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id="toc-Life_and_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printing_press" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing_press"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Printing press</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printing_press-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Court_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Court case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Later life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Printing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Printing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Printing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Printing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Printing_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Printing method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printing_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printed_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printed_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Printed books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printed_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memorials_and_monuments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memorials_and_monuments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Memorials and monuments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memorials_and_monuments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Johannes Gutenberg</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 157 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-157" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">157 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%AE%E1%88%90%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B5_%E1%8C%89%E1%89%B0%E1%8A%95%E1%89%A4%E1%88%AD%E1%8C%8D" title="ዮሐንስ ጉተንቤርግ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዮሐንስ ጉተንቤርግ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="योहान गुटेन्बर्ग – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="योहान गुटेन्बर्ग" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%BA%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%BA" title="يوهان غوتنبرغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يوهان غوتنبرغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%97%DC%90%DC%A2_%DC%93%DC%98%DC%9B%DC%A2%DC%92%DC%AA%DC%93" title="ܝܘܗܐܢ ܓܘܛܢܒܪܓ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܝܘܗܐܢ ܓܘܛܢܒܪܓ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%85%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AF" title="Յովհան Կիւթենպերկ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Յովհան Կիւթենպերկ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%27%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9B_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97" title="য়'হানেছ গুটন্‌বাৰ্গ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="য়'হানেছ গুটন্‌বাৰ্গ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="जोन गुटेन्बर्ग – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जोन गुटेन्बर्ग" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ohann_Qutenberq" title="İohann Qutenberq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İohann Qutenberq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82" title="یوهان قوتنبرق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یوهان قوتنبرق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97" title="ইয়োহানেস গুটেনবের্গ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইয়োহানেস গুটেনবের্গ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Йоһанн Гутенберг – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Йоһанн Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Іаган Гутэнберг – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іаган Гутэнберг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Ёган Гутэнбэрг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ёган Гутэнбэрг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Йоханес Гутенберг – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Йоханес Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Йоһанн Гутенберг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Йоһанн Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Иоганн Гутенберг – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Иоганн Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B2%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Γουτεμβέργιος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γουτεμβέργιος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="یوهانس گوتنبرگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یوهانس گوتنبرگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Гутенберг, Иоганн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Гутенберг, Иоганн" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%94%ED%95%98%EB%84%A4%EC%8A%A4_%EA%B5%AC%ED%85%90%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4%ED%81%AC" title="요하네스 구텐베르크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="요하네스 구텐베르크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%85%D5%B8%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Յոհան Գուտենբերգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Յոհան Գուտենբերգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="योहानेस गुटेनबर्ग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="योहानेस गुटेनबर्ग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Гутенберг, Иоганн – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Гутенберг, Иоганн" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A1_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%92" title="יוהנס גוטנברג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יוהנס גוטנברג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D" title="ಯೋಹಾನ್ ಗೂಟೆನ್‌ಬರ್ಗ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಯೋಹಾನ್ ಗೂಟೆನ್‌ಬರ್ಗ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="იოჰან გუტენბერგი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იოჰან გუტენბერგი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Иоганн Гутенберг – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иоганн Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Гутенберг, Иоганн – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Гутенберг, Иоганн" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Gutenbergus" title="Ioannes Gutenbergus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Gutenbergus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johans_G%C5%ABtenbergs" title="Johans Gūtenbergs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Johans Gūtenbergs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="जोन गुटेन्बर्ग – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="जोन गुटेन्बर्ग" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Јоханес Гутенберг – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јоханес Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D" title="ജോഹന്നസ് ഗുട്ടെൻബെർഗ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോഹന്നസ് ഗുട്ടെൻബെർഗ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="योहानेस गुटेनबर्ग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="योहानेस गुटेनबर्ग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="იოჰან გუტენბერგი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იოჰან გუტენბერგი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3_%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC" title="يوهانيس جوتينبرج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="يوهانيس جوتينبرج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%81_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Иоханнэс Гутэнбэрг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Иоханнэс Гутэнбэрг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9F%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%82%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ဂျိုဟန်နက် ဂူတင်ဘတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျိုဟန်နက် ဂူတင်ဘတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="जोन गुटेन्बर्ग – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जोन गुटेन्बर्ग" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="योहान गुटेनबर्ग – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="योहान गुटेनबर्ग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A8%E3%83%8F%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B0%E3%83%BC%E3%83%86%E3%83%B3%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF" title="ヨハネス・グーテンベルク – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヨハネス・グーテンベルク" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%96%DF%8F%DF%A4%DF%8A%DF%A3%DF%8D%DF%9B_%DF%9C%DF%AD%DF%8E%DF%95%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%93%DF%8D%DF%99" title="ߖߏߤߊߣߍߛ ߜ߭ߎߕߊ߲ߓߍߙ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߖߏߤߊߣߍߛ ߜ߭ߎߕߊ߲ߓߍߙ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Гутенберг, Иоганн – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Гутенберг, Иоганн" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%97%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%97" title="ଜନ ଗୁଟେନବର୍ଗ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଜନ ଗୁଟେନବର୍ଗ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohannis_Guutinbergi" title="Yohannis Guutinbergi – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Yohannis Guutinbergi" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਜੋਹਾਨਸ ਗੂਤਨਬਰਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੋਹਾਨਸ ਗੂਤਨਬਰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%81%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%B9%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="جوہانز گٹنبرگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جوہانز گٹنبرگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%DA%AB%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AB" title="یوهانس ګوتنبرګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="یوهانس ګوتنبرګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F_%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BA%E1%9E%82" title="ច្យូហានេស គូទេនបឺគ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ច្យូហានេស គូទេនបឺគ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohannes_Gutenberg" title="Yohannes Gutenberg – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Yohannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D2%90%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D2%91" title="Йоганн Ґутенберґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Йоганн Ґутенберґ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD" title="Гутенберг, Иоганн – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гутенберг, Иоганн" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yihannise.kutenpaw" title="Yihannise.kutenpaw – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Yihannise.kutenpaw" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="योहान गुटेनबर्ग – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="योहान गुटेनबर्ग" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%BD" title="ᱡᱚᱦᱟᱱᱮᱥ ᱜᱚᱴᱮᱱᱵᱟᱨᱜᱽ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱚᱦᱟᱱᱮᱥ ᱜᱚᱴᱮᱱᱵᱟᱨᱜᱽ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%86%DA%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="یۆھانس گووتنبێرگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یۆھانس گووتنبێرگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Јохан Гутенберг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јохан Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" title="Johann Gutenberg – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Johann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81" title="யோகான்னசு கூட்டன்பர்கு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யோகான்னசு கூட்டன்பர்கு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ohann_Gutenberg" title="İohann Gutenberg – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="İohann Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="జోహాన్స్ గుటెన్‌బర్గ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జోహాన్స్ గుటెన్‌బర్గ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84" title="โยฮันเนิส กูเทินแบร์ค – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โยฮันเนิส กูเทินแบร์ค" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Йоганн Гутенберг – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Йоганн Гутенберг" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%81%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9" title="یوہانس گوٹن برک – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یوہانس گوٹن برک" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutenberg_Iogann" title="Gutenberg Iogann – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Gutenberg Iogann" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutenbergi_Johannes" title="Gutenbergi Johannes – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Gutenbergi Johannes" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%8F%A4%E8%85%BE%E5%A0%A1" title="约翰内斯·古腾堡 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="约翰内斯·古腾堡" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%90%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%92" title="יאהאן גוטנבערג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יאהאן גוטנבערג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%8F%A4%E9%A8%B0%E5%A0%A1" title="約翰尼斯·古騰堡 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="約翰尼斯·古騰堡" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juohans_Gotenbergs" title="Juohans Gotenbergs – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Juohans Gotenbergs" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B0%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%A0%A1" title="约翰内斯·谷登堡 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="约翰内斯·谷登堡" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyanis_Gutenberg" title="Joyanis Gutenberg – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Joyanis Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Obolo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Johannes Gutenberg" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8958#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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(c. 1393–1406 – 1468)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Gutenberg" redirects here. For the Bible, see <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Gutenberg (disambiguation)">Gutenberg (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Johannes Gutenberg</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gutenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gutenberg.jpg/220px-Gutenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gutenberg.jpg/330px-Gutenberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gutenberg.jpg/440px-Gutenberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="1322" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Posthumous portrait of Gutenberg. No contemporary depictions survive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200058_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200058-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg</div><br /><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1393–1406</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Mainz" title="Free City of Mainz">Free City of Mainz</a><br />(now Germany)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">3 February 1468<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Mainz, Free City of Mainz</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupations</th><td class="infobox-data role"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Inventor</li><li><a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">craftsman</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Inventing the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a><br />Introducing <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> to Europe</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1393–1406</span> – 3 February 1468) was a German inventor and <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">craftsman</a> who invented the <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable-type</a> <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>. Though movable type was already in use in East Asia, Gutenberg's invention of the printing press<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> enabled a much faster rate of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>. The printing press later <a href="/wiki/Global_spread_of_the_printing_press" title="Global spread of the printing press">spread across the world</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and led to an <a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">information revolution</a> and the unprecedented mass-spread of literature throughout Europe. It had a profound impact on the development of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> movements. </p><p>His many contributions to printing include the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">ink</a> for printing books;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivulka19985_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivulka19985-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adjustable molds;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mechanical movable type; and the invention of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural <a href="/wiki/Screw_press" title="Screw press">screw presses</a> of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a <a href="/wiki/Type_metal" title="Type metal">type metal</a> <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Hand_mould#Printing" title="Hand mould">hand mould</a> for casting type. The alloy was a mixture of lead, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> that melted at a relatively low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well, and created a durable type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201156_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201156-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His major work, the <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a>, was the first printed version of the Bible and has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. </p><p>Gutenberg is often cited as among the most influential figures in <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a> and has been commemorated around the world. To celebrate the 500th anniversary of his birth in 1900, the <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Museum" title="Gutenberg Museum">Gutenberg Museum</a> was founded in his hometown of <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>. In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Time_Life" title="Time Life">Time Life</a> picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_and_career">Life and career</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png/180px-Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png/270px-Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png/360px-Gensfleisch_family_coat_of_arms.png 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="1719" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">Coat of arms</a> of the Gensfleisch family, from the <i>Register of Fiefs of Frederick I</i> (1461)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage35mode2up_35]_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage35mode2up_35]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Johannes Gutenberg was born in <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Mainz" title="Electorate of Mainz">Mainz</a> (in modern-day Germany), a wealthy city along the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, between the 14th and 15th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200058_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200058-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His exact year of birth is unknown; on the basis of a later document indicating that he came of age by 1420, scholarly estimates have ranged from 1393 to 1406.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The year 1400 is commonly assigned to Gutenberg, "for the sake of convenience".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIng198827_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIng198827-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tradition also holds his birthdate to be on the <a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Saint_John_the_Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nativity of Saint John the Baptist">feast day of Saint John the Baptist</a>, 24 June, since children of the time were often named after their birthday's <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no verification for this assumption, since the name "Johannes"—and variants such as "Johann", "Henne", "Hengin" and "Henchen"—was widely popular at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In full, Johannes Gutenberg's name was 'Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg', with "Laden" and "Gutenberg" being adopted from the family's residences in Mainz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIng198827_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIng198827-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter refers to the <i>Hof zum Gutenberg</i>, a large and now destroyed <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a>-style residence inherited by Gutenberg's father.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage32mode2up_32]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage32mode2up_32]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gutenberg probably spent his earliest years at the manor, which existed beside <a href="/wiki/St._Christoph%27s_Church,_Mainz" title="St. Christoph's Church, Mainz">St. Christoph's</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200058_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200058-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His father Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden was a <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)#German_cities_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">patrician</a> and merchant, likely in the <a href="/wiki/Cloth_merchant" title="Cloth merchant">cloth trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Friele later served among the "master of the accounts" for the city and was a <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnzmeister" title="Münzmeister">Münzerhausgenossenschaft</a></i></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">minting house cooperative</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), a part of the <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">mint</a>'s companionship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1386 Friele married his second wife, Else Wyrich, the daughter of a shopkeeper; Johannes was probably the youngest of the couple's three children, after his brother Friele (<abbr title="born">b.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1387</span>) and sister Else (<abbr title="born">b.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1390–1397</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29–30]_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29–30]-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars commonly assume that the marriage of Friele to Else, who was not of patrician lineage, complicated Gutenberg's future.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of his mother's commoner status, Gutenberg would never be able to succeed his father at the mint;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30–31]_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30–31]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to the historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferdinand_Geldner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferdinand Geldner (page does not exist)">Ferdinand Geldner</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Geldner" class="extiw" title="de:Ferdinand Geldner">de</a>]</span> this disconnect may have disillusioned him from high society and encouraged his unusual career as an inventor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060,_84_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060,_84-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The patrician (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Patrizier</i></span>) class of Mainz—the Gutenbergs included—held a privileged socioeconomic status, and their efforts to preserve this put them into frequent conflict with the younger generations of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Zünfte</i></span>) craftsmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200050–61_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200050–61-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A particularly violent conflict arose in February 1411 amid an election dispute, and at least 117 patricians fled the conflict in August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Friele left, presumably with the Gutenberg family, and probably stayed in the nearby <a href="/wiki/Eltville" title="Eltville">Eltville</a> since Else had inherited a house on the town walls there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911–12_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911–12-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">archbishop</a> mediated a peace between the rival parties, allowing the family to return to Mainz later that Autumn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation remained unstable and the rise of hunger riots forced the Gutenberg family to leave in January 1413 for Eltville.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <p>No documents survive concerning Gutenberg's childhood or youth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biographer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_Kapr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert Kapr (page does not exist)">Albert Kapr</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Kapr" class="extiw" title="de:Albert Kapr">de</a>]</span> remarked that "most books on Gutenberg pass over this period with the remark that not a single fact is known".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage36mode2up_36]_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage36mode2up_36]-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the son of a patrician, education in reading and arithmetic would have been expected.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>—a prerequisite for universities—is also probable, though it is unknown whether he attended a Mainz parish school, was educated in <a href="/wiki/Eltville" title="Eltville">Eltville</a> or had a private tutor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060–61_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060–61-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gutenberg may have initially pursued a religious career, as was common with the youngest sons of patricians, since the proximity of many churches and monasteries made it a safe prospect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been speculated that he attended the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stift_St._Viktor_vor_Mainz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stift St. Viktor vor Mainz (page does not exist)">St. Victor's</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stift_St._Viktor_vor_Mainz" class="extiw" title="de:Stift St. Viktor vor Mainz">de</a>]</span> south of Mainz (near <a href="/wiki/Mainz-Weisenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainz-Weisenau">Weisenau</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainz-Weisenau" class="extiw" title="de:Mainz-Weisenau">de</a>]</span>), as he would later join their brotherhood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the site of a well-regarded school and his family had connections there, though his actual attendance remains speculative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200061_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200061-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He is assumed to have studied at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Erfurt" title="University of Erfurt">University of Erfurt</a>, where there is a record of the enrollment of a student called Johannes de Altavilla in 1418—Altavilla is the Latin form of Eltville am Rhein.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200061–62_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200061–62-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nothing is now known of Gutenberg's life for the next fifteen years, but in March 1434, a letter by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he had some relatives on his mother's side. He also appears to have been a goldsmith member enrolled in the Strasbourg <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a>. In 1437, there is evidence that he was instructing a wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, but where he had acquired this knowledge is unknown. In 1436/37 his name also comes up in court in connection with a broken promise of marriage to a woman from Strasbourg, Ennelin.<sup id="cite_ref-museum_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-museum-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded. Following his father's death in 1419, he is mentioned in the inheritance proceedings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing_press">Printing press</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Global_spread_of_the_printing_press" title="Global spread of the printing press">Global spread of the printing press</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:220px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"What was written to me about that marvelous man [Gutenberg] seen at Frankfurt  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] entirely true. I have not seen complete bibles but only a number of <a href="/wiki/Paper_quire" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper quire">quires</a> of various books [of the Bible]. The script is extremely neat and legible, not at all difficult to follow [You] would be able to read it without effort, and indeed without glasses" </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Future pope <a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Sylvius_Piccolomini" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini">Pius II</a> in a letter to Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Juan_Carvajal_(cardinal)" title="Juan Carvajal (cardinal)">Carvajal</a>, March 1455<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERavenProot2020137_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavenProot2020137-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention,_obverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_obverse.jpg/150px-Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_obverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_obverse.jpg/225px-Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_obverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_obverse.jpg/300px-Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_obverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2521" data-file-height="2524" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Celebration medal by <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Anton_K%C3%B6nig" class="extiw" title="de:Friedrich Anton König">Friedrich Anton König</a> in 1840, the 400th anniversary of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press invention, <a href="/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse" title="Obverse and reverse">obverse</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention,_reverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_reverse.jpg/150px-Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_reverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_reverse.jpg/225px-Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_reverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_reverse.jpg/300px-Berlin_1840_Celebration_Medal_400th_Anniversary_Johannes_Gutenberg%27s_Printing_Press_Invention%2C_reverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2526" data-file-height="2545" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Obverse_and_reverse" title="Obverse and reverse">reverse</a> of the medal: Johannes Gutenberg in his workshop, sitting in front of his printing press</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a financial misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy light from religious relics) for sale to pilgrims to <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>: in 1439 the city was planning to exhibit its collection of relics from <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Emperor Charlemagne</a> but the event was delayed by one year due to a severe flood and the capital already spent could not be repaid. </p><p>Until at least 1444 Gutenberg lived in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, most likely in the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Arbogast" title="Saint Arbogast">St. Arbogast</a> parish. It was in Strasbourg in 1440 that he is said to have perfected and unveiled the secret of printing based on his research, mysteriously entitled <i>Aventur und Kunst</i> (enterprise and art). It is not clear what work he was engaged in, or whether some early trials with printing from movable type were conducted there. After this, there is a gap of four years in the record. In 1448, he was back in Mainz, where he took out a loan from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus, possibly for a printing press or related paraphernalia. By this date, Gutenberg may have been familiar with <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(printmaking)" title="Intaglio (printmaking)">intaglio</a> printing; it is claimed that he had worked on copper <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engravings</a> with an artist known as the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Playing_Cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Playing Cards">Master of Playing Cards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200065–66_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200065–66-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1450, the press was in operation, and a German poem had been printed, possibly the first item to be printed there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200074_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200074-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gutenberg was able to convince the wealthy moneylender <a href="/wiki/Johann_Fust" title="Johann Fust">Johann Fust</a> for a loan of 800 <a href="/wiki/Guilder" title="Guilder">guilders</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Sch%C3%B6ffer" title="Peter Schöffer">Peter Schöffer</a>, who became Fust's son-in-law, also joined the enterprise. Schöffer had worked as a <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribe</a> in Paris and is believed to have designed some of the first <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">typefaces</a>. </p><p>Gutenberg's workshop was set up at <a href="/wiki/Humbrechthof" title="Humbrechthof">Humbrechthof</a>, a property belonging to a distant relative. It is not clear when Gutenberg conceived the Bible project, but for this, he borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced in 1452. At the same time, the press was also printing other, more lucrative texts (possibly <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> grammars). There is also some speculation that there were two presses: one for the pedestrian texts and one for the Bible. One of the profit-making enterprises of the new press was the printing of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgences</a> for the church, documented from 1454 to 1455.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1455, Gutenberg completed his <i>42-line Bible</i>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a>. About 180 copies were printed, three quarters on paper, and the rest on <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Oxford_Companion_to_German_Literature''2005§_para._2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Oxford_Companion_to_German_Literature''2005§_para._2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Court_case">Court case</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg/220px-Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg/330px-Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg/440px-Johannes_Gutenberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="1708" /></a><figcaption>A 16th-century copper engraving depiction of Gutenberg</figcaption></figure> <p>Some time in 1456, there was a dispute between Gutenberg and Fust, in which Fust demanded his money back, and accused Gutenberg of misusing the funds. Gutenberg's two rounds of financing from Fust, totaling 1,600 guilders at 6% interest, now amounted to 2,026 guilders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHessels1911_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHessels1911-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fust sued at the archbishop's court. A legal document, from November 1455, records that there was a partnership for a "project of the books," the funds for which Gutenberg had used for other purposes, according to Fust. The court decided in favor of Fust, giving him control over the Bible printing workshop.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, Gutenberg was effectively bankrupt, but it appears he retained, or restarted, a printing shop and participated in the printing of a Bible in the town of <a href="/wiki/Bamberg" title="Bamberg">Bamberg</a> around 1459, for which he seems at least to have supplied the type. But since his printed books never carry his name or a date, it is difficult to be certain. It is possible the large <a href="/wiki/Catholicon_(1286)" title="Catholicon (1286)"><i>Catholicon</i> dictionary</a>, printed in Mainz in 1460 or later, was executed in his workshop, but there has been considerable scholarly debate.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the Fust–Schöffer shop was the first in Europe to bring out a book with the printer's name and date, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mainz_Psalter" title="Mainz Psalter">Mainz Psalter</a></i> of August 1457, and while proclaiming the mechanical process by which it had been produced, it made no mention of Gutenberg. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_life">Later life</h3></div> <p>In 1462, during the devastating <a href="/wiki/Mainz_Diocesan_Feud" title="Mainz Diocesan Feud">Mainz Diocesan Feud</a>, Mainz was sacked by <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">Archbishop</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolph_II_of_Nassau" title="Adolph II of Nassau">Adolph von Nassau</a>. On 18 January 1465, Gutenberg's achievements were recognized by Archbishop von Nassau.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996259–260_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996259–260-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was given the title <i>Hofmann</i> (gentleman of the court). This honor included a <a href="/wiki/Stipend" title="Stipend">stipend</a> and an annual court outfit, as well as 2,180 litres of grain and 2,000 litres of wine tax-free.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner2009_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner2009-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried likely as a <a href="/wiki/Third_order" title="Third order">tertiary</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan</a> church at Mainz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200082–83_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200082–83-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This church and the cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is now lost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner2009_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner2009-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1504, he was mentioned as the inventor of <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typography</a> in a book by Professor Ivo Wittig. It was not until 1567 that the first portrait of Gutenberg, almost certainly an imaginary reconstruction, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon's biography of famous Germans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner2009_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner2009-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Printing">Printing</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing_method">Printing method</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Printer_in_1568-ce.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Printer_in_1568-ce.png/220px-Printer_in_1568-ce.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Printer_in_1568-ce.png/330px-Printer_in_1568-ce.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Printer_in_1568-ce.png/440px-Printer_in_1568-ce.png 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>An early wooden printing press, depicted in 1568. Such presses could produce up to 240 impressions per hour.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolf_1974,_67f._53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolf_1974,_67f.-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Gutenberg's early printing process, and what texts he printed with <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a>, are not known in great detail. His later Bibles were printed in such a way as to have required large quantities of type, some estimates suggesting as many as 100,000 individual sorts.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Setting each page would take, perhaps, half a day, and considering all the work in loading the press, inking the type, pulling the impressions, hanging up the sheets, distributing the type etc., the Gutenberg–Fust shop may have employed many craftsmen. </p><p>Gutenberg's technique of making movable type remains unclear. In the following decades, <a href="/wiki/Punch_(typography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch (typography)">punches</a> and copper matrices became standardized in the rapidly disseminating printing presses across Europe. Whether Gutenberg used this sophisticated technique or a somewhat primitive version has been the subject of considerable debate. </p><p>In the standard process of making type, a hard metal punch (made by <a href="/wiki/Punchcutting" title="Punchcutting">punchcutting</a>, with the letter carved back to front) is hammered into a softer copper bar, creating a <i><a href="/wiki/Matrix_(printing)" title="Matrix (printing)">matrix</a></i>. This is then placed into a <a href="/wiki/Hand_mould" title="Hand mould">hand-held mould</a> and a piece of type, or "sort", is cast by filling the mould with molten type-metal; this cools almost at once, and the resulting piece of type can be removed from the mould. The matrix can be reused to create hundreds, or thousands, of identical sorts so that the same character appearing anywhere within the book will appear very uniform, giving rise, over time, to the development of distinct styles of typefaces or <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">fonts</a>. After casting, the sorts are arranged into type cases, and used to make up pages which are inked and printed, a procedure which can be repeated hundreds, or thousands, of times. The sorts can be reused in any combination, earning the process the name of "movable type".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of the making of types with punch, matrix and mold has been widely attributed to Gutenberg. However, recent evidence suggests that Gutenberg's process was somewhat different. If he used the punch and matrix approach, all his letters should have been nearly identical, with some variation due to miscasting and inking. However, the type used in Gutenberg's earliest work shows other variations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png/290px-European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png/435px-European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png/580px-European_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.png 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>European output of books printed with movable types from Gutenberg to 1800</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2001, the physicist <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Ag%C3%BCera_y_Arcas" title="Blaise Agüera y Arcas">Blaise Agüera y Arcas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton</a> librarian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Needham_(librarian)" title="Paul Needham (librarian)">Paul Needham</a>, used digital scans of a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Scheide_Library" title="Scheide Library">Scheide Library</a>, Princeton, to carefully compare the same letters (types) appearing in different parts of the printed text.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gutenberg's type had irregularities, particularly in simple characters like the hyphen. These variations could not have been caused by ink smears or wear on the metal pieces. Detailed image analysis suggests the variations could not have come from the same matrix. Examination of transmitted light pictures of the page revealed substructures, in the type, that could not have been made using traditional punchcutting techniques. </p><p>Based on these observations, researchers hypothesized that Gutenberg's method involved impressing simple shapes in a "<a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>" style onto a matrix made of a soft material, such as sand. Casting the type would then destroy the mold, necessitating the recreation of the matrix for each additional sort. This hypothesis could potentially explain both the variations in the type and the substructures observed in the printed images. </p><p>Thus, they speculated that "the decisive factor for the birth of typography", the use of reusable moulds for casting type, was a more progressive process than was previously thought.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They suggested that the additional step of using the punch to create a mould that could be reused many times was not taken until twenty years later, in the 1470s. Others have not accepted some or all of their suggestions, and have interpreted the evidence in other ways, and the truth of the matter remains uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENash200486–96_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENash200486–96-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1568 book <i>Batavia</i> by <a href="/wiki/Hadrianus_Junius" title="Hadrianus Junius">Hadrianus Junius</a> from <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a> claims the idea of the movable type came to Gutenberg from <a href="/wiki/Laurens_Janszoon_Coster" title="Laurens Janszoon Coster">Laurens Janszoon Coster</a> via Fust, who was apprenticed to Coster in the 1430s and may have brought some of his equipment from <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> to Mainz. While Coster appears to have experimented with moulds and castable metal type, there is no evidence that he had actually printed anything with this technology. He was an inventor and a goldsmith. However, there is one indirect supporter of the claim that Coster might be the inventor. The author of the <i>Cologne Chronicle of 1499</i> quotes <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Zell" title="Ulrich Zell">Ulrich Zell</a>, the first printer of <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, that printing was performed in <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> in 1450, but that some type of printing of lower quality had previously occurred in the Netherlands. However, the chronicle does not mention the name of Coster,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996322_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996322-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuchhoff1950131f._61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchhoff1950131f.-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while it actually credits Gutenberg as the "first inventor of printing" in the very same passage (fol. 312). The first securely dated book by Dutch printers is from 1471,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuchhoff1950131f._61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuchhoff1950131f.-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Coster connection is today regarded as a mere legend.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 19th-century printer and typefounder <a href="/wiki/Fournier_Le_Jeune" class="mw-redirect" title="Fournier Le Jeune">Fournier Le Jeune</a> suggested that Gutenberg was not using type cast with a reusable matrix, but wooden types that were carved individually. A similar suggestion was made by Nash in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENash200486–96_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENash200486–96-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printed_books">Printed books</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gutenberg_Bible.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gutenberg_Bible.jpg/220px-Gutenberg_Bible.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gutenberg_Bible.jpg/330px-Gutenberg_Bible.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gutenberg_Bible.jpg/440px-Gutenberg_Bible.jpg 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a></i>, now housed at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> in Washington, D.C.</figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1450–55, Gutenberg printed several texts, some of which remain unidentified; his texts did not bear the printer's name or date, so attribution is possible only from typographical evidence and external references. Certainly church documents including a papal letter and two <a href="/wiki/31-line_Indulgence" title="31-line Indulgence">indulgences</a> were printed, one of which was issued in Mainz. In view of the value of printing in quantity, seven editions in two styles were ordered, resulting in several thousand copies being printed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeggsPurvis2016435–436,_442–443_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeggsPurvis2016435–436,_442–443-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some printed editions of <i>Ars Minor</i>, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_editiones_principes_in_Latin" title="List of editiones principes in Latin">may have been printed by Gutenberg</a>; these have been dated either 1451–52, or 1455. Every copy of printed books were identical; this was a significant departure from handwritten manuscripts, which left room for possible human error.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1455, <a href="/wiki/Editio_princeps" title="Editio princeps">Gutenberg completed copies of a well-executed folio Bible</a> (<i>Biblia Sacra</i>), with 42 lines on each page. Copies sold for 30 <a href="/wiki/Florin_(Italian_coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Florin (Italian coin)">florins</a> each,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormackEde2004_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECormackEde2004-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> roughly three years' wages for a clerk. Nonetheless, it was much cheaper than a manuscript Bible that could take a single scribe over a year to prepare. After printing, some copies were <a href="/wiki/Rubrication" title="Rubrication">rubricated</a> or <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">hand-illuminated</a> in the same elegant way as manuscript Bibles from the same period. </p><p>48 substantially complete copies are known to survive, including two at the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a> that can be viewed and compared online.<sup id="cite_ref-britLibrary_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britLibrary-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The text lacks modern features such as page numbers, <a href="/wiki/Indentation_(typesetting)" title="Indentation (typesetting)">indentations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paragraph_break" class="mw-redirect" title="Paragraph break">paragraph breaks</a>. </p><p>An undated <a href="/wiki/36-line_Bible" title="36-line Bible">36-line edition of the Bible</a> was printed, probably in <a href="/wiki/Bamberg" title="Bamberg">Bamberg</a> in 1458–60, possibly by Gutenberg. A large part of it was shown to have been set from a copy of Gutenberg's Bible, thus disproving earlier speculation that it was the earlier of the two.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996322_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996322-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence">Influence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:230px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">American writer <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> (1835–1910)<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Gutenberg's invention had an enormous impact on subsequent <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>, both on cultural and social matters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVenzke2005§_para._1_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenzke2005§_para._1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His design directly impacted the mass spread of books across Europe, causing an <a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">information revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehmann-Haupt2020§_"Introduction_&_Top_Questions"_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehmann-Haupt2020§_"Introduction_&_Top_Questions"-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, Venzke describes the inauguration of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> movement as "unthinkable" without Gutenberg's influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVenzke2005§_para._5_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenzke2005§_para._5-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Described as "one of the most recognized names in the world",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVenzke2005§_para._1_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenzke2005§_para._1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a team of US journalists voted Gutenberg as the "man of the millennium" in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in 1999 the <a href="/wiki/A%26E_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="A&E Network">A&E Network</a> ranked Gutenberg the No. 1 most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i><a href="/wiki/Time%E2%80%93Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Time–Life">Time–Life</a></i> magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-Man_of_the_Millennium_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Man_of_the_Millennium-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scholar of paper history, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Francis_Carter" title="Thomas Francis Carter">Thomas Francis Carter</a>, drew parallels between <a href="/wiki/Cai_Lun" title="Cai Lun">Cai Lun</a>, the traditional inventor of paper during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a>, and Gutenberg, calling them "spiritual father and son" respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarter1925[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidPgEYAAAAMAAJpgPA180_180]_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter1925[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidPgEYAAAAMAAJpgPA180_180]-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1978 book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_100:_A_Ranking_of_the_Most_Influential_Persons_in_History" title="The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History">The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_H._Hart" title="Michael H. Hart">Michael H. Hart</a> ranked him 8th, below Cai but above figures such as <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2000vii_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2000vii-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The capital of printing in Europe shifted to <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, where printers like <a href="/wiki/Aldus_Manutius" title="Aldus Manutius">Aldus Manutius</a> ensured widespread availability of the major <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and Latin texts. The claims of an Italian origin for movable type have focused on this rapid rise of Italy in movable-type printing. This may perhaps be explained by the prior eminence of Italy in the paper and printing trade. Italy's economy was growing rapidly at the time, facilitating the spread of literacy. Christopher Columbus had a geography book printed with movable type, bought by his father; it is now in the <a href="/wiki/Instituci%C3%B3n_Colombina#Biblioteca_Colombina" title="Institución Colombina">Biblioteca Colombina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>. Finally, the city of Mainz was sacked in 1462, driving many printers into exile.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG/150px-Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG/225px-Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG/300px-Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Walk_of_Ideas" title="Walk of Ideas">"Modern Book Printing"</a> − a Berlin sculpture commemorating its inventor Gutenberg</figcaption></figure> <p>Printing was also a factor in the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i> were printed and circulated widely; subsequently he issued <a href="/wiki/Broadsheet" title="Broadsheet">broadsheets</a> outlining his anti-<a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a> position (certificates of indulgences were one of the first items Gutenberg had printed). Due to this, Gutenberg would also be viewed as a proto-Protestant.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_2017_p._322_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_2017_p._322-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The broadsheet contributed to the development of the newspaper. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memorials_and_monuments">Memorials and monuments</h3></div> <p>There are many statues of Gutenberg in Germany, including one by <a href="/wiki/Bertel_Thorvaldsen" title="Bertel Thorvaldsen">Bertel Thorvaldsen</a> (1837) at <a href="/wiki/Gutenbergplatz_(Mainz)" title="Gutenbergplatz (Mainz)">Gutenbergplatz in Mainz</a>, home to the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg_University_of_Mainz" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz">Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Museum" title="Gutenberg Museum">Gutenberg Museum</a> on the history of early printing. The latter publishes the <i><a href="/wiki/Gutenberg-Jahrbuch" title="Gutenberg-Jahrbuch">Gutenberg-Jahrbuch</a></i>, the leading periodical in the history of printing, and the book. </p><p>In 1952, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">United States Postal Service</a> issued a five hundredth anniversary stamp commemorating Johannes Gutenberg invention of the movable-type printing press. In space, he is commemorated in the name of the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> <a href="/wiki/777_Gutemberga" title="777 Gutemberga">777 Gutemberga</a>. Two operas based on Gutenberg are <i>G, Being the Confession and Last Testament of Johannes Gensfleisch, also known as Gutenberg, Master Printer, formerly of Strasbourg and Mainz</i>, from 2001, with music by <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Bryars" title="Gavin Bryars">Gavin Bryars</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>La Nuit de Gutenberg</i>, with music by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Manoury" title="Philippe Manoury">Philippe Manoury</a>, premiered in 2011 in Strasbourg.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>, the oldest <a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">digital library</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> commemorates Gutenberg's name. The Mainz <a href="/wiki/Johannisnacht,_Mainz" title="Johannisnacht, Mainz">Johannisnacht</a> (St. John's Night), has commemorated Gutenberg in his native city since 1968. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[joˈhanəs<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɡɛnsflaɪ̯ʃ<span class="wrap"> </span>t͜sʊʁ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlaːdn̩<span class="wrap"> </span>t͜sʊm<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈɡuːtn̩bɛʁk]</a></span>; <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">English: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span></span>/</a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Due to minimal extant documentation, identifying Gutenberg's exact year of birth is impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200083_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200083-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most modern scholars give a range of slightly differing dates for Gutenberg's birth year, including 1394–1406,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIng198827_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIng198827-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1394–1404,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1394–1406,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200083_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200083-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1393–1403.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201910–11_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201910–11-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Local tradition holds that Gutenberg's baptism took place at <a href="/wiki/St._Christoph%27s_Church,_Mainz" title="St. Christoph's Church, Mainz">St. Christoph's</a>, albeit without documentary evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMan200229_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan200229-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The extent of Friele's actual involvement in the city's finances and trade of <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metal</a> is unknown; the roles may have been largely ceremonial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gutenberg had a half sister, Patze, from his father's earlier marriage to an otherwise unknown woman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The historian Sabina Wagner notes that Geldner's theory is "the opinion of many Gutenberg biographers", though not all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biographer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Venzke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andreas Venzke (page does not exist)">Andreas Venzke</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Venzke" class="extiw" title="de:Andreas Venzke">de</a>]</span> has instead suggested that the disconnect inaugurated a life-long sense of determination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVenzke199337_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenzke199337-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wagner herself consider's the fact that Gutenberg was the youngest son as more impactful than his social standing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200058-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200058_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200058_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200058_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuchesne2006">Duchesne 2006</a>, p. 83; <a href="#CITEREFMan2002">Man 2002</a>, pp. 112–115: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Chinese paper was suitable only for calligraphy or block-printing; there were no screw-based presses in the east, because they were not wine-drinkers, didn't have olives, and used other means to dry their paper.</p></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> 2006: "Printing": <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The second necessary element was the concept of the printing press itself, an idea that had never been conceived in the Far East.</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel20197_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFüssel2019">Füssel 2019</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivulka19985-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivulka19985_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSivulka1998">Sivulka 1998</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fonts.com/content/learning/fontology/level-4/influential-personalities/gutenbergs-invention">"Gutenberg's Invention - Fonts.com"</a>. <i>Fonts.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200928060115/https://www.fonts.com/content/learning/fontology/level-4/influential-personalities/gutenbergs-invention">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fonts.com&rft.atitle=Gutenberg%27s+Invention+-+Fonts.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fonts.com%2Fcontent%2Flearning%2Ffontology%2Flevel-4%2Finfluential-personalities%2Fgutenbergs-invention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhipps2008" class="citation web cs1">Whipps, Heather (26 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/2569-gutenberg-changed-world.html">"How Gutenberg Changed the World"</a>. <i>Live Science</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201023223404/https://www.livescience.com/2569-gutenberg-changed-world.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=How+Gutenberg+Changed+the+World&rft.date=2008-05-26&rft.aulast=Whipps&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F2569-gutenberg-changed-world.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201156-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201156_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyons2011">Lyons 2011</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman,_Robert1998" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Robert, ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifemillennium1000frie/page/165/mode/1up"><i>The Life Millennium : the 100 most important events & people of the past 1000 years</i></a>. Life Books, Time Inc.; Distributed by Bulfinch Press. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8212-2557-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8212-2557-8"><bdi>978-0-8212-2557-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+Millennium+%3A+the+100+most+important+events+%26+people+of+the+past+1000+years&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Life+Books%2C+Time+Inc.%3B+Distributed+by+Bulfinch+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8212-2557-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifemillennium1000frie%2Fpage%2F165%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage35mode2up_35]-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage35mode2up_35]_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/35/mode/2up">35</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage25mode2up_25]_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/25/mode/2up">25</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29]_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/29/mode/2up">29</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200083-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200083_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200083_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIng198827-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIng198827_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIng198827_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIng198827_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIng1988">Ing 1988</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201910–11-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201910–11_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFüssel2019">Füssel 2019</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFüssel2019">Füssel 2019</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage32mode2up_32]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage32mode2up_32]_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/32/mode/2up">32</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan200229-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMan200229_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMan2002">Man 2002</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30]_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/30/mode/2up">30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29–30]-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage29mode2up_29–30]_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/29/mode/2up">29–30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30–31]-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage30mode2up_30–31]_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/30/mode/2up">30–31</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060,_84-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060,_84_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, pp. 60, 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenzke199337-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVenzke199337_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVenzke1993">Venzke 1993</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38]_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/38/mode/2up">38</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200050–61-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200050–61_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, pp. 50–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage38mode2up_38–39]_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/38/mode/2up">38–39</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911–12-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFüssel201911–12_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFüssel2019">Füssel 2019</a>, p. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage39mode2up_39]_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/39/mode/2up">39</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage36mode2up_36]-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage36mode2up_36]_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/36/mode/2up">36</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsjohanngutenbergm0000kaprpage37mode2up_37]_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr/page/37/mode/2up">37</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200060–61-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200060–61_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, pp. 60–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200061-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200061_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200061–62-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200061–62_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, pp. 61–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-museum-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-museum_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061222075141/http://www.mainz.de/gutenberg/zeitgutb.htm">"Gutenberg und seine Zeit in Daten (Gutenberg and his times; Timeline)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Museum" title="Gutenberg 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mainz.de/gutenberg/zeitgutb.htm">the original</a> on 22 December 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gutenberg+und+seine+Zeit+in+Daten+%28Gutenberg+and+his+times%3B+Timeline%29&rft.pub=Gutenberg+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mainz.de%2Fgutenberg%2Fzeitgutb.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERavenProot2020137-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERavenProot2020137_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRavenProot2020">Raven & Proot 2020</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200065–66-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200065–66_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200074-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200074_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelley" class="citation web cs1">Kelley, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washington.edu/news/2012/11/16/documents-that-changed-the-world-gutenberg-indulgence-1454/">"Documents that Changed the World: Gutenberg indulgence, 1454"</a>. <i>UW Today</i>. University of Washington<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UW+Today&rft.atitle=Documents+that+Changed+the+World%3A+Gutenberg+indulgence%2C+1454&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washington.edu%2Fnews%2F2012%2F11%2F16%2Fdocuments-that-changed-the-world-gutenberg-indulgence-1454%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Oxford_Companion_to_German_Literature''2005§_para._2-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Oxford_Companion_to_German_Literature''2005§_para._2_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThe_Oxford_Companion_to_German_Literature2005"><i>The Oxford Companion to German Literature</i> 2005</a>, § para. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Federation_of_Library_Associations_and_Institutions._Rare_Books_and_Manuscripts_Section2010" class="citation book cs1">International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Rare Books and Manuscripts Section (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/732957497"><i>Early printed books as material objects</i></a>. Bettina Wagner, Marcia Reed, IFLA Rare Books and Manuscripts section. Berlin: De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025530-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025530-0"><bdi>978-3-11-025530-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/732957497">732957497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+printed+books+as+material+objects&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F732957497&rft.isbn=978-3-11-025530-0&rft.au=International+Federation+of+Library+Associations+and+Institutions.+Rare+Books+and+Manuscripts+Section&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F732957497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHessels1911-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHessels1911_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHessels1911">Hessels 1911</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLnPi5aYoJUC&dq=-%22gave%20him%20possession%22%20court%20Fust%20Bible%20printing%20workshop%20-wikipedia&pg=PA88">Information Revolutions in the History of the West, Leonard Dudley 2008, p.88</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMZKDwAAQBAJ&dq=Catholicon%201460%20mainz&pg=PA155">Incunabula in Transit, People and Trade, by Lotte Hellinga, 2018, p.155</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapr1996259–260-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapr1996259–260_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapr1996">Kapr 1996</a>, pp. 259–260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner2009-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner2009_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner2009_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner2009_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSumner2009">Sumner 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200082–83-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner200082–83_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagner2000">Wagner 2000</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolf_1974,_67f.-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wolf_1974,_67f._53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWolf1974">Wolf 1974</a>, pp. 67f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger,_C.Holmyard,_E.Hall,_A.Williams,_T.1958" class="citation book cs1">Singer, C.; <a href="/wiki/E._Holmyard" class="mw-redirect" title="E. 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While the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition</a> had attributed the invention of the printing press to Coster, the more recent editions of the work attribute it to Gutenberg to reflect, as it says, the common consent that has developed in the 20th century. 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U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Information Programs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216063928/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2007/July/200707201511311CJsamohT0.6146356.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815896-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815896-7"><bdi>978-0-19-815896-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gutenberg%2C+Johannes&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+German+Literature&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-815896-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198158967.001.0001%2Facref-9780198158967-e-2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutenberg_Museum2000" class="citation book cs1">Gutenberg Museum (2000). <i>Gutenberg: Man of the Millennium</i>. Mainz: City of <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44850118">44850118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gutenberg%3A+Man+of+the+Millennium&rft.place=Mainz&rft.pub=City+of+Mainz&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44850118&rft.au=Gutenberg+Museum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFWagner2000" class="citation">Wagner, Sabina. "A Well-Known Stranger". 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Kensington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Kensington Books">Citadel</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-1350-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-1350-8"><bdi>978-0-8065-1350-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+100%3A+A+Ranking+of+the+Most+Influential+Persons+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Citadel&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8065-1350-8&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjvbNRbDKY1wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIng1988" class="citation book cs1">Ing, Janet (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergh0000free"><i>Johann Gutenberg and His Bible: A Historical Study</i></a></span>. New York: Typophiles. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780945074007" title="Special:BookSources/9780945074007"><bdi>9780945074007</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1244855280">1244855280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johann+Gutenberg+and+His+Bible%3A+A+Historical+Study&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Typophiles&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1244855280&rft.isbn=9780945074007&rft.aulast=Ing&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohanngutenbergh0000free&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHessels1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hessels, John Henry (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fust, Johann"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Fust,_Johann">"Fust, Johann" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fust%2C+Johann&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Hessels&rft.aufirst=John+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuchhoff1950" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Juchhoff, Rudolf (1950). "Was bleibt von den holländischen Ansprüchen auf die Erfindung der Typographie?" [What remains of the Dutch claims to the invention of typography?]. <i><a href="/wiki/Gutenberg-Jahrbuch" title="Gutenberg-Jahrbuch">Gutenberg-Jahrbuch</a></i> (in German). Mainz: Verlag der Gutenberg-Gesellschaft: 128–133. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0072-9094">0072-9094</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/819006182">819006182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gutenberg-Jahrbuch&rft.atitle=Was+bleibt+von+den+holl%C3%A4ndischen+Anspr%C3%BCchen+auf+die+Erfindung+der+Typographie%3F&rft.pages=128-133&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F819006182&rft.issn=0072-9094&rft.aulast=Juchhoff&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapr1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Kapr" class="extiw" title="de:Albert Kapr">Kapr, Albert</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (1996) [1986]. <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johanngutenbergm0000kapr"><i>Johannes Gutenberg: the Man and His Invention</i></a></span>. Translated by Martin, Douglas (3rd ed.). Aldershot; Brookfield: Scolar Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85928-114-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85928-114-7"><bdi>978-1-85928-114-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31655691">31655691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johannes+Gutenberg%3A+the+Man+and+His+Invention&rft.place=Aldershot%3B+Brookfield&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Scolar+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31655691&rft.isbn=978-1-85928-114-7&rft.aulast=Kapr&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohanngutenbergm0000kapr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann-Haupt2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hellmut_Lehmann-Haupt" title="Hellmut Lehmann-Haupt">Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut</a> (17 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Gutenberg">"Johannes Gutenberg | Printing Press, Inventions, Facts, Accomplishments & Biography"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210911095344/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Gutenberg">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Johannes+Gutenberg+%26%23124%3B+Printing+Press%2C+Inventions%2C+Facts%2C+Accomplishments+%26+Biography&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2020-12-17&rft.aulast=Lehmann-Haupt&rft.aufirst=Hellmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJohannes-Gutenberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons2011" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Martyn (2011). <i>Books: A Living History</i>. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-083-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-083-4"><bdi>978-1-60606-083-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/939001946">939001946</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Books%3A+A+Living+History&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F939001946&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-083-4&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMan2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Man_(author)" title="John Man (author)">Man, John</a> (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gutenbergrevolut0000manj"><i>The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World</i></a></span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Headline_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Headline Review">Headline Review</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7472-4504-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7472-4504-9"><bdi>978-0-7472-4504-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gutenberg+Revolution%3A+The+Story+of+a+Genius+and+an+Invention+that+Changed+the+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Headline+Review&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7472-4504-9&rft.aulast=Man&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgutenbergrevolut0000manj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeggsPurvis2016" class="citation book cs1">Meggs, Philip B.; Purvis, Alston W. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-13623-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-13623-1"><bdi>978-1-119-13623-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/946992970">946992970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meggs%27+History+of+Graphic+Design&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F946992970&rft.isbn=978-1-119-13623-1&rft.aulast=Meggs&rft.aufirst=Philip+B.&rft.au=Purvis%2C+Alston+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKCsuDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash2004" class="citation journal cs1">Nash, Paul W. 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Maney & Son Ltd.: 86–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17613%2F2nyd-gy45">10.17613/2nyd-gy45</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-8898">0032-8898</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963827459">963827459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Private+Library&rft.atitle=The+%27first%27+type+of+Gutenberg%3A+a+note+on+recent+research&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=86-96&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F963827459&rft.issn=0032-8898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17613%2F2nyd-gy45&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Paul+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavenProot2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Raven" title="James Raven">Raven, James</a>; Proot, Goran (2020). 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Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870298-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870298-6"><bdi>978-0-19-870298-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Renaissance+and+Reformation&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+the+Book&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870298-6&rft.aulast=Raven&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Proot%2C+Goran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB7_1DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSivulka1998" class="citation book cs1">Sivulka, Juliann (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/soapsexcigarette00sivu/page/448/mode/2up"><i>Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes: A Cultural History of American Advertising</i></a></span>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-51593-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-51593-5"><bdi>978-0-534-51593-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/654719746">654719746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soap%2C+Sex%2C+and+Cigarettes%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+American+Advertising&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F654719746&rft.isbn=978-0-534-51593-5&rft.aulast=Sivulka&rft.aufirst=Juliann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsoapsexcigarette00sivu%2Fpage%2F448%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumner2009" class="citation book cs1">Sumner, Tracy M. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3lQciUhzeI0C&pg=PAPT51">"The Power of the Printing Press: Joannes Gutenberg's Contribution to Bible Distribution"</a>. <i>How Did We Get the Bible?</i>. Uhrichsville, Ohio: Barbour Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60742-349-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60742-349-2"><bdi>978-1-60742-349-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/829164929">829164929</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Power+of+the+Printing+Press%3A+Joannes+Gutenberg%27s+Contribution+to+Bible+Distribution&rft.btitle=How+Did+We+Get+the+Bible%3F&rft.place=Uhrichsville%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=Barbour+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F829164929&rft.isbn=978-1-60742-349-2&rft.aulast=Sumner&rft.aufirst=Tracy+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3lQciUhzeI0C%26pg%3DPAPT51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenzke1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Venzke" class="extiw" title="de:Andreas Venzke">Venzke, Andreas</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (1993). <i>Johannes Gutenberg: Der Erfinder des Buchdrucks</i> [<i>Johannes Gutenberg: The Inventor of the Printing Press</i>] (in German). Zürich: Benziger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-545-34099-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-545-34099-2"><bdi>978-3-545-34099-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johannes+Gutenberg%3A+Der+Erfinder+des+Buchdrucks&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich&rft.pub=Benziger&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-545-34099-2&rft.aulast=Venzke&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenzke2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Venzke" class="extiw" title="de:Andreas Venzke">Venzke, Andreas</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (2005) [2003]. <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195105070.001.0001/acref-9780195105070-e-0328">"Gutenberg, Johannes"</a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Mokyr, Joel</a> (ed.). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510507-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510507-0"><bdi>978-0-19-510507-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gutenberg%2C+Johannes&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Economic+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510507-0&rft.aulast=Venzke&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195105070.001.0001%2Facref-9780195105070-e-0328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf1974" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974). <i>Geschichte der Druckpressen</i> [<i>History of the printing press</i>] (in German) (1st ed.). Frankfurt/Main: Interprint. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/250428044">250428044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+Druckpressen&rft.place=Frankfurt%2FMain&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Interprint&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F250428044&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Hans-J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuringhvan_Zanden2009" class="citation journal cs1">Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009). "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>69</b> (2): 409–445. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050709000837">10.1017/s0022050709000837</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40263962">40263962</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8271339080">8271339080</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154362112">154362112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Charting+the+%22Rise+of+the+West%22%3A+Manuscripts+and+Printed+Books+in+Europe%2C+A+Long-Term+Perspective+from+the+Sixth+through+Eighteenth+Centuries&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=409-445&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40263962%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050709000837&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8271339080&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154362112%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Buringh&rft.aufirst=Eltjo&rft.au=van+Zanden%2C+Jan+Luiten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDudley2008" class="citation book cs1">Dudley, Leonard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLnPi5aYoJUC"><i>Information Revolutions in the History of the West</i></a>. Cheltenham: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar_Publishing" title="Edward Elgar Publishing">Edward Elgar Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84720-790-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84720-790-6"><bdi>978-1-84720-790-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Revolutions+in+the+History+of+the+West&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84720-790-6&rft.aulast=Dudley&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjLnPi5aYoJUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenstein1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Eisenstein" title="Elizabeth Eisenstein">Eisenstein, Elizabeth</a> (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/printingpressasa0000eise"><i>The Printing Press as an Agent of Change</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29955-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29955-1"><bdi>0-521-29955-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/856017228">856017228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Printing+Press+as+an+Agent+of+Change&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F856017228&rft.isbn=0-521-29955-1&rft.aulast=Eisenstein&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprintingpressasa0000eise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenstein2012" class="citation book cs1">Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (2012). <i>The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139197038">10.1017/CBO9781139197038</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-19703-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-19703-8"><bdi>978-1-139-19703-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Printing+Revolution+in+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139197038&rft.isbn=978-1-139-19703-8&rft.aulast=Eisenstein&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFebvreMartin1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Febvre" title="Lucien Febvre">Febvre, Lucien</a>; <a href="/wiki/Henri-Jean_Martin" title="Henri-Jean Martin">Martin, Henri-Jean</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comingofbookimpa0000febv_t7a0"><i>The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800</i></a></span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-797-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-797-7"><bdi>978-0-86091-797-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Book%3A+The+Impact+of+Printing+1450%E2%80%931800&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-86091-797-7&rft.aulast=Febvre&rft.aufirst=Lucien&rft.au=Martin%2C+Henri-Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomingofbookimpa0000febv_t7a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann-Haupt,_Hellmut1966" class="citation book cs1">Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gutenbergmaster00lehm"><i>Gutenberg and the Master of the Playing Cards</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gutenberg+and+the+Master+of+the+Playing+Cards&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Lehmann-Haupt%2C+Hellmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgutenbergmaster00lehm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henri-Jean_Martin" title="Henri-Jean Martin">Martin, Henri-Jean</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historypowerofwr00mart"><i>The History and Power of Writing</i></a></span>. Translated by Cochrane, Lydia G. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50836-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50836-8"><bdi>978-0-226-50836-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Power+of+Writing&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-226-50836-8&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Henri-Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorypowerofwr00mart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLuhan1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan, Marshall</a> (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gutenberggalaxym0000mclu"><i>The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man</i></a></span> (1st ed.). Toronto: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6041-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6041-9"><bdi>978-0-8020-6041-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gutenberg+Galaxy%3A+The+Making+of+Typographic+Man&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-6041-9&rft.aulast=McLuhan&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgutenberggalaxym0000mclu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppel1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloys_Ruppel" class="extiw" title="de:Aloys Ruppel">Ruppel, Aloys</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (1967) [1939]. <i>Johannes Gutenberg: Sein Leben und sein Werk</i> [<i>Johannes Gutenberg: His Life and Work</i>] (in German). Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6004-157-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6004-157-4"><bdi>978-90-6004-157-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johannes+Gutenberg%3A+Sein+Leben+und+sein+Werk&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-90-6004-157-4&rft.aulast=Ruppel&rft.aufirst=Aloys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScholderer1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Scholderer" title="Victor Scholderer">Scholderer, Victor</a> (1963). <i>Johann Gutenberg: The Inventor of Printing</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Trustees_of_the_British_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Trustees of the British Museum">Trustees of the British Museum</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2037476">2037476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johann+Gutenberg%3A+The+Inventor+of+Printing&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Trustees+of+the+British+Museum&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2037476&rft.aulast=Scholderer&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWidmann1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Widmann, Hans, ed. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dergegenwartiges0000widm"><i>Der Gegenwärtige Stand der Gutenberg-Forschung</i></a></span> [<i>The Current Status of Gutenberg Research</i>] (in German). Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7772-7225-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7772-7225-2"><bdi>978-3-7772-7225-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Gegenw%C3%A4rtige+Stand+der+Gutenberg-Forschung&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=A.+Hiersemann&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-7772-7225-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdergegenwartiges0000widm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohannes+Gutenberg" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg-museum.de/index.php?id=29&L=1">Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Germany</a> – English homepage</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/gutenberg-bible">Gutenberg Bible</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230610183248/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/gutenberg-bible">Archived</a> 10 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_bookcase.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Books" title="Portal:Books">Books</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Johannes Gutenberg</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gensfleisch_zur_Laden_zum_Gutenberg" class="extiw" title="c:Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Johannes_Gensfleisch_zur_Laden_zum_Gutenberg" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8958" class="extiw" title="d:Q8958">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pioneers_of_printing_press" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pioneers_of_Printing_Press" title="Template:Pioneers of Printing Press"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pioneers_of_Printing_Press" title="Template talk:Pioneers of Printing Press"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pioneers_of_Printing_Press" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pioneers of Printing Press"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pioneers_of_printing_press" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Pioneers of printing press</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Brito" title="Jean Brito">Jean Brito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panfilo_Castaldi" title="Panfilo Castaldi">Panfilo Castaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurens_Janszoon_Coster" title="Laurens Janszoon Coster">Laurens Janszoon Coster</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Johannes Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius_Waldvogel" title="Procopius Waldvogel">Procopius Waldvogel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8958#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8958#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8958#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121200528">ISNI</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000453783475">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/9815820">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/101357388">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/11831/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PCjJgBv6bMXVwT6whwT4kKq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118543768">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50034916">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119782521">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119782521">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620777">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35158523">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000602739&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX994236">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1698377">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070530017">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90193262">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000076880&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000031762&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=197697">Greece</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=94734">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201618719">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/86lnnrrs2d6rpnz">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810628159705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/2584">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007262288305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058508882506706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03317069?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500093147">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/168483">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118543768.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118543768">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02782361X">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6ch0d7h">SNAC</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6zk5x7k">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/408500">RISM</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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