated.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+rise+of+Islam%2C+600+705&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Formation+of+the+Islamic+World%2C+Sixth+to+Eleventh+Centuries&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780521838238&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Chase+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 50, <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 93 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 97 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 50, <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 97 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus50-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus50_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus50_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus50_84-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus50_84-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus50_84-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 50 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland127-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland127_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland127_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 127 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 190 </li> <li id="cite_note-EI-9-632-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EI-9-632_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-9-632_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-9-632_87-2">c</a> T.W. Haig, <a href="/wiki/C.E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C.E. Bosworth">C.E. Bosworth</a>. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Sind", vol. 9, p. 632 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland192-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland192_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland192_88-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 192–194 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland124-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland124_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland124_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland124_90-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 124–126 </li> <li id="cite_note-EI-5-1189-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EI-5-1189_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-5-1189_91-1">b</a> G. Yver. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Maghreb", vol. 5, p. 1189. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland142-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland142_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland142_92-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 142–145 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland180-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland180_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland180_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 180 </li> <li id="cite_note-EI-1-492-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-492_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-492_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-492_94-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-492_94-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-492_94-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Évariste Lévi-Provençal">Évariste Lévi-Provençal</a>. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Al-Andalus", vol. 1, p. 492 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland146-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland146_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland146_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland146_95-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland146_95-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 146–147 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200965-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200965_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200965_96-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, pp. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=71_97-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=65-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=65_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=65_98-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 65 </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 71-72 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200972-73-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200972-73_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 72-73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200975-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200975_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200975_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200975_101-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel456-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel456_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel456_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaniel2010">Daniel (2010)</a>, p. 456 </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel457-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel457_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel457_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel457_103-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaniel2010">Daniel (2010)</a>, p. 457 </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel458-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Daniel458_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaniel2010">Daniel (2010)</a>, p. 458 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNile_Green2016" class="citation book cs1">Nile Green (12 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43">Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 43, 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520294134" title="Special:BookSources/9780520294134"><bdi>9780520294134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Islam%3A+From+Conversion+to+the+Taliban&rft.pages=43%2C+44&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft.isbn=9780520294134&rft.au=Nile+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg6swDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNile_Green2016" class="citation book cs1">Nile Green (12 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46">Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 44, 46–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520294134" title="Special:BookSources/9780520294134"><bdi>9780520294134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Islam%3A+From+Conversion+to+the+Taliban&rft.pages=44%2C+46-47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft.isbn=9780520294134&rft.au=Nile+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg6swDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JLL167-107"><a href="#cite_ref-JLL167_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeSims_Williams2003" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Jonathan L.; Sims Williams, Nicholas (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4091971">"Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan"</a>. Silk Road Art and Archaeology. 9: 167.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Silk+Road+Art+and+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Bactrian+Inscription+from+Yakawlang+sheds+new+light+on+history+of+Buddhism+in+Afghanistan&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=167&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+L.&rft.au=Sims+Williams%2C+Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4091971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland90-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland90_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland90_108-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland90_108-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 90–93 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus/Government-and-society">"Cyprus - Government and society | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Cyprus+-+Government+and+society+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FCyprus%2FGovernment-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EI-1-636-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-636_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-636_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-1-636_110-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Marius_Canard" title="Marius Canard">M. Canard</a>. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Arminiya", vol. 1, pp. 636–637 </li> <li id="cite_note-EI-4-343-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EI-4-343_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EI-4-343_111-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/C.E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C.E. Bosworth">C.E. Bosworth</a>. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Al-Qabq", vol. 4, pp. 343–344 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 106–108 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 108–109, 175–177 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mansel_Longworth_Dames" title="Mansel Longworth Dames">M. Longworth Dames</a>. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Afghanistan", vol. 1, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland207-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland207_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland207_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland207_115-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland207_115-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 207 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200991-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200991_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, pp. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200980–84-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle200980–84_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle 2009</a>, pp. 80–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus52-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus52_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus52_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus52_118-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus52_118-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus52_118-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus52_118-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus53-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus53_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus53_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus53_119-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus53_119-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 53 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus56-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus56_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus57-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus57_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 57 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus58-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58_123-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58_123-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 58 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus58-60-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus58-60_124-11">l</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, pp. 58–60 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus60-61-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus60-61_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus60-61_125-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus60-61_125-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus60-61_125-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus60-61_125-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus60-61_125-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, pp. 60–61 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lapidus61-62-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus61-62_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus61-62_126-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus61-62_126-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lapidus61-62_126-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, pp. 61–62 </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito199834-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito199834_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito1998">Esposito (1998)</a>, p. 34. "They replaced the conquered countries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preserved much of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. For many in the conquered territories, it was no more than an exchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs. In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia. Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax (jizya) that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service. Thus, they were called the "protected ones" (dhimmi). In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local autonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites of Byzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians." </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabsinhistory00bern/page/57">Arabs in History</a>. OUP Oxford. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabsinhistory00bern/page/57">57</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19280-31-08" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19280-31-08"><bdi>978-0-19280-31-08</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+in+History&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19280-31-08&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabsinhistory00bern%2Fpage%2F57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStillman1979">Stillman (1979)</a>, p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 559 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 560; Anver M. Emon, Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law, p. 98, note 3. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199661633" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199661633">978-0199661633</a>. Quote: "Some studies question the nearly synonymous use of the terms kharaj and jizya in the historical sources. The general view suggests that while the terms kharaj and jizya seem to have been used interchangeably in early historical sources, what they referred to in any given case depended on the linguistic context. If one finds references to "a kharaj on their heads," the reference was to a poll tax, despite the use of the term kharaj, which later became the term of art for land tax. Likewise, if one fins the phrase "jizya on their land," this referred to a land tax, despite the use of jizya which later come to refer to the poll tax. Early history therefore shows that although each term did not have a determinate technical meaning at first, the concepts of poll tax and land tax existed early in Islamic history." Denner, Conversion and the Poll Tax, 3–10; Ajiaz Hassan Qureshi, "The Terms Kharaj and Jizya and Their Implication," Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society 12 (1961): 27–38; Hossein Modarressi Rabatab'i, Kharaj in Islamic Law (London: Anchor Press Ltd, 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahen560-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen560_133-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 560 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 560; <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 99 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 560; <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 199 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahen561-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen561_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen561_136-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen561_136-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen561_136-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen561_136-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cahen561_136-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 561 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 199 </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 201–202 </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCahen1965">Cahen (1965)</a>, p. 561; <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 200 </li> <li id="cite_note-Tramontana-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tramontana_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tramontana_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tramontana_140-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTramontana2013" class="citation journal cs1">Tramontana, Felicita (2013). "The Poll Tax and the Decline of the Christian Presence in the Palestinian Countryside in the 17th Century". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 56 (4–5): 631–652. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685209-12341337">10.1163/15685209-12341337</a>. <q>The (cor)relation between the payment of the poll-tax and conversion to Islam, has long been the subject of scholarly debate. At the beginning of the twentieth century scholars suggested that after the Muslim conquest the local populations converted en masse to evade the payment of the poll tax. This assumption has been challenged by subsequent research. Indeed Dennett's study clearly showed that the payment of the poll tax was not a sufficient reason to convert after the Muslim conquest and that other factors—such as the wish to retain social status—had greater influence. According to Inalcik the wish to evade payment of the jizya was an important incentive for conversion to Islam in the Balkans, but Anton Minkov has recently argued that taxation was only one of a number of motivations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=The+Poll+Tax+and+the+Decline+of+the+Christian+Presence+in+the+Palestinian+Countryside+in+the+17th+Century&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=631-652&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15685209-12341337&rft.aulast=Tramontana&rft.aufirst=Felicita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennett195010-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennett195010_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDennett1950">Dennett (1950)</a>, p. 10. "Wellhausen makes the assumption that the poll tax amounted to so little that exemption from it did not constitute sufficient economic motive for conversion." </li> <li id="cite_note-ArnoldPoI7-142"><a href="#cite_ref-ArnoldPoI7_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker_Arnold1913" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Walker Arnold, Thomas</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/preachingofislam00arno">Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith</a>. <a href="/wiki/Constable_%26_Robinson" title="Constable & Robinson">Constable & Robinson Ltd</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/preachingofislam00arno/page/59">59</a>. <q>... but this jizyah was too moderate to constitute a burden, seeing that it released them from the compulsory military service that was incumbent on their Muslim fellow-subjects. Conversion to Islam was certainly attended by a certain pecuniary advantage, but his former religion could have had but little hold on a convert who abandoned it merely to gain exemption from the jizyah; and now, instead of jizyah, the convert had to pay the legal alms, zakāt, annually levied on most kinds of movable and immovable property.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preaching+of+Islam%3A+A+History+of+the+Propagation+of+the+Muslim+Faith&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Constable+%26+Robinson+Ltd&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Walker+Arnold&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpreachingofislam00arno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/preachingofislam00arno#page/58/mode/2up">online</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis19-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis19_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis19_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2014" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c0S4lOyfKSYC&pg=PA19">The Jews of Islam</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400820290" title="Special:BookSources/9781400820290"><bdi>9781400820290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Islam&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781400820290&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc0S4lOyfKSYC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, pp. 61, 153 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus (2014)</a>, p. 156 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 130 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland195-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland195_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland195_147-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland195_147-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, p. 195 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyland196-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland196_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland196_148-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland196_148-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland196_148-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland196_148-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoyland196_148-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoyland2014">Hoyland (2014)</a>, pp. 196–198 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=84-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=84_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=84_149-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 81-82 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85_151-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harvp|Nicolle|2009|p=85_151-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolle2009">Nicolle (2009)</a>, p. 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_152-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCohen2008">Cohen (2008)</a>, pp. 72–73 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_sources">General and cited sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General and cited sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahen1965" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Cahen" title="Claude Cahen">Cahen, Claude</a> (1965). <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume II: C–G</a>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469475">495469475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+II%3A+C%E2%80%93G&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469475&rft.aulast=Cahen&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_R._Cohen" title="Mark R. Cohen">Cohen, Mark</a> (2008). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13931-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13931-9"><bdi>978-0-691-13931-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+Crescent+and+Cross%3A+The+Jews+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13931-9&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elton_L._Daniel" title="Elton L. Daniel">Daniel, Elton L.</a> (2010). "The Islamic East". In <a href="/wiki/Chase_F._Robinson" title="Chase F. Robinson">Robinson, Chase F.</a> (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83823-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83823-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Islamic+East&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Formation+of+the+Islamic+World%2C+Sixth+to+Eleventh+Centuries&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83823-8&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=Elton+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennett1950" class="citation book cs1">Dennett, Daniel Clement (1950). Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674331594" title="Special:BookSources/9780674331594"><bdi>9780674331594</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversion+and+the+Poll+Tax+in+Early+Islam&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=9780674331594&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Clement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Donner, Fred M.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1400847877">The Early Islamic Conquests</a>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Islamic+Conquests&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D1400847877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050721060321/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html">Chapter 51</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyland1997" class="citation book cs1">Hoyland, Robert G (1997). Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam (Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam). The Dawrwin Press, Inc. Princeton, NJ.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seeing+Islam+as+Others+Saw+It%3A+A+Survey+and+Evaluation+of+Christian%2C+Jewish+and+Zoroastrian+Writings+on+Early+Islam+%28Studies+in+Late+Antiquity+and+Early+Islam%29&rft.pub=The+Dawrwin+Press%2C+Inc.+Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Hoyland&rft.aufirst=Robert+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyland2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Hoyland" title="Robert G. Hoyland">Hoyland, Robert G.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zvmKBAAAQBAJ">In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-991636-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-991636-8"><bdi>978-0-19-991636-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+God%27s+Path%3A+The+Arab+Conquests+and+the+Creation+of+an+Islamic+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-991636-8&rft.aulast=Hoyland&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzvmKBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaegi1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaegi" title="Walter Kaegi">Kaegi, Walter E.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvPVEb17uzkC">Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521484558" title="Special:BookSources/9780521484558"><bdi>9780521484558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Early+Islamic+Conquests&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780521484558&rft.aulast=Kaegi&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIvPVEb17uzkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KBQOAQAAMAAJ">The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In</a>. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81740-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81740-3"><bdi>978-0-306-81740-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Arab+Conquests%3A+How+the+Spread+of+Islam+Changed+the+World+We+Live+In&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-306-81740-3&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKBQOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Lapidus, Ira M.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJ">A History of Islamic Societies</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9"><bdi>978-0-521-51430-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51430-9&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkFJNBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John L.</a> (1998). <a href="/wiki/Islam:_The_Straight_Path" title="Islam: The Straight Path">Islam: The Straight Path</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511233-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511233-7"><bdi>978-0-19-511233-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511233-7&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Nicolle" title="David Nicolle">Nicolle, David</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IR9rNAai2koC">Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria</a>. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-414-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-414-5"><bdi>978-1-85532-414-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yarmuk+AD+636%3A+The+Muslim+Conquest+of+Syria&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-414-5&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIR9rNAai2koC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Nicolle" title="David Nicolle">Nicolle, David</a> (2009). The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632-750. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-273-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-273-8"><bdi>978-1-84603-273-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Islamic+Conquests+AD+632-750&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-273-8&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagden2008" class="citation book cs1">Pagden, Anthony (13 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ5Wp3Wps-UC&pg=PA145">Worlds at War: The 2,500 – Year Struggle Between East and West</a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923743-2"><bdi>978-0-19-923743-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+at+War%3A+The+2%2C500+%E2%80%93+Year+Struggle+Between+East+and+West&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2008-03-13&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923743-2&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQ5Wp3Wps-UC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStillman1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Stillman" title="Norman Stillman">Stillman, Norman</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewsofarablands00stil">The Jews of Arab Lands : A History and Source Book</a>. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0198-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0198-7"><bdi>978-0-8276-0198-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Arab+Lands+%3A+A+History+and+Source+Book&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society+of+America&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0198-7&rft.aulast=Stillman&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjewsofarablands00stil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaglieri1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laura_Veccia_Vaglieri" title="Laura Veccia Vaglieri">Vaglieri, Laura Veccia</a> (1977). "The Patriarchal and Umayyad caliphates". In Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (eds.). The Cambridge History of Islam Volume 1A: The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521219464.005">10.1017/CHOL9780521219464.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521219464" title="Special:BookSources/9780521219464"><bdi>9780521219464</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Patriarchal+and+Umayyad+caliphates&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam+Volume+1A%3A+The+Central+Islamic+Lands+from+Pre-Islamic+Times+to+the+First+World+War&rft.pages=57-103&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521219464.005&rft.isbn=9780521219464&rft.aulast=Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=Laura+Veccia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Muslim+conquests" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template talk:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Category:History of the Catholic Church by country">By country or region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Catholic ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Curia" title="History of the Roman Curia">History of the Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">Religious institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a> (30–325/476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a> (100–325)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a> (180–451) <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman state church</a> (380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Vatican_City" title="Portal:Vatican City">Vatican City portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&oldid=1256767612">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&oldid=1256767612</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Category:Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:7th_century_in_Iran" title="Category:7th century in Iran">7th century in Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th_century_in_al-Andalus" title="Category:8th century in al-Andalus">8th century in al-Andalus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th_century_in_Iran" title="Category:8th century in Iran">8th century in Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Arabs" title="Category:History of the Arabs">History of the Arabs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Levant" title="Category:History of the Levant">History of the Levant</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Category:History of the Mediterranean">History of the Mediterranean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_Egypt" title="Category:Islam in Egypt">Islam in Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Category:Wars involving the Rashidun Caliphate">Wars involving the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Category:Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate">Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pending_changes_protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia pending changes protected pages">Wikipedia pending changes protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2024">Use dmy dates from March 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_copy_edit_from_June_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from June 2024">Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from June 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_February_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from February 2024">Articles with dead external links from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Tagalog-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Tagalog-language text">Articles containing Tagalog-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 November 2024, at 13:33 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_Muslim_conquests&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-g4rbt","wgBackendResponseTime":181,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.761","walltime":"2.212","ppvisitednodes":{"value":16411,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":360810,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":23682,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":33,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":263964,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1726.988 1 -total"," 21.27% 367.391 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.82% 238.651 29 Template:Cite_book"," 13.12% 226.515 67 Template:Sfnp"," 9.33% 161.085 1 Template:Infobox_military_conflict"," 7.25% 125.129 1 Template:Langx"," 5.76% 99.532 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.46% 94.359 1 Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church"," 4.92% 84.942 4 Template:Portal-inline"," 4.71% 81.279 95 Template:Harvp"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.878","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21351101,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBlankinship1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuchan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCahen1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDennett1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoss1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardnerKobtzeff2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward-Johnston2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyland1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyland2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJandora1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaegi1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeSims_Williams2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiska1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._A._Sabhan1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolle1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNile_Green2016\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPagden2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenwein2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStillman1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTramontana2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaglieri1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker_Arnold1913\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 27,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 4,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Muslim Conquests\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"EI2\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagicon image\"] = 51,\n [\"Flatlist\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 95,\n [\"History of the Catholic Church\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox clutter\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox military conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"KIA\"] = 14,\n [\"Kennedy-The Great Arab Conquests\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"New Cambridge History of Islam\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"POW\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 3,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 36,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 67,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Surrender\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 8,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-fnmng","timestamp":"20241128172800","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Early Muslim conquests","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Early_Muslim_conquests","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q275918","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q275918","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-10-09T03:57:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/72\/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg","headline":"historical process in 7th\u20138th centuries CE"}</script> </body> </html>