Map | Definition, History, Types, Examples, & Facts

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class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/map">map</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/science/map">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref51764"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map#ref51764">History of cartography</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-ancient-world">Maps and geography in the ancient world</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-ancient-world#ref51766">Greek maps and geography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51767"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-ancient-world#ref51767">The Roman period</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/The-Middle-Ages">The Middle Ages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/The-Middle-Ages#ref51769">The age of discovery and exploration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51770"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/The-Middle-Ages#ref51770">Revival of Ptolemy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/The-Middle-Ages#ref51771">Maps of the discoveries</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/18th-century-to-the-present">18th century to the present</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/18th-century-to-the-present#ref51773">The rise of national surveys</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51774"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/18th-century-to-the-present#ref51774">International Map of the World (IMW)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51775"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/18th-century-to-the-present#ref51775">World War II and after</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref51776"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Mapmaking">Mapmaking</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Mapmaking#ref51777">Elements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51778"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-scales-and-classifications">Map scales and classifications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51779"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections">Map projections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51780"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51780">Development of reference spheroids</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51781"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51781">Geographic and plane coordinate systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51782"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51782">Basic data for compilation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51783"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51783">Symbolization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51784"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51784">Nomenclature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51785"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51785">Types and uses of maps and charts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51786"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Map-projections#ref51786">World status of mapping and basic data</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51787"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Types-of-maps-and-charts-available">Types of maps and charts available</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51788"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Types-of-maps-and-charts-available#ref51788">Government and other mapping agencies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Types-of-maps-and-charts-available#ref51789">International organizations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref51790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques">Modern mapmaking techniques</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51791">Compilation from existing materials</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51792">Generalization of detail</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51793">Map production from original surveys</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51794">Final steps in map preparation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51795">Scribing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51796">Nautical charts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref51797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/map/Modern-mapmaking-techniques#ref51797">Automation in mapping</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/map/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/map">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/map/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a 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Fuechsel</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Atlantic Region Engineer, Topographic Division, Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 1959–65. Author of numerous articles on mapping and surveys.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Charles F. Fuechsel</span></div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-17T00:00:00CST" >Feb 17, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/map/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci" topicid="336408">Leonardo da Vinci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Abraham-Ortelius" topicid="433313">Abraham Ortelius</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Aaron-Arrowsmith" topicid="36175">Aaron Arrowsmith</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/John-Adair" topicid="4917">John Adair</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/John-George-Bartholomew" topicid="54359">John George Bartholomew</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/technology/navigation-chart" topicid="407004">navigation chart</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/globe-cartography" topicid="235417">globe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/weather-map" topicid="638343">weather map</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/topographic-map" topicid="599648">topographic map</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/contour-line" topicid="135199">contour line</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/map"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/363506/81daabb926ab2bc4d90eb5665d96f515" rel="nofollow">Mexico awaits new response from Google on dispute over Gulf of Mexico name before filing lawsuit</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 17, 2025, 4:33 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/363506/bc438f4feca1234475a1adef99344da7" rel="nofollow">The White House says it's a 'fact' that the Gulf of Mexico has been renamed. Is that right?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 13, 2025, 8:58 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/363506/96861212a9ee292966f19498338da6be" rel="nofollow">Google to change map names for Gulf of Mexico and Denali when US updates them based on Trump order</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Jan. 28, 2025, 7:04 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref506095"></span>map</strong>, graphic representation, drawn to scale and usually on a flat surface, of features—for example, geographical, geological, or geopolitical—of an area of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Earth</a> or of any other celestial body. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/globe-cartography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Globes</a> are maps represented on the surface of a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sphere" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">sphere</a>. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cartography</a> is the art and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/science" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">science</a> of making maps and charts.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="155346" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/76/149176-050-7AA32C53/Globe.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/363506/155346"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/76/149176-050-7AA32C53/Globe.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/76/149176-050-7AA32C53/Globe.jpg?w=300" alt="globe" data-width="532" data-height="800" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/76/149176-050-7AA32C53/Globe.jpg" data-href="/media/1/363506/155346">globe</a><span>A globe.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In order to imply the elements of accurate relationships, and some formal method of projecting the spherical subject to a map plane, further qualifications might be applied to the definition. The tedious and somewhat abstract statements resulting from attempts to formulate precise definitions of maps and charts are more likely to confuse than to clarify. The words map, chart, and plat are used somewhat interchangeably. The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="connotations" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/connotations" data-type="MW">connotations</a> of use, however, are distinctive: charts for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/navigation-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">navigation</a> purposes (nautical and aeronautical), plats (in a property-boundary sense) for land-line references and ownership, and maps for general reference.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref506097"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cartography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cartography</a> is allied with <span id="ref506098"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/geography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">geography</a> in its concern with the broader aspects of the Earth and its life. In early times cartographic efforts were more artistic than scientific and factual. As man explored and recorded his <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="environment" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environment" data-type="MW">environment</a>, the quality of his maps and charts improved. These lines of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jonathan-Swift" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jonathan Swift</a> were inspired by early maps:</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><blockquote class="poetry "><span> So geographers, in Afric maps,<br> With savage pictures fill their gaps,<br> And o’er unhabitable downs<br> Place elephants for want of towns.<br> </span></blockquote><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref506099"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/topographic-map" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Topographic maps</a> are graphic representations of natural and man-made features of parts of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Earth</a>’s surface plotted to scale. They show the shape of land and record elevations above <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sea-level" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">sea level</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/lake" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">lakes</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/streambed" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">streams</a> and other hydrographic features, and roads and other works of man. In short, they provide a complete inventory of the terrain and important information for all activities involving the use and development of the land. They provide the bases for specialized maps and data for <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compilation" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compilation" data-type="MW">compilation</a> of generalized maps of smaller scale.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref506100"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/nautical-chart" class="md-crosslink ">Nautical charts</a> are maps of coastal and marine areas, providing information for navigation. They include depth curves or soundings or both; aids to navigation such as buoys, channel markers, and lights; islands, rocks, wrecks, reefs and other hazards; and significant features of the coastal areas, including promontories, church steeples, water towers, and other features helpful in determining positions from offshore.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The terms <span id="ref751887"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">hydrography</a> and hydrographer date from the mid-16th century; their focus has become restricted to studies of ocean depths and of the directions and intensities of oceanic currents; though at various times they embraced much of the sciences now called hydrology and <span id="ref506101"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/oceanography" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">oceanography</a>. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-India-Company" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">British East India Company</a> employed hydrographers in the 18th century, and the first hydrographer of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Navy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Royal Navy</a>, <span id="ref506102"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Dalrymple" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alexander Dalrymple</a> (1737–1808), was appointed in 1795. A naval observatory and hydrographic office was established administratively in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-United-States-Navy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United States Navy</a> in 1854. In 1866 a hydrographic office was established by <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="statute" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/statute" data-type="EB">statute</a>, and in 1962 it was renamed the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Interest in the charting of oceanic areas away from seacoasts developed in the second half of the 19th century, concurrently with the perfection of submarine cables. As knowledge of the configuration of the ocean basins increased, the attention of scientists was drawn to this field of study. A feature of <span id="ref506103"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/marine-geology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">marine</a> science since the 1950s has been increasingly detailed bathymetric (water-depth measurement) surveys of selected portions of the seafloor. Together with collection of associated geophysical data and sampling of sediments, these studies assist in interpreting the geologic history of the ocean-covered portion of the Earth’s crust.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref506104"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/aeronautical-chart" class="md-crosslink ">Aeronautical charts</a> provide essential data for the pilot and air navigator. They are, in effect, small-scale topographic maps on which current information on aids to navigation have been superimposed. To <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="facilitate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/facilitate" data-type="MW">facilitate</a> rapid recognition and orientation, principal features of the land that would be visible from an aircraft in flight are shown to the exclusion of less important details.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref51764"> <h2 class="h1">History of cartography</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Centuries before the Christian Era, Babylonians drew maps on clay tablets, of which the oldest specimens found so far have been dated about 2300 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. This is the earliest positive evidence of graphic representations of parts of the Earth; it may be assumed that mapmaking goes back much further and that it began among nonliterate peoples. It is logical to assume that men very early made efforts to communicate with each other regarding their environment by scratching routes, locations, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="hazards" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/hazards" data-type="EB">hazards</a> on the ground and later on bark and skins.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The earliest maps must have been based on personal experience and familiarity with local features. They doubtless showed routes to neighbouring tribes, where water and other necessities might be found, and the locations of enemies and other dangers. Nomadic life stimulated such efforts by recording ways to cross deserts and mountains, the relative locations of summer and winter pastures, and dependable springs, wells, and other information.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Markings on cave walls that are associated with paintings by primitive man have been identified by some archaeologists as attempts to show the game trails of the animals depicted, though there is no general agreement on this. Similarly, networks of lines scratched on certain bone tablets could possibly represent <a href="https://www.britannica.com/sports/hunting-sport" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">hunting</a> trails, but there is definitely no conclusive evidence that the tablets are indeed maps.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Many nonliterate peoples, however, are skilled in depicting essential features of their localities and travels. During Capt. <span id="ref506105"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Wilkes" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charles Wilkes</a>’s exploration of the South Seas in the 1840s, a friendly islander drew a good sketch of the whole <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tuamotu-Archipelago" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tuamotu Archipelago</a> on the deck of the captain’s bridge. In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North America</a> the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pawnee-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pawnee</a> Indians were reputed to have used star charts painted on elk skin to guide them on night marches across the plains. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Montezuma-II" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Montezuma</a> is said to have given Cortés a map of the whole Mexican Gulf area painted on cloth, while <span id="ref506106"></span>Pedro de Gamboa reported that the Incas used sketch maps and cut some in stone to show relief features. Many <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="specimens" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/specimens" data-type="EB">specimens</a> of early <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Inuit-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Eskimo</a> sketch maps on skin, wood, and bone have been found.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":9,"pageId":363506,"pageLength":995,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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