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class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_of_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Types of property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Related concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Related concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Related_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Violation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Violation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Miscellaneous action</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_in_property_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_in_property_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Issues in property theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues_in_property_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues in property theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues_in_property_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ownership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ownership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ownership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ownership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_interference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_interference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Government interference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_interference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_in_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_in_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Property in philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Property_in_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Property in philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Property_in_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ancient philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Medieval philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thomas_Aquinas_(13th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Aquinas_(13th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Thomas Aquinas (13th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Aquinas_(13th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Modern philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thomas_Hobbes_(17th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Hobbes_(17th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Thomas Hobbes (17th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Hobbes_(17th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Harrington_(17th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Harrington_(17th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>James Harrington (17th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Harrington_(17th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_Filmer_(17th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_Filmer_(17th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Robert Filmer (17th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_Filmer_(17th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Locke_(17th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Locke_(17th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.4</span> <span>John Locke (17th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Locke_(17th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Hume_(18th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Hume_(18th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.5</span> <span>David Hume (18th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Hume_(18th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adam_Smith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adam_Smith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.6</span> <span>Adam Smith</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adam_Smith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karl_Marx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karl_Marx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.7</span> <span>Karl Marx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karl_Marx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles_Comte:_legitimate_origin_of_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_Comte:_legitimate_origin_of_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.8</span> <span>Charles Comte: legitimate origin of property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_Comte:_legitimate_origin_of_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon:_property_is_theft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon:_property_is_theft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.9</span> <span>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: property is theft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon:_property_is_theft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frédéric_Bastiat:_property_is_value" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frédéric_Bastiat:_property_is_value"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.10</span> <span>Frédéric Bastiat: property is value</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frédéric_Bastiat:_property_is_value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Andrew_J._Galambos:_a_precise_definition_of_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andrew_J._Galambos:_a_precise_definition_of_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.11</span> <span>Andrew J. Galambos: a precise definition of property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andrew_J._Galambos:_a_precise_definition_of_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Contemporary views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Property</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 79 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-79" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">79 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiendom" title="Eiendom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Eiendom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%A2ht" title="Ǣht – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ǣht" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ملكية شخصية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملكية شخصية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propied%C3%A1" title="Propiedá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Propiedá" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BClkiyy%C9%99t" title="Mülkiyyət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mülkiyyət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%A9%D0%BB%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%82_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B)" title="Мөлкәт (милек объекты) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мөлкәт (милек объекты)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%91%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Маёмасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Маёмасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%91%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Маёмасьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Маёмасьць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagrogaring" title="Pagrogaring – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagrogaring" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Имот – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Имот" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perc%27henniezh" title="Perc'henniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Perc'henniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propietat" title="Propietat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Propietat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Пурлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пурлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majetek" title="Majetek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Majetek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiddo" title="Eiddo – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Eiddo" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigentum" title="Eigentum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eigentum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omand" title="Omand – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Omand" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F" title="Кедьсэаштиця – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Кедьсэаштиця" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedad" title="Propiedad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Propiedad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprieto" title="Proprieto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Proprieto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabetza" title="Jabetza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jabetza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="مال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9" title="Propriété – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Propriété" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoin_(cearta_dl%C3%ADthi%C3%BAla)" title="Maoin (cearta dlíthiúla) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Maoin (cearta dlíthiúla)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedade" title="Propiedade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Propiedade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%AC%EC%82%B0%EA%B6%8C" title="재산권 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="재산권" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="सम्पत्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सम्पत्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravo_vlasni%C5%A1tva" title="Pravo vlasništva – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pravo vlasništva" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietajo" title="Proprietajo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Proprietajo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Properti" title="Properti – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Properti" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iimpawu" title="Iimpawu – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Iimpawu" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impahla" title="Impahla – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Impahla" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eignarr%C3%A9ttur" title="Eignarréttur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Eignarréttur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriet%C3%A0_(diritto)" title="Proprietà (diritto) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Proprietà (diritto)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A9" title="רכוש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רכוש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91%C9%A9m" title="Ñɩm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ñɩm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಆಸ್ತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಸ್ತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%AF%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Мүлік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мүлік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_(uchumi)" title="Mali (uchumi) – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mali (uchumi)" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwopriyete" title="Pwopriyete – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pwopriyete" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propry%C3%A9t%C3%A9" title="Propryété – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Propryété" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%AF%D0%BB%D0%BA" title="Мүлк – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мүлк" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominium_(ius)" title="Dominium (ius) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Dominium (ius)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%AApa%C5%A1ums" title="Īpašums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Īpašums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriet%C3%A9it" title="Proprietéit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Proprietéit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuosavyb%C4%97" title="Nuosavybė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nuosavybė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulajdonjog" title="Tulajdonjog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tulajdonjog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Сопственост – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сопственост" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BC%D1%87" title="Өмч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Өмч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendom" title="Eigendom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Eigendom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B2%A1%E7%89%A9" title="財物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="財物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietat" title="Proprietat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Proprietat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80" title="ਸੰਪੱਤੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੰਪੱਤੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maj%C4%85tek" title="Majątek – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Majątek" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriedade_(direito)" title="Propriedade (direito) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Propriedade (direito)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietate" title="Proprietate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Proprietate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Имущество – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Имущество" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prona" title="Prona – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Prona" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pussidenti" title="Pussidenti – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Pussidenti" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property" title="Property – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Property" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stvar" title="Stvar – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stvar" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%B5%DA%A9" title="مڵک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مڵک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravo_svojine" title="Pravo svojine – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Pravo svojine" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravo_svojine" title="Pravo svojine – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pravo svojine" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egendom" title="Egendom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Egendom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="உடைமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உடைமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Милек – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Милек" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="ఆస్తి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఆస్తి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="ทรัพย์สิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทรัพย์สิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Моликият – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Моликият" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BClkiyet_hakk%C4%B1" title="Mülkiyet hakkı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mülkiyet hakkı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Майно – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Майно" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="جائیداد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جائیداد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiet%C3%A0_(derito)" title="Propietà (derito) – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Propietà (derito)" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A0i_s%E1%BA%A3n_s%E1%BB%9F_h%E1%BB%AFu" title="Tài sản sở hữu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tài sản sở hữu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%A2%E4%BA%A7" title="财产 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="财产" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אייגנטום – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אייגנטום" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B2%A1%E7%94%A2" title="財產 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="財產" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Entity owned by a person or a group of people</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about abstract and legal rights of property. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Property_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Property (disambiguation)">Property (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights (economics)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Property" title="Special:EditPage/Property">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Property" title="Talk:Property">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Property" title="Special:EditPage/Property">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Property%22">"Property"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Property%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Property%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Property%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Property%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Property%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brunswick_Terrace,_Weymouth_(geograph_1943843).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Brunswick_Terrace%2C_Weymouth_%28geograph_1943843%29.jpg/300px-Brunswick_Terrace%2C_Weymouth_%28geograph_1943843%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Brunswick_Terrace%2C_Weymouth_%28geograph_1943843%29.jpg/450px-Brunswick_Terrace%2C_Weymouth_%28geograph_1943843%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Brunswick_Terrace%2C_Weymouth_%28geograph_1943843%29.jpg/600px-Brunswick_Terrace%2C_Weymouth_%28geograph_1943843%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Buildings of shops, hotels, and residences are prevalent forms of property</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Property</b> is a system of <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> that gives people legal control of valuable things,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also refers to the valuable things themselves. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property may have the right to consume, alter, share, rent, sell, exchange, transfer, give away, or destroy it, or to exclude others from doing these things,<sup id="cite_ref-wordnet_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wordnet-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as to perhaps abandon it; whereas regardless of the nature of the property, the owner thereof has the right to properly use it under the granted <a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">property rights</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, there are three broad forms of property: <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">public property</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Collective_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective property">collective property</a> (or <i>cooperative propert</i>y).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Property may be jointly owned by more than one party equally or unequally, or according to simple or complex agreements; to distinguish ownership and easement from rent, there is an expectation that each party's will with regard to the property be clearly defined and unconditional.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The parties may expect their wills to be unanimous, or alternatively each may expect their own will to be sufficient when no opportunity for dispute exists. The <a href="/wiki/Restatements_of_the_Law" title="Restatements of the Law">first Restatement</a> defines property as anything, tangible or intangible, whereby a legal relationship between persons and the State enforces a possessory interest or legal title in that thing. This mediating relationship between individual, property, and State is called a property regime.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, property is often defined as a relationship between two or more individuals and an object, in which at least one of these individuals holds a bundle of rights over the object. The distinction between collective and private property is regarded as confusion, since different individuals often hold differing rights over a single object.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Types of property include <a href="/wiki/Realty" class="mw-redirect" title="Realty">real property</a> (the combination of land and any improvements to or on the ground), <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">personal property</a> (physical possessions belonging to a person), private property (property owned by legal persons, business entities or individual natural persons), public property (State-owned or publicly owned and available possessions) and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a>—including exclusive rights over artistic creations and inventions. However, the latter is not always widely recognized or enforced. An article of property may have physical and incorporeal parts. A <a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a>, or a right of <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a>, establishes the relation between the property and other persons, assuring the owner the right to dispose of the property as the owner sees fit.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The unqualified term "property" is often used to refer specifically to real property. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg/150px-Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg/225px-Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg/300px-Property_Law_-_Gavel_and_Block_and_House_Keys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2666" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> series</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">Real property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned property</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Acquisition</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gift_(law)" title="Gift (law)">Gift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_possession" title="Adverse possession">Adverse possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accession_(property_law)" title="Accession (property law)">Accession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost,_mislaid,_and_abandoned_property" title="Lost, mislaid, and abandoned property">Lost, mislaid, and abandoned property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_trove" title="Treasure trove">Treasure trove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailment" title="Bailment">Bailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/License" title="License">License</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">Alienation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estates in land</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allodial_title" title="Allodial title">Allodial title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">Fee simple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fee_tail" title="Fee tail">Fee tail</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Life_estate" title="Life estate">Life estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeasible_estate" title="Defeasible estate">Defeasible estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_interest" title="Future interest">Future interest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remainder_(law)" title="Remainder (law)">remainder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_estate" title="Concurrent estate">Concurrent estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leasehold_estate" title="Leasehold estate">Leasehold estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condominium_(living_space)" class="mw-redirect" title="Condominium (living space)">Condominiums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">Real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Conveyancing" title="Conveyancing">Conveyancing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bona_fide_purchaser" title="Bona fide purchaser"><i>Bona fide</i> purchaser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torrens_title" title="Torrens title">Torrens title</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Strata_title" title="Strata title">Strata title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deeds_registration" title="Deeds registration">Deeds registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estoppel_by_deed" title="Estoppel by deed">Estoppel by deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quitclaim" title="Quitclaim">Quitclaim deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_law" title="Mortgage law">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equitable_conversion" title="Equitable conversion">Equitable conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_title" title="Quiet title">Action to quiet title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escheat" title="Escheat">Escheat</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Future_interest" title="Future interest">Future use</a> control</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">Restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_against_perpetuities" title="Rule against perpetuities">Rule against perpetuities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_in_Shelley%27s_Case" title="Rule in Shelley's Case">Rule in <i>Shelley's Case</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_worthier_title" title="Doctrine of worthier title">Doctrine of worthier title</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Nonpossessory_interest_in_land" title="Nonpossessory interest in land">Nonpossessory interest</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lien" title="Lien">Lien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">Easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(real_property)" title="Profit (real property)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">Usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(law)" title="Covenant (law)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equitable_servitude" title="Equitable servitude">Equitable servitude</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixture_(property_law)" title="Fixture (property law)">Fixtures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_(law)" title="Waste (law)">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_(law)" title="Partition (law)">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practicing_without_a_license" title="Practicing without a license">Practicing without a license</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_and_subjacent_support" title="Lateral and subjacent support">Lateral and subjacent support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">Assignment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nemo_dat_quod_non_habet" title="Nemo dat quod non habet">Nemo dat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quicquid_plantatur_solo,_solo_cedit" title="Quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit">Quicquid plantatur</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_property_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict of property laws">Conflict of property laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackacre" title="Blackacre">Blackacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_deposit" title="Security deposit">Security deposit</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">estates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul> <hr /> <i>Higher category:</i> <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_law" title="Template:Property law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_law" title="Template talk:Property law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Property is often defined by the code of the local <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> and protected wholly or - more usually, partially - by such entity, the owner being responsible for any remainder of protection. The <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard of proof">standards of the proof</a> concerning proofs of ownerships are also addressed by the code of the local sovereignty, and such entity plays a role accordingly, typically <a href="/wiki/Recorder_of_deeds" title="Recorder of deeds">somewhat managerial</a>. Some philosophers<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2012)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> assert that property <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> arise from <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">social convention</a>, while others find justifications for them in <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Various scholarly disciplines (such as <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>) may treat the concept more systematically, but definitions vary, most particularly when involving <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>. <a href="/wiki/Positive_law" title="Positive law">Positive law</a> defines such rights, and the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a> can adjudicate and enforce property rights. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> (1723–1790), the expectation of profit from "improving one's stock of capital" rests on private-property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> has as a central assumption that property rights encourage their holders to develop the property, generate <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, and efficiently allocate <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">resources</a> based on the operation of markets. From this has evolved the modern conception of property as a right enforced by positive law, in the expectation that this will produce more wealth and better standards of living. However, Smith also expressed a very critical view of the effects of property laws on inequality:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Wherever there is a great property, there is great inequality … Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is in reality instituted for the defense of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all.</p></blockquote> <p>In his 1881 text "The Common Law", <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a> describes property as having two fundamental aspects.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The first, possession, can be defined as control over a resource based on the practical inability to contradict the ends of the possessor. The second title is the expectation that others will recognize rights to control resources, even when not in possession. He elaborates on the differences between these two concepts and proposes a history of how they came to be attached to persons, as opposed to families or entities such as the church. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a> subscribes to the <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">labor theory of property</a>. Its proponents hold that individuals each own their own life; it follows that one must acknowledge the products of that life and that those products can be traded in free exchange with others.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>"Every man has a property in his person. This nobody has a right to, but himself." (<a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Second_Treatise_on_Civil_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Treatise on Civil Government">Second Treatise on Civil Government</a>", 1689)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>"The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their property." (<a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, "Second Treatise on Civil Government", 1689)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>"Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place." (<a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Law_(1849_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Law (1849 book)"><i>The Law</i></a>, 1850)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> subscribes to the concept that freedom and property are closely linked - building on traditions of thought that property guarantees freedom<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or causes freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more widespread the possession of the private property, conservatism propounds, the more stable and productive a state or nation is. Conservatives maintain that the economic leveling of property, especially of the forced kind, is not economic progress.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>"Separate property from private possession and <a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a> becomes master of all... Upon the foundation of private property, great civilizations are built. The conservative acknowledges that the possession of property fixes certain duties upon the possessor; he accepts those moral and legal obligations cheerfully." (<a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Russell Kirk</a>, <i>The Politics of Prudence</i>, 1993)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a>'s fundamental principles center on a critique of this concept, stating (among other things) that the cost of defending property exceeds the returns from private property ownership and that, even when property rights encourage their holders to develop their property or generate wealth, they do so only for their benefit, which may not coincide with advantage to other people or society at large.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian Socialism">Libertarian Socialism</a> generally accepts property rights with a short abandonment period. In other words, a person must make (more-or-less) continuous use of the item or else lose ownership rights. This is usually referred to as "possession property" or "<a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a>." Thus, in this usufruct system, absentee ownership is illegitimate, and workers own the machines or other equipment they work with.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a> argues that only <a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">common ownership</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> will assure the minimization of unequal or unjust outcomes and the maximization of benefits and that; therefore humans should abolish private ownership of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> (as opposed to property).</li></ul> <p>Both communism and some forms of socialism have also upheld the notion that private ownership of capital is inherently illegitimate. This argument centers on the idea that private ownership of capital always benefits one <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a> over another, giving rise to domination through this privately owned capital. Communists do not oppose personal property that is "hard-won, self-acquired, self-earned" (as "<a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a>" puts it) by members of the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>. Both socialism and communism distinguish carefully between private ownership of capital (land, factories, resources, etc.) and private property (homes, material objects, and so forth). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_property">Types of property</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Legal_system" title="Legal system">legal systems</a> distinguish between different types of property, especially between land (<a href="/wiki/Immovable_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Immovable property">immovable property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">estate in land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a>) and all other forms of property—<a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">goods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">chattels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Movable_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Movable property">movable property</a> or <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">personal property</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Face_value" title="Face value">value of legal tender</a> if not the <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal tender itself</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Currency#Control_and_production" title="Currency">manufacturer</a> rather than the possessor might be the owner. They often distinguish <a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">tangible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">intangible property</a>. One categorization scheme specifies three species of property: land, improvements (immovable man-made things), and personal property (movable man-made things).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a> (<a href="/wiki/Immovable_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Immovable property">immovable property</a>) is the combination of <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">interests</a> in land and improvements thereto, and <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">personal property</a> is interest in movable property. Real property rights are rights relating to the land. These rights include ownership and usage. Owners can grant rights to persons and entities in the form of <a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">leases</a>, <a href="/wiki/License" title="License">licenses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easements</a>. </p><p>Throughout the last centuries of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium" title="2nd millennium">second millennium</a>, with the development of more complex theories of property, the concept of personal property had become divided<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (May 2013)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> into tangible property (such as <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">cars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">clothing</a>) and intangible property (such as <a href="/wiki/Financial_asset" title="Financial asset">financial assets</a> and related rights, including <a href="/wiki/Capital_stock" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital stock">stocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bond_(finance)" title="Bond (finance)">bonds</a>; <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyrights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>; <a href="/wiki/Digital_file" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital file">digital files</a>; <a href="/wiki/Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">communication channels</a>; and certain forms of <a href="/wiki/Identifier" title="Identifier">identifier</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Domain_name" title="Domain name">Internet domain names</a>, some forms of <a href="/wiki/Network_address" title="Network address">network address</a>, some forms of <a href="/wiki/Call_sign" title="Call sign">handle</a> and again trademarks). </p><p>Treatment of intangible property is such that an article of property is, by law or otherwise by traditional conceptualization, subject to expiration even when <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritable</a>, which is a key distinction from tangible property. Upon expiration, the property, if of the intellectual category, becomes a part of <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>, to be used by but not owned by anybody, and possibly used by more than one party simultaneously due to the inapplicability of <a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">scarcity</a> to intellectual property. Whereas things such as communications channels and pairs of electromagnetic spectrum bands and signal transmission power can only be used by a single party at a time, or a single party in a divisible context, if owned or used. Thus far or usually, those are not considered property, or at least not private property, even though the party bearing right of exclusive use may transfer that right to another. </p><p>In many societies the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a> is considered property of some kind or other. The question of the ownership and rights to one's body arise in general in the discussion of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, including the specific issues of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a>, rights of children under the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">age of majority</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Drugs">drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">organ donation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_concepts">Related concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Related concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">Title (property)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">Business</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">Security</a></div> <p>Of the following, only sale and at-will sharing involve no <a href="/wiki/Encumbrance" title="Encumbrance">encumbrance</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" width="15%"> </td> <th>General meaning or description</th> <th></th> <th>Actor</th> <th>Complementary notion</th> <th>Complementary actor </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Sale </th> <td>Giving of property or ownership, but in exchange for money (units of some form of currency).</td> <td></td> <td>Seller</td> <td>Buying</td> <td>Buyer </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" style="border-right: 0px solid gray;">Sharing </th> <th rowspan="2" style="border-left: 0px solid gray;"><span style="display: none">Sharing</span> </th> <td rowspan="2">Allowing use of property, whether exclusive or as a joint operation.</td> <td></td> <td rowspan="2">Host</td> <td>Accommodation</td> <td>Guest </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2">Tenancy</td> <td rowspan="2">Tenant </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" width="7%">Rent </th> <td rowspan="3">Allowing limited and temporary but potentially renewable, exclusive use of property, but in exchange for compensation.</td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2">Renter </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2">Lease</td> <td rowspan="2">Lessee </td></tr> <tr> <th>Licensure </th> <td></td> <td>Licensor </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3" style="border-right: 0px solid gray;">Incorporeal division </th> <th style="border-left: 0px solid gray;"><span style="display: none">Incorporeal division</span> </th> <td>Better known as <a href="/wiki/Nonpossessory_interest_in_land" title="Nonpossessory interest in land">nonpossessory interest</a> or variation of the same notion, of which an instance may be given to another party, which is itself an incorporeal form of property. The particular interest may easily be destroyed once it and the property are owned by the same party.</td> <td></td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Share </th> <td>Aspect of property whereby ownership or equity of a particular portion of all property (stock) ever to be produced from it may be given to another party, which is itself an incorporeal form of property. The share may easily be destroyed once it and the property are owned by the same party.</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Easement </th> <td>Aspect of property whereby the right of a particular use of it may be given to another party, which is itself an incorporeal form of property. The easement or use-right may easily be destroyed once it and the property are owned by the same party.</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3" style="border-right: 0px solid gray;">Lien </th> <th style="border-left: 0px solid gray;"><span style="display: none">Lien</span> </th> <td>Condition whereby unencumbered ownership of property is contingent upon completion of obligation; the property being collateral and associated with <a href="/wiki/Security_interest" title="Security interest">security interest</a> in such an arrangement.</td> <td></td> <td>Lienor</td> <td><i>Lieneeship</i></td> <td>Lienee </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mortgage </th> <td>Condition whereby while possession of property is achieved or retained, possession of it is contingent upon performance of obligation to somebody indebted to, and unencumbered ownership of it is contingent upon completion of obligation. The performance of obligation usually implies division of the principal into installments.</td> <td></td> <td>Mortgagor</td> <td><span style="white-space: nowrap;">Mortgage-brokering</span></td> <td><span style="white-space: nowrap;">Mortgage-broker</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pawn </th> <td>Condition whereby while encumbered ownership of property is achieved or retained, encumbered ownership of it is contingent upon the performance of the obligation to somebody indebted to, and possession and unencumbered ownership of it is contingent upon completion of obligation.</td> <td></td> <td>Pledge</td> <td>Pawnbrokering</td> <td>Pawnbroker </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Collision<br />(Conflict) </th> <td>Inability for property to be properly used or occupied due to scarcity or contradiction, the effective impossibility of sharing; possibly leading to eviction or the contrary, if the resolution is achieved rather than a stagnant condition; not necessarily involving or implying conscious dispute.</td> <td></td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Security<br />(Ward) </th> <td rowspan="2">Degree of resistance to or protection from harm, use, or taking; the property and any mechanisms of protection of it being ward. (Alternately, in finance, the word as a countable noun refers to proof of ownership of investment instruments or as an uncountable noun to collateral.) There may be an involvement of obscurities, camouflage, barriers, armor, locks, alarms, booby traps, homing beacons, automated recorders, decoys, weaponry, or sentinels. <ul><li>With land, moats, trenches, or entire buildings may be involved.</li> <li>With buildings or certain forms of transport, turrets may be involved.</li> <li>With information, encryption, steganography, or self-destruct capability may be involved.</li> <li>With communications reliability, channel-hopping may be involved, like immunity or attempt thereat from jamming.</li> <li>With devices of proprietary design, the respective compositions may be more mangled, more convoluted, and more complex than functionality warrants, hence confusing or obscure for protective purposes (though possibly to conceal unapproved copying instead).</li> <li>With contractual rights, retentions of collateral and risks of jeopardy of collateral may be involved.</li></ul> </td> <td></td> <td>Securer</td> <td><i>Protecteeship</i></td> <td>Protectee </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Warden</td> <td colspan="2">Ward </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violation">Violation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Violation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="15%"> </td> <th>General meaning or description, the activities occurring in a way not beholden to the wishes of the owner</th> <th width="10%">Committer </th></tr> <tr> <th>Trespassing </th> <td>Use of physical and usually but not necessarily only immovable property or occupation of it.</td> <td>Trespasser </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vandalism </th> <td>Alteration, damage, or destruction of physical property or to the appearance of it.</td> <td>Vandal </td></tr> <tr> <th>Infringement </th> <td rowspan="2">(Incorporeal analogy to trespassing.) Alteration or duplication of an instance of intellectual property, and publication of the respectively alternate or duplicate; the sample being the information in a medium or a device for which a <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design plan</a> predates and is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">fabrication</a>.</td> <td>Infringer </td></tr> <tr> <th>Violation </th> <td>Violator </td></tr> <tr> <th>Theft </th> <td>Taking of property in a way that excludes the owner from it, or functional alteration of the property ownership.</td> <td>Thief </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Piracy </th> <td>The cognisant or incognisant reproduction and distribution of intellectual property and the possession of intellectual property that saw publication of its duplicates in the previous process. </td> <td rowspan="2">Pirate </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infringement with the effect of lost profits for the owner or infringement involving profit or personal gain. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plagiarism </th> <td>Publication of a work, whether it is intellectual property (perhaps copyrighted) or not, whether it is in public domain or not, without credit being afforded to the creator, as though the work is original in publication.</td> <td>Plagiarist </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous_action">Miscellaneous action</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous action"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="15%"> </td> <th>General meaning or description</th> <th width="10%">Committer </th></tr> <tr> <th>Squatting </th> <td>Occupation of property that is either unused and unkept or was abandoned, whether the property still has an owner. (If the property is owned and not left, then the squatting is trespassing if any usage not beholden to the wishes of the owner is done in the process.)</td> <td>Squatter </td></tr> <tr> <th>Reverse engineering </th> <td>Discovery of how a device works, whether it is an instance of intellectual property (perhaps patented) or not, whether it is in the public domain, and how to alter or duplicate it without access to or knowledge of the corresponding design plan.</td> <td>Reverse engineer </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ghostwriting </th> <td>Creation of a textual work, whereby another party is explicitly allowed to be credited as a creator in publication.</td> <td>Ghostwriter </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues_in_property_theory">Issues in property theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Issues in property theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principle">Principle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two major justifications are given for the original property, or the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a>, are effort and scarcity. <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> emphasized effort, "mixing your labor"<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with an object, or clearing and cultivating virgin land. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Benjamin Tucker</a> preferred to look at the <a href="/wiki/Telos_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Telos (philosophy)">telos</a> of property, i.e., what is the purpose of property? His answer: to solve the scarcity problem. Only when items are relatively scarce concerning people's desires, do they become property.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, hunter-gatherers did not consider land to be property, since there was no shortage of land. Agrarian societies later made arable land property, as it was scarce. For something to be economically scarce, it must necessarily have the "exclusivity property"—that use by one person excludes others from using it. These two justifications lead to different conclusions on what can be property. <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a>—incorporeal things like ideas, plans, orderings and arrangements (musical compositions, novels, computer programs)—are generally considered valid property to those who support an effort justification, but invalid to those who support a scarcity justification, since the things don't have the exclusivity property (however, those who support a scarcity justification may still support other "intellectual property" laws such as <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a>, as long as these are a subject of <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> instead of government arbitration). Thus even ardent <a href="/wiki/Propertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Propertarian">propertarians</a> may disagree about IP.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By either standard, one's body is one's property. </p><p>From some <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> points of view, the validity of property depends on whether the "property right" requires enforcement by the State. Different forms of "property" require different amounts of enforcement: <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> requires a great deal of state intervention to enforce, ownership of distant physical property requires quite a lot, ownership of carried objects requires very little. In contrast, requesting one's own body requires absolutely no state intervention. So some anarchists don't believe in property at all. </p><p>Many things have existed that did not have an <a href="/wiki/Owner" class="mw-redirect" title="Owner">owner</a>, sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">commons</a>. The term "commons," however, is also often used to mean something entirely different: "general collective ownership"—i.e. <a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">common ownership</a>. Also, the same term is sometimes used by <a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">statists</a> to mean government-owned property that the general public is allowed to access (<a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">public property</a>). Law in all societies has tended to reduce the number of things not having clear owners. Supporters of property rights argue that this enables better protection of scarce resources due to the <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of the commons</a>. At the same time, critics say that it leads to the 'exploitation' of those resources for personal gain and that it hinders taking advantage of potential <a href="/wiki/Network_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Network effects">network effects</a>. These arguments have differing validity for different types of "property"—things that are not scarce are, for instance, not subject to the <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of the commons</a>. Some apparent critics advocate general collective ownership rather than ownerlessness. </p><p>Things that do not have owners include: <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a> (except for <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a>), <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> (which is, however, protected by anti-pollution laws), parts of the <a href="/wiki/Seafloor" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor">seafloor</a> (see the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for restrictions), gases in <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, animals in the wild (although in most nations, animals are tied to the land. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, wildlife is generally defined in statute as property of the State. This public ownership of wildlife is referred to as the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation and is based on The Public Trust Doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), celestial bodies and outer space, and land in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. </p><p>The nature of children under the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">age of majority</a> is another contested issue here. In ancient societies, children were generally considered the property of their parents. However, children in most modern communities theoretically own their bodies but are not regarded as competent to exercise their rights. Their parents or <a href="/wiki/Legal_guardian" title="Legal guardian">guardians</a> are given most of the fundamental rights of control over them. </p><p>Questions regarding the nature of ownership of the body also come up in the issue of <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Drugs">drugs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a>. </p><p>In many ancient legal systems (e.g., early <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>), religious sites (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temples</a>) were considered property of the <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> or gods they were devoted to. However, <a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">religious pluralism</a> makes it more convenient to have sacred sites owned by the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_body" title="Spiritual body">spiritual body</a> that runs them. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> and air (<a href="/wiki/Airspace" title="Airspace">airspace</a>, <a href="/wiki/No-fly_zone" title="No-fly zone">no-fly zone</a>, pollution laws, which can include tradable <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emissions rights</a>) can be property in some senses of the word. </p><p>Ownership of land can be held separately from the ownership of rights over that land, including sporting rights,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">mineral rights</a>, development rights, <a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">air rights</a>, and such other rights as may be worth segregating from simple land ownership. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ownership">Ownership</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ownership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></div> <p>Ownership laws may vary widely among countries depending on the nature of the property of interest (e.g., firearms, real property, personal property, animals). Persons can own property directly. In most societies <a href="/wiki/Juristic_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Juristic person">legal entities</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Corporations" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporations">corporations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a> and nations (or governments) own property. </p><p>In many countries women have limited access to property following restrictive inheritance and family laws, under which only men have actual or formal rights to own property. </p><p>In the Inca empire, the dead emperors, considered gods, still controlled property after death.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_interference">Government interference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Government interference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 17th-century <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, the legal directive that nobody may enter a home (which in the 17th century would typically have been male-owned) unless by the owner's invitation or consent, was established as common law in Sir <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a> 's "<a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Lawes_of_England" title="Institutes of the Lawes of England">Institutes of the Lawes of England</a>". "For a man's house is his castle, et domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium [and each man's home is his safest refuge]." It is the origin of the famous dictum, "an Englishman's home is his castle".<sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruling enshrined into law what several English writers had espoused in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the rest of Europe the British had a proclivity towards owning their own homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt,_1st_Earl_of_Chatham" title="William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham">William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham</a> defined the meaning of castle in 1763, "The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the forces of the crown. It may be frail – its roof may shake – the wind may blow through it – the storm may enter – the rain may enter – but the King of England cannot enter."<sup id="cite_ref-Pitt_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That principle was carried to the United States. Under U.S. law, the principal limitations on whether and the extent to which the State may interfere with property rights are set by the Constitution. The <a href="/wiki/Takings_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Takings clause">Takings clause</a> requires that the government (whether State or federal—for the 14th Amendment's due process clause imposes the 5th Amendment's takings clause on state governments) may take private property only for a public purpose after exercising due process of law, and upon making "just compensation." If an interest is not deemed a "property" right or the conduct is merely an intentional tort, these limitations do not apply, and the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity" title="Sovereign immunity">sovereign immunity</a> precludes relief.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, if the interference does not almost completely make the property valueless, the interference will not be deemed a taking but instead a mere regulation of use.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, some governmental regulations of property use have been deemed so severe that they have been considered "<a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">regulatory takings</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, conduct is sometimes deemed only a nuisance, or another tort has been held a taking of property where the conduct was sufficiently persistent and severe.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There exist many theories of property. One is the relatively rare <a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">first possession theory of property</a>, where ownership of something is seen as justified simply by someone seizing something before someone else does.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps one of the most popular is the <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a> definition of property rights as advanced by <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. Locke advanced the theory that God granted dominion over nature to man through Adam in the book of Genesis. Therefore, he theorized that when one mixes one's labor with nature, one gains a relationship with that part of nature with which the labor is mixed, subject to the limitation that there should be "enough, and as good, left in common for others." (see <a href="/wiki/Lockean_proviso" title="Lockean proviso">Lockean proviso</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his <a href="/wiki/Encyclical_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclical letter">encyclical letter</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i> (1891), <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a> wrote, "It is surely undeniable that, when a man engages in remunerative labor, the impelling reason and motive of his work is to obtain property, and after that to hold it as his very own."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anthropology studies the diverse ownership systems, rights of use and transfer, and possession<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under the term "theories of property". As mentioned, western legal theory is based on the owner of property being a legal person. However, not all property systems are founded on this basis. </p><p>In every culture studied, ownership and possession are the subjects of custom and regulation, and "law" is where the term can meaningfully be applied. Many tribal cultures balance individual rights with the laws of collective groups: tribes, families, associations, and nations. For example, the 1839 Cherokee Constitution frames the issue in these terms: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Sec. 2. The lands of the Cherokee Nation shall remain common property. Still, the improvements made thereon, and in possession of the citizens respectively who made, or may rightfully own them: Provided, that the citizens of the Nation possessing the exclusive and indefeasible right to their improvements, as expressed in this article, shall possess no right or power to dispose of their improvements, in any manner whatever, to the United States, individual States, or individual citizens thereof; and that, whenever any citizen shall remove with his effects out of the limits of this Nation, and become a citizen of any other government, all his rights and privileges as a citizen of this Nation shall cease: Provided, nevertheless, That the National Council shall have power to re-admit, by law, to all the rights of citizenship, any such person or persons who may, at any time, desire to return to the Nation, on memorializing the National Council for such readmission.</p></blockquote> <p>Communal property systems describe ownership as belonging to the entire social and political unit. Common ownership in a hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Communist_society" title="Communist society">communist society</a> is distinguished from primitive forms of common property that have existed throughout history, such as <a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primitive_communism" title="Primitive communism">primitive communism</a>, in that communist common ownership is the outcome of social and technological developments leading to the <a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity" title="Post-scarcity">elimination of material scarcity</a> in society.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corporate systems describe ownership as being attached to an identifiable group with an identifiable responsible individual. The Roman property law was based on such a corporate system. In a well-known paper that contributed to the creation of the field of <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">law and economics</a> in the late 1960s, the American scholar <a href="/wiki/Harold_Demsetz" title="Harold Demsetz">Harold Demsetz</a> described how the concept of property rights makes social interactions easier: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the world of <a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a>, property rights play no role. Property rights are an instrument of society and derive their significance from the fact that they help a man form those expectations which he can reasonably hold in his dealings with others. These expectations find expression in society's laws, customs, and more. An owner of property rights possesses the consent of fellowmen to allow him to act in particular ways. An owner expects the community to prevent others from interfering with his actions, provided that these actions are not prohibited in the specifications of his rights.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Harold Demsetz (1967), "Toward a Theory of property Rights", <i>The American Economic Review</i> 57(2), p. 347.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Different societies may have other theories of property for differing types of ownership. For example, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Peters" title="Pauline Peters">Pauline Peters</a> argued that property systems are not isolable from the social fabric, and notions of property may not be stated as such but instead may be framed in negative terms: for example, the taboo system among Polynesian peoples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Property_in_philosophy">Property in philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Property in philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> the term "property" essentially referred to land. After much rethinking, land has come to be regarded as only a special case of the property genus. This rethinking was inspired by at least three broad features of early modern Europe: the surge of commerce, the breakdown of efforts to prohibit <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a> (then called "<a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a>"), and the development of centralized national <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_philosophy">Ancient philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ancient philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a>, the king of the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> city-state <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a>, established the first laws that forbade compelling the sale of property.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bible in Leviticus 19:11 and ibid. 19:13 states that the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> are not to steal. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in <i>Politics,</i> advocates "private property."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that self-interest leads to neglect of the commons. "[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Everyone thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest, and only when he is himself concerned as an individual."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, he says that when property is common, there are natural problems that arise due to differences in labor: "If they do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed, there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/bnccde/PH19C/tutorial10.html"><i>Politics, 1261b34</i></a>) </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> held that there is no private property under <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> but only under <a href="/wiki/Human_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Human law">human law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> viewed property as only becoming necessary when men become avaricious.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/St._Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Ambrose">St. Ambrose</a> later adopted this view and <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a> even derided heretics for complaining the Emperor could not confiscate property they had labored for.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_philosophy">Medieval philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Medieval philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Aquinas_(13th_century)"><span id="Thomas_Aquinas_.2813th_century.29"></span>Thomas Aquinas (13th century)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Thomas Aquinas (13th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The canon law <i><a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Decretum Gratiani</a></i> maintained that mere human law creates property, repeating the phrases used by St. Augustine.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/St._Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Thomas Aquinas">St. Thomas Aquinas</a> agreed with regard to the private consumption of property but modified patristic theory in finding that the private possession of property is necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas Aquinas concludes that, given certain detailed provisions,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>it is natural for man to possess external things</li> <li>it is lawful for a man to possess a thing as his own</li> <li>The essence of theft consists in taking another's thing secretly</li> <li>Theft and robbery are sins of different species, and robbery is a more grievous sin than theft</li> <li>theft is a sin; it is also a <a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">mortal sin</a></li> <li>it is, however, lawful to steal through stress of need:" in cases of need, all things are common property."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Hobbes_(17th_century)"><span id="Thomas_Hobbes_.2817th_century.29"></span>Thomas Hobbes (17th century)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Thomas Hobbes (17th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principal writings of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> appeared between 1640 and 1651—during and immediately following <a href="/wiki/First_English_Civil_War" title="First English Civil War">the war between forces</a> loyal to King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> and those loyal to <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a>. In his own words, Hobbes' reflection began with the idea of "giving to every man his own," a phrase he drew from the writings of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. But he wondered: How can anybody call anything his own? </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="James_Harrington_(17th_century)"><span id="James_Harrington_.2817th_century.29"></span>James Harrington (17th century)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: James Harrington (17th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A contemporary of Hobbes, <a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">James Harrington</a>, reacted to the same tumult differently: he considered property natural but not inevitable. The author of "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceana_(book)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oceana (book) (page does not exist)">Oceana</a>," he may have been the first political theorist to postulate that political power is a consequence, not the cause, of the distribution of property. He said that the worst possible situation is when the commoners have half a nation's property, with the crown and nobility holding the other half—a circumstance fraught with instability and violence. He suggested a much better situation (a stable republic) would exist once the commoners own most property. </p><p>In later years, the ranks of Harrington's admirers included American revolutionary and founder <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robert_Filmer_(17th_century)"><span id="Robert_Filmer_.2817th_century.29"></span>Robert Filmer (17th century)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Robert Filmer (17th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another member of the Hobbes/Harrington generation, Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a>, reached conclusions much like Hobbes', but through <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a> <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a>. Filmer said that the institution of kingship is analogous to that of fatherhood, that subjects are still, children, whether obedient or unruly and that property rights are akin to the household goods that a father may dole out among his children—his to take back and dispose of according to his pleasure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Locke_(17th_century)"><span id="John_Locke_.2817th_century.29"></span>John Locke (17th century)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: John Locke (17th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the following generation, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> sought to answer Filmer, creating a rationale for a balanced <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> in which the monarch had a part to play, but not an overwhelming part. Since Filmer's views essentially require that the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a> family be uniquely descended from the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchs">patriarchs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, and even in the late 17th century, that was a difficult view to uphold, Locke attacked Filmer's views in his <a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government#First_Treatise" title="Two Treatises of Government">First Treatise on Government</a>, freeing him to set out his own views in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Treatise_on_Civil_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Treatise on Civil Government">Second Treatise on Civil Government</a>. Therein, Locke imagined a pre-social world each of the unhappy residents which are willing to create a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> because otherwise, "the enjoyment of the property he has in this state is very unsafe, very insecure," and therefore, the "great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They would, he allowed, create a <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>, but its task would be to execute the will of an elected legislature. "To this end" (to achieve the previously specified goal), he wrote, "it is that men give up all their natural power to the society they enter into, and the community put the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative power">Legislative power</a> into such hands as they think fit, with this trust, that they shall be governed by declared laws, or else their peace, quiet, and property will still be at the same uncertainty as it was in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even when it keeps to proper legislative form, Locke held that there are limits to what a government established by such a contract might rightly do. </p> <blockquote><p> "It cannot be supposed that [the hypothetical contractors] they should intend, had they a power so to do, to give anyone or more an absolute arbitrary power over their persons and estates, and put a force into the magistrate's hand to execute his unlimited will arbitrarily upon them; this were to put themselves into a worse condition than the State of nature, wherein they had a liberty to defend their right against the injuries of others, and were upon equal terms of force to maintain it, whether invaded by a single man or many in combination. Whereas by supposing they have given themselves up to the absolute arbitrary power and will of a legislator, they have disarmed themselves, and armed him to make a prey of them when he pleases..."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Both "persons" and "estates" are to be protected from the arbitrary power of any magistrate, including legislative power and will." In Lockean terms, depredations against an estate are just as plausible a justification for resistance and revolution as are those against persons. In neither case are subjects required to allow themselves to become prey. </p><p>To explain the ownership of property, Locke advanced a <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">labor theory of property</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="David_Hume_(18th_century)"><span id="David_Hume_.2818th_century.29"></span>David Hume (18th century)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: David Hume (18th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to the figures discussed in this section thus far <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> lived a relatively quiet life that had settled down to a relatively stable social and political structure. He lived the life of a solitary writer until 1763 when, at 52 years of age, he went off to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> to work at the British embassy. </p><p>In contrast, one might think to his polemical works on <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>-driven <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skeptical</a> <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, Hume's views on law and property were quite conservative. </p><p>He did not believe in hypothetical contracts or the love of humanity in general and sought to ground politics upon actual human beings as one knows them. "In general," he wrote, "it may be affirmed that there is no such passion in the human mind, as the love of mankind, merely as such, independent of personal qualities, or services, or of relation to ourselves." Existing customs should not lightly be disregarded because they have come to be what they are due to human nature. With this endorsement of custom comes an endorsement of existing governments because he conceived of the two as complementary: "A regard for <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, though a laudable passion, ought commonly to be subordinate to a reverence for established <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>." </p><p>Therefore, Hume's view was that there are property rights because of and to the extent that the existing law, supported by social customs, secure them.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He offered some practical home-spun advice on the general subject, though, as when he referred to <a href="/wiki/Avarice" class="mw-redirect" title="Avarice">avarice</a> as "the spur of <a href="/wiki/Private_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Private industry">industry</a>," and expressed concern about excessive levels of taxation, which "destroy industry, by engendering despair." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adam_Smith">Adam Smith</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Adam Smith"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> "Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is, in reality, instituted for the defense of the rich against the poor, or of those who have property against those who have none at all." </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i>, 1776<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>"The property that every man has in his labour is the original foundation of all other property, so it is the most sacred and inviolable. The inheritance of a poor man lies in the strength and dexterity of his hands, and to hinder him from employing this strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper without injury to his neighbor, is a plain violation of this most sacred property. It is a manifest encroachment upon the just liberty of the workman and those who might be disposed to employ him. It hinders the one from working at what he thinks proper, so it hinders the others from employing whom they think proper. To judge whether he is fit to be employed may surely be trusted to the discretion of the employers whose interest it so much concerns. The affected anxiety of the law-giver lest they should employ an improper person is as impertinent as it is oppressive." — (Source: <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i>, 1776, Book I, Chapter X, Part II.) </p><p>By the mid 19th century, the industrial revolution had transformed England and the United States and had begun in France. As a result, the conventional conception of what constitutes property expanded beyond land to encompass scarce goods. In France, the revolution of the 1790s had led to large-scale confiscation of land formerly owned by the church and king. The restoration of the monarchy led to claims by those dispossessed to have their former lands returned. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karl_Marx">Karl Marx</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Karl Marx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Section VIII, "<a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive Accumulation</a>" of Capital involves a critique of Liberal Theories of property rights. Marx notes that under Feudal Law, peasants were legally entitled to their land as the aristocracy was to its manors. Marx cites several historical events in which large numbers of the peasantry were removed from their lands, then seized by the nobility. This seized land was then used for commercial ventures (sheep herding). Marx sees this "Primitive Accumulation" as integral to the creation of English Capitalism. This event created a sizeable un-landed class that had to work for wages to survive. Marx asserts that liberal theories of property are "idyllic" fairy tales that hide a violent historical process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charles_Comte:_legitimate_origin_of_property">Charles Comte: legitimate origin of property</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Charles Comte: legitimate origin of property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Comte" title="Charles Comte">Charles Comte</a>, in "Traité de la propriété" (1834), attempted to justify the legitimacy of private property in response to the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a>. According to David Hart, Comte had three main points: "firstly, that interference by the state over the centuries in property ownership has had dire consequences for justice as well as for economic productivity; secondly, that property is legitimate when it emerges in such a way as not to harm anyone; and thirdly, that historically some, but by no means all, property which has evolved has done so legitimately, with the implication that the present distribution of property is a complex mixture of legitimately and illegitimately held titles."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Comte, as Proudhon later did, rejected <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman legal tradition</a> with its toleration of slavery. Instead, he posited a communal "national" property consisting of non-scarce goods, such as land in ancient hunter-gatherer societies. Since agriculture was so much more efficient than hunting and gathering, private property appropriated by someone for farming left remaining hunter-gatherers with more land per person and hence did not harm them. Thus this type of land appropriation did not violate the <a href="/wiki/Lockean_proviso" title="Lockean proviso">Lockean proviso</a> – there was "still enough, and as good left." Later theorists would use Comte's analysis in response to the socialist critique of property. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon:_property_is_theft">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: property is theft</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: property is theft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a></div> <p>In his 1840 treatise <i>What is Property?</i>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Proudhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Proudhon">Pierre Proudhon</a> answers with "<a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a>". In natural resources, he sees two types of property, <i>de jure</i> property (legal title) and <i>de facto</i> property (physical possession), and argues that the former is illegitimate. Proudhon's conclusion is that "property, to be just and possible, must necessarily have equality for its condition." </p><p>His analysis of the product of labor upon natural resources as property (<a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a>) is more nuanced. He asserts that land itself cannot be property, yet it should be held by individual possessors as stewards of humanity, with the product of labor being the producer's property. Proudhon reasoned that any wealth gained without labor was stolen from those who labored to create that wealth. Even a voluntary contract to surrender the product of work to an employer was theft, according to Proudhon, since the controller of natural resources had no moral right to charge others for the use of that which he did not labor to create did not own. </p><p>Proudhon's theory of property greatly influenced the budding socialist movement, inspiring anarchist theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a> who modified Proudhon's ideas, as well as antagonizing theorists like <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frédéric_Bastiat:_property_is_value"><span id="Fr.C3.A9d.C3.A9ric_Bastiat:_property_is_value"></span>Frédéric Bastiat: property is value</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Frédéric Bastiat: property is value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> 's main treatise on property can be found in chapter 8 of his book "Economic Harmonies" (1850).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a radical departure from traditional property theory, he defines property, not as a physical object, but rather as a relationship between people concerning a thing. Thus, saying one owns a glass of water is merely verbal shorthand for "I may justly gift or trade this water to another person." In essence, what one owns is not the object but the object's value. By "value," Bastiat means "market value"; he emphasizes this is quite different from utility. "In our relations with one another, we are not owners of the utility of things, but their value, and value is the appraisal made of reciprocal services." </p><p>Bastiat theorized that, as a result of technological progress and the division of labor, the stock of communal wealth increases over time; that the hours of work an unskilled laborer expends to buy e.g., 100 liters of wheat, decreases over time, thus amounting to "gratis" satisfaction.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, private property continually destroys itself, becoming transformed into communal wealth. The increasing proportion of communal wealth to private property results in a tendency toward equality of humanity. "Since the human race began in greatest poverty, that is, when there were the most obstacles to overcome, all that has been achieved from one era to the next is due to the spirit of property." </p><p>This transformation of private property into the communal domain, Bastiat points out, does not imply that personal property will ever totally disappear. On the contrary, this is because man, as he progresses, continually invents new and more sophisticated needs and desires. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Andrew_J._Galambos:_a_precise_definition_of_property">Andrew J. Galambos: a precise definition of property</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Andrew J. Galambos: a precise definition of property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Joseph_Galambos" title="Andrew Joseph Galambos">Andrew J. Galambos</a> (1924–1997) was an astrophysicist and philosopher who innovated a social structure that sought to maximize human peace and freedom. Galambos' concept of property was essential to his philosophy. He defined property as a man's life and all non-procreative derivatives of his life. (Because the English language is deficient in omitting the feminine from "man" when referring to humankind, it is implicit and obligatory that the feminine is included in the term "man.") </p><p>Galambos taught that property is essential to a non-coercive social structure. He defined freedom as follows: "Freedom is the societal condition that exists when every individual has full (100%) control over his property."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galambos defines property as having the following elements: </p> <ul><li>Primordial property, which is an individual's life</li> <li>Primary property, which includes ideas, thoughts, and actions</li> <li>Secondary property includes all tangible and intangible possessions that are derivatives of the individual's primary property.</li></ul> <p>Property includes all non-procreative derivatives of an individual's life; this means children are not the property of their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "primary property" (a person's own ideas).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Galambos repeatedly emphasized that actual government exists to protect property and that the State attacks property. For example, the State requires payment for its services in the form of taxes whether or not people desire such services. Since an individual's money is his property, the confiscation of money in the form of taxes is an attack on property. Military conscription is likewise an attack on a person's primordial property. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_views">Contemporary views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Contemporary views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contemporary political thinkers who believe that natural persons enjoy rights to own property and enter into contracts espouse two views about John Locke. On the one hand, some admire Locke, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Harold_Hutt" title="William Harold Hutt">William H. Hutt</a> (1956), who praised Locke for laying down the "quintessence of individualism." On the other hand, those such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Richard Pipes</a> regard Locke's arguments as weak and think that undue reliance thereon has weakened the cause of individualism in recent times. Pipes has written that Locke's work "marked a regression because it rested on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Natural_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Law">Natural Law</a>" rather than upon Harrington's sociological framework. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hernando_de_Soto_Polar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hernando de Soto Polar">Hernando de Soto</a> has argued that an essential characteristic of the capitalist market economy is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal <a href="/w/index.php?title=Property_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Property system (page does not exist)">property system</a> which records ownership and transactions. These property rights and the whole legal system of property make possible: </p> <ul><li>Greater independence for individuals from local community arrangements to protect their assets</li> <li>Clear, provable, and protectable ownership</li> <li>The standardization and integration of property rules and property information in a country as a whole</li> <li>Increased trust arising from a greater certainty of punishment for cheating in economic transactions</li> <li>More formal and complex written statements of ownership that permit the more straightforward assumption of shared risk and ownership in companies, and insurance against the risk</li> <li>Greater availability of loans for new projects since more things can serve as collateral for the loans</li> <li>Easier access to and more reliable information regarding such things as credit history and the worth of assets</li> <li>Increased <a href="/wiki/Fungibility" title="Fungibility">fungibility</a>, standardization, and transferability of statements documenting the ownership of property, which paves the way for structures such as national markets for companies and the easy transportation of property through complex networks of individuals and other entities</li> <li>Greater protection of biodiversity due to minimizing of <a href="/wiki/Shifting_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Shifting agriculture">shifting agriculture</a> practices</li></ul> <p>According to de Soto, all of the above enhance <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Academics have criticized the capitalist frame through which property is viewed pointing to the fact that commodifying property or land by assigning it monetary value takes away from the traditional cultural heritage, particularly from first nation inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These academics point to the personal nature of property and its link to identity being irreconcilable with wealth creation that contemporary Western society subscribes to.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allemansr%C3%A4tten" class="mw-redirect" title="Allemansrätten">Allemansrätten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_economics" title="Binary economics">Binary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buying_agent" title="Buying agent">Buying agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">Homestead principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immovable_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Immovable property">Immovable property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusive Democracy">Inclusive Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Property_Rights_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="International Property Rights Index">International Property Rights Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">Land (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lien" title="Lien">Lien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Off plan">Off plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership_society" title="Ownership society">Ownership society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_patrimony" title="Family patrimony">Patrimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Propertarian">Propertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft">Property is theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_as_theft" title="Taxation as theft">Taxation as theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_liability" title="Public liability">Public liability</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b>Property-giving (legal)</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity (virtue)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift" title="Gift">Gift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibbutz" title="Kibbutz">Kibbutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">Tithe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a> (modern sense)</li></ul> </div> <p><b>Property-taking (legal)</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_possession" title="Adverse possession">Adverse possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation" title="Confiscation">Confiscation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_of_lands" title="Fine of lands">Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulatory fees and costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">Search and seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turf_and_twig" class="mw-redirect" title="Turf and twig">Turf and twig</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">Tithe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a> (historical sense)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_statute_2477" title="Revised statute 2477">RS 2477</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b>Property-taking (illegal)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPowell2009" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Richard R. (2009). "2.02". In Wolf, Michael Alan (ed.). <i>Powell on Real Property</i>. New Providence, NJ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781579111588" title="Special:BookSources/9781579111588"><bdi>9781579111588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.02&rft.btitle=Powell+on+Real+Property&rft.place=New+Providence%2C+NJ&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781579111588&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Richard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wordnet-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wordnet_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=property&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1&o7=&o5=&o1=1&o6=&o4=&o3=&h=">"property"</a>. <i>WordNet</i>. Princeton University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=property&rft.btitle=WordNet&rft.pub=Princeton+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwordnetweb.princeton.edu%2Fperl%2Fwebwn%3Fs%3Dproperty%26sub%3DSearch%2BWordNet%26o2%3D%26o0%3D1%26o7%3D%26o5%3D%26o1%3D1%26o6%3D%26o4%3D%26o3%3D%26h%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregoryStuart2003" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003). <i>Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-26181-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-26181-8"><bdi>0-618-26181-8</bdi></a>. <q>There are three broad forms of property ownership—private, public, and collective (cooperative).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparing+Economic+Systems+in+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-618-26181-8&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft.au=Stuart%2C+Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellissaryDey_Biswas2012" class="citation web cs1">Pellissary, Sony; Dey Biswas, Sattwick (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irma.ac.in/pdf/randp/1175_17402.pdf">"Emerging Property Regimes in India: What it Holds for the Future of Socio-economic Rights?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.irma.ac.in</i>. Institute of Rural Management Anand<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.irma.ac.in&rft.atitle=Emerging+Property+Regimes+in+India%3A+What+it+Holds+for+the+Future+of+Socio-economic+Rights%3F&rft.date=2012-11&rft.aulast=Pellissary&rft.aufirst=Sony&rft.au=Dey+Biswas%2C+Sattwick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irma.ac.in%2Fpdf%2Frandp%2F1175_17402.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraber2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graber, David</a> (2002). <a href="/wiki/Toward_an_Anthropological_Theory_of_Value" title="Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value"><i>Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value</i></a>. New York: Palgrave. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-24044-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-24044-8"><bdi>978-0-312-24044-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+an+Anthropological+Theory+of+Value&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-312-24044-8&rft.aulast=Graber&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Property in Anthropology, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150116101316/http://www.eth.mpg.de/cms/en/research/d2/completed/property/moreinfo/">"Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eth.mpg.de/cms/en/research/d2/completed/property/moreinfo/">the original</a> on 2015-01-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Max+Planck+Institute+for+Social+Anthropology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eth.mpg.de%2Fcms%2Fen%2Fresearch%2Fd2%2Fcompleted%2Fproperty%2Fmoreinfo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Kw5vLbYq-4C&q=Adam+Smith,+the+expectation+of+profit+from+%22improving+one%27s+stock+of+capital%22+rests+on+private+property+rights&pg=PA355"><i>Understanding the Global Economy, Howard Richards (p. 355)</i></a>. Peace Education Books. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9748961-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9748961-0-6"><bdi>978-0-9748961-0-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Global+Economy%2C+Howard+Richards+%28p.+355%29&rft.pub=Peace+Education+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-9748961-0-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Kw5vLbYq-4C%26q%3DAdam%2BSmith%2C%2Bthe%2Bexpectation%2Bof%2Bprofit%2Bfrom%2B%2522improving%2Bone%2527s%2Bstock%2Bof%2Bcapital%2522%2Brests%2Bon%2Bprivate%2Bproperty%2Brights%26pg%3DPA355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jH5bTCHDYTgC"><i>An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations</i></a>. Hackett Publishing Company. 1993. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-204-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-204-6"><bdi>0-87220-204-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+inquiry+into+the+nature+and+causes+of+the+wealth+of+nations&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87220-204-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjH5bTCHDYTgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMundy1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Hine_Mundy" title="John Hine Mundy">Mundy, John Hine</a> (1995). "Medieval Urban Liberty". In Davis, Richard W. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7xF77M6VbVgC"><i>The Origins of Modern Freedom in the West</i></a>. Making of modern freedom. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804724746" title="Special:BookSources/9780804724746"><bdi>9780804724746</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2023</span>. <q>Rehearsing other Roman passages, [civilian jurists] found that private property guaranteed freedom by limiting princes and government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medieval+Urban+Liberty&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Modern+Freedom+in+the+West&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.series=Making+of+modern+freedom&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780804724746&rft.aulast=Mundy&rft.aufirst=John+Hine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7xF77M6VbVgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuglestad2018" class="citation book cs1">Fuglestad, Eirik Magnus (1 June 2018). "America: 'Destined to Let Freedom Grow'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dh9eDwAAQBAJ"><i>Private Property and the Origins of Nationalism in the United States and Norway: The Making of Propertied Communities</i></a>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319899503" title="Special:BookSources/9783319899503"><bdi>9783319899503</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2023</span>. <q>[ A quote from 1768] demonstrates again the centrality of property ownership to the colonists' concept of freedom: property was what made men free, and not 'slaves' or 'like beasts subdued by whips and goads.' [...] Property had the potential of creating independence for the individual because, by utilizing and shaping the earth through one's labor and having exclusive (property) right to it, one created the means to act freely in the world. [...] In a letter that Thomas Jefferson wrote [...] thirty years after the American Revolution, he also expressed the importance of private property if an individual was to be free [...]. [...] Owning landed property could satisfy the wants and needs of the individual, this made him or her free.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=America%3A+%27Destined+to+Let+Freedom+Grow%27&rft.btitle=Private+Property+and+the+Origins+of+Nationalism+in+the+United+States+and+Norway%3A+The+Making+of+Propertied+Communities&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft.isbn=9783319899503&rft.aulast=Fuglestad&rft.aufirst=Eirik+Magnus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDh9eDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/13/314.1">"13 Code of Federal Regulations § 314.1 ("Definitions")"</a>. <i>Cornell University's Legal Information Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-09</span></span>. <q>Property means Real Property, Personal Property and mixed Property. . . . Real Property means any land, whether raw or improved, and includes structures, fixtures, appurtenances and other permanent improvements, excluding moveable machinery and equipment. Real Property includes land that is served by the construction of Project infrastructure (such as roads, sewers, and water lines) where the infrastructure contributes to the value of such land as a specific purpose of the Project.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cornell+University%27s+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=13+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+%C2%A7+314.1+%28%22Definitions%22%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fcfr%2Ftext%2F13%2F314.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150613041353/http://www.constitution.org/jl/2ndtr05.htm">"John Locke: Second Treatise of Civil Government: Chapter 5"</a>. <i>Constitution.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/jl/2ndtr05.htm">the original</a> on Jun 13, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Constitution.org&rft.atitle=John+Locke%3A+Second+Treatise+of+Civil+Government%3A+Chapter+5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Fjl%2F2ndtr05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElroy2008" class="citation web cs1">McElroy, Wendy (11 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080706115752/http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/ch6intpr.html">"Intellectual Property | Copyright and Patent in Benjamin Tucker's periodical Liberty"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/ch6intpr.html">the original</a> on 6 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+%7C+Copyright+and+Patent+in+Benjamin+Tucker%27s+periodical+Liberty&rft.date=2008-05-11&rft.aulast=McElroy&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zetetics.com%2Fmac%2Flibdebates%2Fch6intpr.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://praxeology.net/anticopyright.htm">"Molinari Institute – Anti-Copyright Resources"</a>. <i>Praxeology.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Praxeology.net&rft.atitle=Molinari+Institute+%E2%80%93+Anti-Copyright+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpraxeology.net%2Fanticopyright.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119010211/http://joomla.wildlife.org/index.php?id=171&option=com_content&task=view">"The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation and Public Trust Doctrine"</a>. <i>The Wildlife Society</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://joomla.wildlife.org/index.php?id=171&option=com_content&task=view">the original</a> on 2012-01-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Wildlife+Society&rft.atitle=The+North+American+Model+of+Wildlife+Conservation+and+Public+Trust+Doctrine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjoomla.wildlife.org%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D171%26option%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080227003852/http://www.basc.org.uk/media/2001_definition_of_sporting_rights.pdf">"Definition of sporting rights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BASC</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.basc.org.uk/media/2001_definition_of_sporting_rights.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-02-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BASC&rft.atitle=Definition+of+sporting+rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.basc.org.uk%2Fmedia%2F2001_definition_of_sporting_rights.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mckay, John P. , 2004, "A History of World Societies". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitt-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pitt_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pitt_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pitt_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pitt_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/an-englishmans-home-is-his-castle.html">"An Englishman's home is his castle"</a>. <i>Phrases.org.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phrases.org.uk&rft.atitle=An+Englishman%27s+home+is+his+castle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.phrases.org.uk%2Fmeanings%2Fan-englishmans-home-is-his-castle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, "<a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Willow_River_Power_Co." title="United States v. Willow River Power Co.">United States v. Willow River Power Co.</a>" (not a property right because the force of law not behind it); "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Schillinger_v._the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schillinger v. the United States (page does not exist)">Schillinger v. the United States</a>," 155 U.S. 163 (1894) (patent infringement is a tort, not taking of property); "Zoltek Corp. v. United States", 442 F.3d 1345 (Fed. Cir. 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York", 438 U.S. 104 (1978).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes</i>, 474 U.S. 121 (1985).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Causby</i>, 328 U.S. 256 (1946).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Property". Graham Oppy. "The shorter Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy." Editor <a href="/wiki/Edward_Craig_(philosopher)" title="Edward Craig (philosopher)">Edward Craig</a>. Routledge, 2005, p. 858</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1690" class="citation web cs1">Locke, John (1690). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/jl/2ndtr05.txt">"The Second Treatise of Civil Government"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Second+Treatise+of+Civil+Government&rft.date=1690&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Fjl%2F2ndtr05.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo XIII (1891), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum.html">Rerum novarum</a> <i>On the Rights and Duties of Capital and Labor</i>, paragraph 5, accessed 30 January 2023</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hann, Chris "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?title=anthropology&title_type=tka&year_from=1998&year_to=2007&database=1&pageSize=20&index=14">A new double movement? Anthropological perspectives on property in the age of neoliberalism</a>" Socio-Economic Review, Volume 5, Number 2, April 2007, pp. 287–318(32)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngels" class="citation journal cs1">Engels, Friedrich. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm">"The Principles of Communism"</a>. <i>Vorwärts</i> – via Marxist Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vorw%C3%A4rts&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+Communism&rft.aulast=Engels&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1847%2F11%2Fprin-com.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cited in Merrill & Smith (2017), pp. 238–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Noah_Kramer" title="Samuel Noah Kramer">Samuel Noah Kramer</a>. "From the Tablets of Sumer: Twenty-Five Firsts in Man's Recorded History." Indian Hills: The Falcon's Wing Press, 1956.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/p/pipes-property.html">"Property and Freedom"</a>. <i>www.nytimes.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nytimes.com&rft.atitle=Property+and+Freedom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2Ffirst%2Fp%2Fpipes-property.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This bears some similarities to the over-use argument of Garrett Hardin's "<a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragedy of the Commons">Tragedy of the Commons</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1913" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, A.J. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/propertyitsdutie00gorerich#page/122/mode/1up"><i>Property: Its Duties and Rights</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 121<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property%3A+Its+Duties+and+Rights&rft.place=London&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpropertyitsdutie00gorerich%23page%2F122%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span> citing Cicero, <a href="/wiki/De_officiis" class="mw-redirect" title="De officiis">De officiis</a>, i. 7, "Sunt autem privata nulla natura".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1913" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, A.J. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/propertyitsdutie00gorerich#page/122/mode/1up"><i>Property: Its Duties and Rights</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 122<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property%3A+Its+Duties+and+Rights&rft.place=London&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpropertyitsdutie00gorerich%23page%2F122%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span> citing Seneca, Epistles, xiv, 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1913" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, A.J. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/propertyitsdutie00gorerich#page/125/mode/1up"><i>Property: Its Duties and Rights</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 125<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property%3A+Its+Duties+and+Rights&rft.place=London&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpropertyitsdutie00gorerich%23page%2F125%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1913" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, A.J. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/propertyitsdutie00gorerich#page/127/mode/1up"><i>Property: Its Duties and Rights</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 127<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property%3A+Its+Duties+and+Rights&rft.place=London&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpropertyitsdutie00gorerich%23page%2F127%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span> citing Decretum, D. viii. Part I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1913" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, A.J. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/propertyitsdutie00gorerich#page/128/mode/1up"><i>Property: Its Duties and Rights</i></a>. London: Macmillan. p. 128<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property%3A+Its+Duties+and+Rights&rft.place=London&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpropertyitsdutie00gorerich%23page%2F128%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3066.htm">"Summa Theologica: Theft and robbery (Secunda Secundae Partis, Q. 66)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summa+Theologica%3A+Theft+and+robbery+%28Secunda+Secundae+Partis%2C+Q.+66%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fsumma%2F3066.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Locke, "The Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1690), Chap. IX, §§ 123–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Locke, "The Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1690), Chap. XI, § 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Locke, "The Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1690), Chap. XI, § 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This view is reflected in the opinion of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> in "<a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Willow_River_Power_Co." title="United States v. Willow River Power Co.">United States v. Willow River Power Co.</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Causes_of_the_Wealth_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations">An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, Cooke & Hale, 1818, p. 167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/ComteDunoyer/Ch6.html#RTFToC4"><i>The Radical Liberalism of Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060130070015/http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/ComteDunoyer/Ch6.html">Archived</a> 2006-01-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Bastiat: Economic Harmonies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bastiat%3A+Economic+Harmonies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php?title=79&chapter=35530&layout=html&Itemid=27">"Economic Harmonies (Boyers trans.) – Online Library of Liberty"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economic+Harmonies+%28Boyers+trans.%29+%E2%80%93+Online+Library+of+Liberty&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2F%3Foption%3Dcom_staticxt%26staticfile%3Dshow.php%3Ftitle%3D79%26chapter%3D35530%26layout%3Dhtml%26Itemid%3D27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Andrew (1999). Sic Itur Ad Astra. San Diego, California: The Universal Scientific Publications Company, Inc. pp. 868–869. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88078-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88078-004-5">0-88078-004-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Andrew (1999). Sic Itur Ad Astra. San Diego, California: The Universal Scientific Publications Company, Inc. p. 23. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88078-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88078-004-5">0-88078-004-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galambos, Andrew (1999). Sic Itur Ad Astra. San Diego, California: The Universal Scientific Publications Company, Inc. pp. 39, 52, 84, 92–93, 153, 201, 326. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88078-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88078-004-5">0-88078-004-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/03/desoto.htm">"Finance & Development, March 2001 – The Mystery of Capital"</a>. <i>Finance, and Development – F&D</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Finance%2C+and+Development+%E2%80%93+F%26D&rft.atitle=Finance+%26+Development%2C+March+2001+%E2%80%93+The+Mystery+of+Capital&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fexternal%2Fpubs%2Fft%2Ffandd%2F2001%2F03%2Fdesoto.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kristen A. Carpenter, Sonia Katyal, and Angela Riley, 'In Defense of Property' [2009] 118 Yale L J 101, 101–117, 124–138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret Jane Radin, Property and Personhood, 34 STAN. L. REV. 957, 1013-15 (1982)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat, Frédéric</a>, 1850. <i>Economic Harmonies.</i> W. Hayden Boyers.</li> <li>Bastiat, Frédéric, 1850. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/thelaw/mpintro.htm">"The Law"</a>, tr. Dean Russell.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Bethell" title="Tom Bethell">Bethell, Tom</a>, 1998. "The Noblest Triumph: Property and Prosperity through the Ages." New York: St. Martin's Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone, William</a>, 1765–69. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080224171053/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/blacksto.htm">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a>", 4 vols. Oxford Univ. Press. Especially Books the Second and Third.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernando_de_Soto_Polar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hernando de Soto Polar">De Soto, Hernando</a>, 1989. "The Other Path". Harper & Row.</li> <li>De Soto, Hernando, and Francis Cheneval, 2006. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swisshumanrightsbook.com/">Realizing Property Rights</a></i>. Ruffer & Rub.</li> <li>Ellickson, Robert, 1993. "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409155336/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Ellickson_Property_in_Land.pdf">"Property in Land"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Ellickson_Property_in_Land.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-04-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Property+in+Land&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.yale.edu%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FEllickson_Property_in_Land.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6.40 MB)</span>", <i><a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Law Journal">Yale Law Journal</a></i> 102: 1315–1400.</li> <li>Mckay, John P., 2004, "A History of World Societies". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company</li> <li>Palda, Filip (2011) "Pareto's Republic and the New Science of Peace" 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.paretorepublic.com">[1]</a> chapters online. Published by Cooper-Wolfling. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9877880-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9877880-0-9">978-0-9877880-0-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Pipes, Richard</a>, 1999. "Property and Freedom". New York: Knopf Doubleday. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40498-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40498-6">978-0-375-40498-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Property&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Property" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Property">Property</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/prop-con">Concepts of Property</a>, Hugh Breakey, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081230024424/http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/property.htm">"Right to Private Property"</a>, Tibor Machan, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmann1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Friedmann" title="Wolfgang Friedmann">Friedmann, Wolfgang</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-77;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv3-77;brand=default">"Property"</a>. In Wiener, Philip P. (ed.). <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas</i>. Vol. 3 (University of Virginia, Electronic Text Center ed.). New York: Scribners. pp. <span class="nowrap">650–</span>657.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Property&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+History+of+Ideas%3A+Studies+of+Selected+Pivotal+Ideas&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E650-%3C%2Fspan%3E657&rft.edition=University+of+Virginia%2C+Electronic+Text+Center&rft.pub=Scribners&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Friedmann&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxtf.lib.virginia.edu%2Fxtf%2Fview%3FdocId%3DDicHist%2FuvaBook%2Ftei%2FDicHist3.xml%3Bchunk.id%3Ddv3-77%3Btoc.depth%3D1%3Btoc.id%3Ddv3-77%3Bbrand%3Ddefault&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProperty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/property/">"Property and Ownership"</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Jeremy Waldron</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property479" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property479" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Substantive_human_rights476" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Substantive_human_rights" title="Template:Substantive human rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Substantive_human_rights" title="Template talk:Substantive human rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Substantive_human_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Substantive human rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Substantive_human_rights476" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Substantive <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>What is considered a human right is in some cases controversial; not all the topics listed are universally accepted as human rights</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruel,_inhuman,_or_degrading_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment">Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_from_discrimination" title="Freedom from discrimination">Freedom from discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Freedom from slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Freedom of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Freedom from torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">Presumption of innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Access_to_justice" title="Access to justice">Access to justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">Right of asylum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">Right to a fair trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">Right to counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_family_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to family life">Right to family life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">Right to keep and bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Right to life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">Right to petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_protest" title="Right to protest">Right to protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Right to refuse medical treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_resist" title="Right to resist">Right to resist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_return" title="Right of return">Right of return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Right of self-defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_truth" title="Right to truth">Right to truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_trial" title="Speedy trial">Speedy trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nomination_rules" title="Nomination rules">right to be a candidate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_homeland" title="Right to homeland">Right to homeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economic,_social_and_cultural_rights" title="Economic, social and cultural rights">Economic, social<br />and cultural</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights" title="Digital rights">Digital rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_pay_for_equal_work" title="Equal pay for equal work">Equal pay for equal work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remuneration" title="Remuneration">Fair remuneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">Right to an adequate standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_clothing" title="Right to clothing">Right to clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_development" title="Right to development">Right to development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Right to education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_healthy_environment" title="Right to a healthy environment">Right to a healthy environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_Internet_access" title="Right to Internet access">Right to Internet access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation" title="Public participation">Right to public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_reply" title="Right of reply">Right of reply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_return" title="Right of return">Right of return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to social security">Right to social security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Right to water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">Right to work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health_and_rights" title="Sexual and reproductive health and rights">Sexual</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">reproductive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_rights" title="Family rights">Family rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Freedom from involuntary female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sexuality" title="Right to sexuality">Right to sexuality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Capitalism208" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism" title="Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism" title="Template talk:Capitalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Capitalism208" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Aspects and <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">perspectives</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_of_production" title="Anarchy of production">Anarchy of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centralisation" title="Centralisation">Centralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Economic bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopreneurship" title="Ecopreneurship">Ecopreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of capitalist theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy#Capitalism" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchantilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchantilism">Merchantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">Multinational corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-capitalism" title="Neo-capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social capitalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Cultural aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(shopping)" title="Black Friday (shopping)">Black Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li>Mainstream</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#In_relation_to_economics" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicate" title="Syndicate">Syndicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_venture_capital" title="Social venture capital">Social venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antithesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market socialism">Free-market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_humanities678" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_humanities" title="Template:Environmental humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_humanities" title="Template talk:Environmental humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_humanities678" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crop_art" title="Crop art">Crop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Environmental art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sculpture" title="Environmental sculpture">Environmental sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">Land art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">Landscape painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">wildlife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_trail" title="Sculpture trail">Sculpture trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-specific_art" title="Site-specific art">Site-specific art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_art" title="Sustainable art">Sustainable art</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG/100px-CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG/150px-CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG/200px-CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="1646" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">Cultural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolinguistics" title="Ecolinguistics">Ecolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosemiotics" title="Ecosemiotics">Ecosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">Ethnoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">Traditional ecological knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecocomposition" title="Ecocomposition">Ecocomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocriticism" title="Ecocriticism">Ecocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopoetry" title="Ecopoetry">Ecopoetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocriticism" title="Geocriticism">Geocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_writing" title="Nature writing">Nature writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_literature" title="Outdoor literature">Outdoor literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Aesthetics of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)" title="Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty#Ecophenomenology" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Ecophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environmental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Ecotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_theology" title="Environmental theology">Environmental theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion and environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_ecology" title="Spiritual ecology">Spiritual ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomusicology" title="Ecomusicology">Ecomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_adult_education" title="Environmental adult education">adult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts-based_environmental_education" title="Arts-based environmental education">arts-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_interpretation" title="Heritage interpretation">Environmental interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Environmental journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_education" title="Outdoor education">Outdoor education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation_of_nature" title="Political representation of nature">Political representation of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_interpretation" title="Thematic interpretation">Thematic interpretation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_studies" title="Animal studies">Animal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis" title="Biophilia hypothesis">Biophilia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">Do it yourself</a> (<a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY ethic">ethic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">museums</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">Popular science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Property theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">common property</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_Food" title="Slow Food">Slow food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_place" title="Spirit of place">Spirit of place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Sustainability studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomuseum" title="Ecomuseum">Ecomuseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_trail" title="Educational trail">Educational trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_assessment" title="Landscape assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_planning" title="Landscape planning">planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_center" title="Nature center">Nature center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fashion" title="Sustainable fashion">Sustainable fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themed_walk" title="Themed walk">Themed walk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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