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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Age of Enlightenment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Profession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Profession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Profession</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Profession-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Profession subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Profession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research_interests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_interests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Research interests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_interests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_specialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_specialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>By specialization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_specialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Natural science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.1</span> <span>Physical science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.2</span> <span>Life science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Social science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Formal science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formal_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Applied</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Interdisciplinary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_employer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_employer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>By employer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_employer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Demography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>By country</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>By gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Scientist</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 106 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-106" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">106 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैज्ञानिक – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="वैज्ञानिक" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_(%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%A9)" title="عالم (مهنة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عالم (مهنة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գիտնականներ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Գիտնականներ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cient%C3%ADficu" title="Científicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Científicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैज्ञानिक – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="वैज्ञानिक" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembikuaatyh%C3%A1ra" title="Tembikuaatyhára – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tembikuaatyhára" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alim" title="Alim – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Alim" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="بیلیمجی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیلیمجی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80" title="বিজ্ঞানী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিজ্ঞানী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho-ha%CC%8Dk-ka" title="Kho-ha̍k-ka – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kho-ha̍k-ka" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Навуковец – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навуковец" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyentista" title="Siyentista – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Siyentista" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Учен – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Учен" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cient%C3%ADfic" title="Científic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Científic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%C3%A7%C4%83" title="Ăславçă – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ăславçă" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bdec" title="Vědec – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vědec" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskabsmand" title="Videnskabsmand – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Videnskabsmand" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftler" title="Wissenschaftler – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaftler" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%CA%BCa%C5%82kaah%C3%AD" title="Naʼałkaahí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Naʼałkaahí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teadlane" title="Teadlane – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teadlane" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Επιστήμονας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστήμονας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cient%C3%ADfico" title="Científico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Científico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencisto" title="Sciencisto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sciencisto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientzialari" title="Zientzialari – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientzialari" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF" title="دانشمند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دانشمند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientifique" title="Scientifique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Scientifique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola%C3%AD" title="Eolaí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eolaí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neach-saidheans" title="Neach-saidheans – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Neach-saidheans" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cient%C3%ADfico,_cient%C3%ADfica" title="Científico, científica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Científico, científica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%9E%90" title="과학자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Գիտնական – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտնական" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैज्ञानिक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैज्ञानिक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvenik" title="Znanstvenik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanstvenik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmuwan" title="Ilmuwan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmuwan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imfundondalo" title="Imfundondalo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Imfundondalo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienziato" title="Scienziato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienziato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%9F" title="מדען – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדען" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmuwan" title="Èlmuwan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Èlmuwan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF" title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಜ್ಞಾನಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%B3_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ساینَس دان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ساینَس دان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Ғалым – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғалым" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwanasayansi" title="Mwanasayansi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mwanasayansi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syantifik" title="Syantifik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Syantifik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanistvan" title="Zanistvan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zanistvan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientista" title="Scientista – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scientista" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tnieks" title="Zinātnieks – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātnieks" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%ABssenschaftler" title="Wëssenschaftler – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Wëssenschaftler" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslininkas" title="Mokslininkas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslininkas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tud%C3%B3s_(fogalom)" title="Tudós (fogalom) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudós (fogalom)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैज्ञानिक – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="वैज्ञानिक" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Научник – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Научник" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B5%BB" title="ശാസ്ത്രജ്ഞൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രജ്ഞൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E" title="शास्त्रज्ञ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शास्त्रज्ञ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahli_sains" title="Ahli sains – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ahli sains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%A2" title="ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯢ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯢ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%8F-h%C5%8Fk-g%C4%83" title="Kuŏ-hŏk-gă – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Kuŏ-hŏk-gă" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Эрдэмтэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эрдэмтэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlamatiliztl%C4%81catl" title="Tlamatiliztlācatl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlamatiliztlācatl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dauvakadidike" title="Dauvakadidike – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Dauvakadidike" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschapper" title="Wetenschapper – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschapper" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैज्ञानिक – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वैज्ञानिक" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="वैज्ञानिक – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वैज्ञानिक" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E8%80%85" title="科学者 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学者" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturviter" title="Naturviter – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Naturviter" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific" title="Scientific – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Scientific" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%B5" title="Шанчызе – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Шанчызе" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olim" title="Olim – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Olim" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سائنسدان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سائنسدان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naukowiec" title="Naukowiec – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Naukowiec" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cientista" title="Cientista – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cientista" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om_de_%C8%99tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Om de știință – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Om de știință" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachaq" title="Yachaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yachaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Ученый – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ученый" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Учёный – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Учёный" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Учуонайдар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Учуонайдар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9" title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥᱤᱭᱟᱹ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥᱤᱭᱟᱹ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Scientist" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenc%C3%ABtari" title="Shkencëtari – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkencëtari" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scinzatu" title="Scinzatu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Scinzatu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A5%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9D" title="විද්‍යාඥයෝ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විද්‍යාඥයෝ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Scientist" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedec" title="Vedec – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vedec" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvenik" title="Znanstvenik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanstvenik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="زانستیار – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانستیار" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Научник – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Научник" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dnik" title="Naučnik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Naučnik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lmuwan" title="Élmuwan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Élmuwan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieteilij%C3%A4" title="Tieteilijä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieteilijä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskapsman" title="Vetenskapsman – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskapsman" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyentipiko" title="Siyentipiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Siyentipiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="அறிவியலாளர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியலாளர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Галим – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Галим" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4" title="శాస్త్రవేత్త – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శాస్త్రవేత్త" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="นักวิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นักวิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Олим – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Олим" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim_insan%C4%B1" title="Bilim insanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilim insanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alym" title="Alym – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Alym" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Науковець – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Науковець" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سائنس دان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سائنس دان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensiato" title="Siensiato – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Siensiato" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the profession. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Scientist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Scientist (disambiguation)">Scientist (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Scientologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientologist">Scientologist</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Scientist</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg/220px-Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg/330px-Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg/440px-Pierre_and_Marie_Curie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="1740" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> demonstrating an apparatus that detects <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>. They received the 1903 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Physics for their scientific research; Marie also received the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data">Scientist</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">Profession</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">field research</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Competencies</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Research#Scientific_research" title="Research">Scientific research</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br />employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">Academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Private industry">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_scientist" title="Government scientist">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">nonprofit</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 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nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 220px; height: 152px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -78px; left: -120px; width: 400px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Galileo demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/400px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/600px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> A <b>scientist</b> is a person who <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">researches</a> to advance knowledge in an <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">area</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eowilsonfoundation_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eowilsonfoundation-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-researchcouncil_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-researchcouncil-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> engaged in the philosophical study of nature called <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehoux_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehoux-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CPM_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPM-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was not until the <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century</a> that the term <i>scientist</i> came into regular use after it was coined by the <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, and historian of science <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in 1833.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lightman2011_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lightman2011-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/170px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/255px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/340px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption>"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgius_Agricola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/170px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/255px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a> gave <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> its modern name. Generally referred to as the father of <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a> and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> as a scientific discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-berk_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berk-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._10-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JKepler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JKepler.jpg/170px-JKepler.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JKepler.jpg/255px-JKepler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JKepler.jpg/340px-JKepler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, one of the founders and fathers of modern <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/180px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/270px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/360px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>, the inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">electrical battery</a> and discoverer of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Redi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Francesco_Redi.jpg/170px-Francesco_Redi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Francesco_Redi.jpg/255px-Francesco_Redi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Francesco_Redi.jpg/340px-Francesco_Redi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1310" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a>, referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder of experimental biology.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax,_Mrs_William_Somerville,_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax%2C_Mrs_William_Somerville%2C_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="4001" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Somerville" title="Mary Somerville">Mary Somerville</a>, for whom the word "scientist" was coined.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg/170px-Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg/255px-Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg/340px-Albert_Einstein_photo_1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> developed the general theory of relativity and made many substantial contributions to physics.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/170px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/255px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/340px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2368" data-file-height="2927" /></a><figcaption>Physicist <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/170px-Niels_Bohr.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/255px-Niels_Bohr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/340px-Niels_Bohr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Atomic physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rachel-Carson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rachel-Carson.jpg/170px-Rachel-Carson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rachel-Carson.jpg/255px-Rachel-Carson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Rachel-Carson.jpg/340px-Rachel-Carson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1117" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption>Marine Biologist <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a> launched the 20th century <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">environmental movement</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethical_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical values">ethical values</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic virtues">epistemic virtues</a> associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. </p><p>Some historians point to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in classical antiquity">Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity</a> was pursued by many kinds of scholars. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and, with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity#Roman_Empire" title="History of Christianity">spread of Christianity</a>, became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries. <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval university</a> system, knowledge was divided into the <i><a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a></i>—philosophy, including <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>—and the <i><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a></i>—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">Science in medieval Islam</a> generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge, although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> are considered <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymaths</a>, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern <a href="/wiki/Scientific_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific discipline">scientific disciplines</a>. Many of these early polymaths were also religious <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologians</a>: for example, <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">al-Biruni</a> were <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">mutakallimiin</a>; the physician <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)" title="Hafiz (Quran)">hafiz</a>; the physician <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> was a hafiz, <a href="/wiki/Muhaddith" title="Muhaddith">muhaddith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulema</a>; the botanist <a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a> was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; the astronomer and physician <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> was a priest. During the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> scientists like <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> have been considered the most recognizable polymaths. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> made substantial contributions in science. <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The Father of modern Science,<sup id="cite_ref-father_of_science_Einstein_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-father_of_science_Einstein-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, made key improvements on the thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the solar system. <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a> was not only a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_geometry" title="Analytic geometry">analytic geometry</a> but formulated a <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and advanced ideas about the origins of <a href="/wiki/Muscle_contraction" title="Muscle contraction">animal movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>. <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Vision</a> interested the <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicists</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a>, who also studied <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearing_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing (sense)">hearing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>. <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> extended Descartes's mathematics by inventing <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> (at the same time as <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>). He provided a comprehensive formulation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> and investigated <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> and optics. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fourier" title="Joseph Fourier">Fourier</a> founded a new branch of mathematics — <a href="/wiki/Fourier_series" title="Fourier series">infinite, periodic series</a> — studied <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> <a href="/wiki/Flux#Flux_definition_and_theorems" title="Flux">flow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared radiation</a>, and discovered the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Cardano" class="mw-redirect" title="Girolamo Cardano">Girolamo Cardano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Fermat" title="Pierre de Fermat">Pierre de Fermat</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">Von Neumann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Turing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Khinchin" title="Aleksandr Khinchin">Khinchin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Markov" title="Andrey Markov">Markov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Wiener</a>, all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability theory</a>, including the ideas behind <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>, and some of the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, were also <a href="/wiki/Musician" title="Musician">musicians</a>. </p><p>There are many compelling stories in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, such as the development of ideas about the circulation of <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> from <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> to <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">Harvey</a>. Some scholars and historians attributes <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> to having contributed to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gilley1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilley1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Age of Enlightenment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the age of Enlightenment, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a>, the pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Bioelectromagnetics" title="Bioelectromagnetics">bioelectromagnetics</a>, discovered animal electricity. He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pavia" title="University of Pavia">University of Pavia</a>, Galvani's colleague <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> was able to reproduce the results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lazzaro_Spallanzani" title="Lazzaro Spallanzani">Lazzaro Spallanzani</a> is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> can cause <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophers</a>" or "men of science".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English philosopher and historian of science <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> coined the term <i>scientist</i> in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Somerville" title="Mary Somerville">Mary Somerville</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Connexion_of_the_Physical_Sciences" title="On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences">On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences</a></i> published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Review" title="Quarterly Review">Quarterly Review</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross1962_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross1962-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of "natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing divisions with Somerville's aim of "[rendering] a most important service to science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united by the discovery of general principles."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whewell reported in his review that members of the <a href="/wiki/British_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association for the Advancement of Science">British Association for the Advancement of Science</a> had been complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with <i>artist</i>, they might form [the word] <i>scientist</i>, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with this term since we already have such words as <i><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economist</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a></i>—but this was not generally palatable".<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his 1840<sup id="cite_ref-Whewell_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whewell-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences</i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The terminations <i>ize</i> (rather than <i>ise</i>), <i>ism</i>, and <i>ist</i>, are applied to words of all origins: thus we have to <i>pulverize</i>, to <i>colonize</i>, <i>Witticism</i>, <i>Heathenism</i>, <i>Journalist</i>, <i>Tobacconist</i>. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use <i>physician</i> for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a <i>Physicist</i>. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a <i>Scientist</i>. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.</p></blockquote> <p>He also proposed the term <i>physicist</i> at the same time, as a counterpart to the French word <i>physicien</i>. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later; <i>scientist</i> became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross1962_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross1962-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Profession">Profession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Profession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal requirements for their practice (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Licensure" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensure">licensure</a>) and some scientists are <a href="/wiki/Independent_scientist" title="Independent scientist">independent scientists</a> meaning that they practice science on their own, but to practice science there are no known <a href="/wiki/Licensure" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensure">licensure</a> requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academic setting</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">research institutes</a>), mostly at the level of <a href="/wiki/Graduate_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate school">graduate schools</a>. Upon completion, they would normally attain an <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a>, with the highest degree being a <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (PhD).<sup id="cite_ref-Cyranoski2011_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyranoski2011-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">graduate education</a> for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some common training requirements include <a href="/wiki/Academic_specialization" title="Academic specialization">specializing</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">area</a> of interest,<sup id="cite_ref-Editorial2015_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Editorial2015-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> publishing research findings in <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer-reviewed</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gould2016_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould2016-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and presenting them at <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">scientific conferences</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kruger2018_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kruger2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> giving <a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">lectures</a> or <a href="/wiki/Teacher" title="Teacher">teaching</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kruger2018_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kruger2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and defending a <a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">thesis (or dissertation)</a> during an <a href="/wiki/Oral_exam" title="Oral exam">oral examination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cyranoski2011_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyranoski2011-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To aid them in this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a <a href="/wiki/Mentorship" title="Mentorship">mentor</a>, usually a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates whereby they work as <a href="/wiki/Postdoctoral_researcher" title="Postdoctoral researcher">postdoctoral researchers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2007_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career">Career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety of work settings and conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwok2017_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwok2017-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017, the British <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journal</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students worldwide, asking them which <a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">sectors of the economy</a> they would like to work in. A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Editorial2017a_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Editorial2017a-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Woolston2017_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolston2017-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>, a widely regarded prestigious award,<sup id="cite_ref-Stockton2014_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockton2014-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. </p><p>Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial scientist">industrial scientist</a>). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which require a similar amount of training and qualification.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Research_interests">Research interests</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Research interests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientists include <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimentalists</a> who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">theoreticians</a> who mainly develop <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">models</a> to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks. </p><p>Those considering science as a <a href="/wiki/Career" title="Career">career</a> often look to the frontiers. These include <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> at the scale of <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> as described by <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high-energy physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> function and <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a>, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a>, much of which still remains unknown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_specialization">By specialization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: By specialization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natural_science">Natural science</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Natural science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Physical_science">Physical science</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Physical science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">Chemist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrochemistry">Agrochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical chemist">Analytical chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrochemist">Astrochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric chemist">Atmospheric chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geochemist">Geochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_technician" title="Laboratory technician">Chemical laboratory technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic chemist">Inorganic chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic chemist">Organic chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical chemist">Physical chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth scientist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrogeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrogeology">Astrogeologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendroarchaeology" title="Dendroarchaeology">Dendroarchaeologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemology" title="Gemology">Gemologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">Geographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomicrobiology" title="Geomicrobiology">Geomicrobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophysicist">Geophysicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrologist">Hydrologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometeorology" title="Hydrometeorology">Hydrometeorologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">Meteorologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleogeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleogeology">Paleogeologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoseismology" title="Paleoseismology">Paleoseismologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrophysics" title="Agrophysics">Agrophysicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysicist">Astrophysicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric physicist">Atmospheric physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic physicist">Atomic physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological physics">Biological physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmologist">Cosmologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed-matter_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed-matter physics">Condensed-matter physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Material physics">Material physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">Plasma physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">Quantum physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physicist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Space science">Space science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Life_science">Life science</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Life science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">List of life sciences</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acarology" title="Acarology">Acarologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomist">Anatomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachnology" title="Arachnology">Arachnologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriologist" title="Bacteriologist">Bacteriologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioclimatology" title="Bioclimatology">Bioclimatologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarcheology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioarcheology">Bioarcheologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">Biochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biologist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrinologist">Endocrinologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">Entomologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologist">Evolutionary biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematologist">Hematologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbchronology" title="Herbchronology">Herbchronologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology" title="Human behavioral ecology">Human behavioral ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biologist</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ichnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnology">Ichnologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrative biology">Integrative biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepidopterist" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepidopterist">Lepidopterist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biologist">Marine biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_biology" title="Medical biology">Medical biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">Microbiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular biologist">Molecular biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscientist" title="Neuroscientist">Neuroscientist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropsychologist">Neuropsychologist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">Paleontologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathologist</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">Phytopathologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical biology">Theoretical biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Virologist">Virologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife biology">Wildlife biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoologist</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_science">Social science</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">Anthropologist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">Archaeologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Anthropology">Cultural anthropologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistic anthropologist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">Management scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political scientist</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral genetics">Behavioral geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical psychologist">Clinical psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive psychologist">Cognitive psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental psychologist">Developmental psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychologist" title="Educational psychologist">Educational psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary psychologist">Evolutionary psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental psychologist">Experimental psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social psychologist">Social psychologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport psychologist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociologist</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formal_science">Formal science</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Formal science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">Computer scientist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_scientist" title="Computational scientist">Computational scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Data scientist">Data scientist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">Mathematician</a><sup id="cite_ref-Whewell_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whewell-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_algebra" title="Abstract algebra">Algebraist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Analyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Geometer">Geometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Logician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_probabilists" title="List of mathematical probabilists">Probabilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistician" title="Statistician">Statistician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Topologist">Topologist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems scientist</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Applied">Applied</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Applied"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">Agriculturist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physicist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical research">Biomedical scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_science" title="Food science">Food scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinesiology" title="Kinesiology">Kinesiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritionist" title="Nutritionist">Nutritionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research and management analysts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physician scientist">Physician scientist</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interdisciplinary">Interdisciplinary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Interdisciplinary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">Mathematical biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physicist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical sociologist</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_employer">By employer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: By employer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_scientist" title="Independent scientist">Independent scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Industrial/applied scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen scientist">Citizen scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_scientist" title="Government scientist">Government scientist</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Demography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_country">By country</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance, there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Noorden2015_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noorden2015-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries<sup id="cite_ref-Noorden2015_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noorden2015-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>: 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>: 1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>: 2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>: 2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>: 2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>: 3</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>: 4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>: 6</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>: 7</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>: 14</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>: 14</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>: 15</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>: 15</li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>: 18</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>: 20</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>: 35</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>: 54</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>: 58</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>: 68</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>: 69</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>: 70</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>: 70</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>: 73</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>: 79</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>: 83</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>: 85</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>: 140</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in 2015, across all disciplines and employment sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held 53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and about 3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59% of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_gender">By gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: By gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a></div> <p>Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7 percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering alone the numbers of bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000 in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="One stat uses percent, other uses raw numbers. Could uses clearer comparison between Bachelors and Doctorate statistics of all scientists. (June 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineers">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inventor" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventor">Inventor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Researcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Researcher">Researcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fields_Medal" title="Fields Medal">Fields Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath_for_Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocratic Oath for Scientists">Hippocratic Oath for Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_scientist" title="Independent scientist">Independent scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licensure" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensure">Licensure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_scientist" title="Mad scientist">Mad scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Related lists</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of engineers">List of engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematicians" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mathematicians">List of mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">List of Nobel laureates in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_scientists" title="List of Russian scientists">List of Russian scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_Catholic_cleric-scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists">List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/scientist">"scientist"</a>. <i>Cambridge Dictionary</i>. Cambridge University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Dictionary&rft.atitle=scientist&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fscientist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/science">"science"</a>. <i>Cambridge Dictionary</i>. Cambridge University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Dictionary&rft.atitle=science&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eowilsonfoundation-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eowilsonfoundation_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf">"Eusocial climbers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. E.O. Wilson Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2018</span>. <q>But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eusocial+climbers&rft.pub=E.O.+Wilson+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feowilsonfoundation.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F11%2Fthe-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-researchcouncil-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-researchcouncil_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/">"Our definition of a scientist"</a>. Science Council<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2018</span>. <q>A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+definition+of+a+scientist&rft.pub=Science+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsciencecouncil.org%2Fabout-science%2Four-definition-of-a-scientist%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehoux-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lehoux_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehoux2011" class="citation book cs1">Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Natural+Knowledge+in+the+Classical+World&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago%2C+U.S.A.+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Lehoux&rft.aufirst=Daryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CPM-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CPM_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1870" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a>, ed. (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgree03smituoft#page/1016">"Thales"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</a></i>. p. 1016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thales&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology&rft.pages=1016&rft.date=1870&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fdictionaryofgree03smituoft%23page%2F1016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Fowler, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/thales.html">Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato</a>, University of Virginia [Retrieved 2016-06-16]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank N. Magill, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_CMl8ziTbKYC&pg=PA1121"><i>The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography</i>, Volume 1</a>, Routledge, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1135457395" title="Special:BookSources/1135457395">1135457395</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2008" class="citation book cs1">Singer, C. (2008). <i>A Short History of Science to the 19th century</i>. Streeter Press. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Science+to+the+19th+century&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Streeter+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1978" class="citation book cs1">Needham, C. W. (1978). <i>Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain</i>. Loose Leaf. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-398-03754-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-398-03754-3"><bdi>978-0-398-03754-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cerebral+Logic%3A+Solving+the+Problem+of+Mind+and+Brain&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Loose+Leaf&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-398-03754-3&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=C.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). <i>From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science</i>. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-08928-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-08928-2"><bdi>0-226-08928-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-226-08928-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lightman2011-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lightman2011_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightman2011" class="citation book cs1">Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+the+Public&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Lightman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary B. Ferngren (2002). "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33">Science and religion: a historical introduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150316104643/http://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33&dq&hl=en">Archived</a> 2015-03-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/JHU_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="JHU Press">JHU Press</a>. p.33. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0">0-8018-7038-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-berk-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-berk_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/agricola.html">"Georgius Agricola"</a>. University of California - Museum of Paleontology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 4,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Georgius+Agricola&rft.pub=University+of+California+-+Museum+of+Paleontology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2Fagricola.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._10-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rafferty, John P. (2012). <i>Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks</i>. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615305445" title="Special:BookSources/9781615305445">9781615305445</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/greatinventors/johanneskepler/index.html">"Johannes Kepler´s 450th birthday"</a>. German Patent and Trade Mark Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Johannes+Kepler%C2%B4s+450th+birthday&rft.pub=German+Patent+and+Trade+Mark+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpma.de%2Fenglish%2Four_office%2Fpublications%2Fmilestones%2Fgreatinventors%2Fjohanneskepler%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008). <i>The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation</i>. Chicago: Chicago University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-75024-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-75024-8">0-226-75024-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-father_of_science_Einstein-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-father_of_science_Einstein_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Reference-Einstein-1954">Einstein (1954, p. 271)</a>. "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Hawking, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science"><i>Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120324162930/http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science">Archived</a> 2012-03-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Damerow2004" class="citation book cs1">Peter Damerow (2004). "Introduction". <i>Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Exploring+the+Limits+of+Preclassical+Mechanics%3A+A+Study+of+Conceptual+Development+in+Early+Modern+Science%3A+Free+Fall+and+Compounded+Motion+in+the+Work+of+Descartes%2C+Galileo+and+Beeckman&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Peter+Damerow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2012" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm">"Christianity and the rise of western science"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+the+rise+of+western+science&rft.date=2012-05-08&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Freligion%2Farticles%2F2012%2F05%2F08%2F3498202.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Noll" title="Mark Noll">Noll, Mark</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf"><i>Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 22 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Religion%2C+and+A.D.+White%3A+Seeking+Peace+in+the+%22Warfare+Between+Science+and+Theology%22&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=The+Biologos+Foundation&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiologos.org%2Fuploads%2Fprojects%2Fnoll_scholarly_essay2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a> (1986), "Introduction", <i>God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4"><bdi>978-0-520-05538-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=God+%26+Nature%3A+Historical+Essays+on+the+Encounter+Between+Christianity+and+Science&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=5%2C+12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05538-4&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilley1-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gilley1_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilley2006" class="citation book cs1">Gilley, Sheridan (2006). <i>The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914</i>. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81456-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81456-1"><bdi>0-521-81456-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Volume+8%2C+World+Christianities+C.1815-c.1914&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-81456-1&rft.aulast=Gilley&rft.aufirst=Sheridan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindberg, David. (1992) <i>The Beginnings of Western Science</i> University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Routledge-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Routledge1881" class="citation book cs1">Robert Routledge (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b24869880"><i>A popular history of science</i></a> (2nd ed.). G. Routledge and Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b24869880/page/553">553</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-38381-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-38381-1"><bdi>0-415-38381-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+popular+history+of+science&rft.pages=553&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=G.+Routledge+and+Sons&rft.date=1881&rft.isbn=0-415-38381-1&rft.au=Robert+Routledge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb24869880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100603044941/http://www-3.unipv.it/webbio/spalla99/spallanz.htm">"Spallanzani - Uomo e scienziato"</a> (in Italian). Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-3.unipv.it/webbio/spalla99/spallanz.htm">the original</a> on 2010-06-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spallanzani+-+Uomo+e+scienziato&rft.pub=Il+museo+di+Lazzaro+Spallanzani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-3.unipv.it%2Fwebbio%2Fspalla99%2Fspallanz.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rpi.edu/~rosss2/book.html">"Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080309165847/http://www.rpi.edu/~rosss2/book.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nineteenth-Century+Attitudes%3A+Men+of+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rpi.edu%2F~rosss2%2Fbook.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedrich Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner's sons v.1, 1887</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-13428-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-13428-2">0-231-13428-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Science</i> by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4gcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274">Page 274</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170302180539/https://books.google.com/books?id=4gcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274&as_brr=1&ei=_TiNR7znI5mmiQGXo4TEBQ">Archived</a> 2017-03-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ross1962-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ross1962_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ross1962_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss,_Sydney1962" class="citation journal cs1">Ross, Sydney (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">"Scientist: The story of a word"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Science" title="Annals of Science">Annals of Science</a></i>. <b>18</b> (2): 65–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">10.1080/00033796200202722</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Scientist%3A+The+story+of+a+word&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=65-85&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033796200202722&rft.au=Ross%2C+Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00033796200202722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span> To be exact, the person coined the term <i>scientist</i> was referred to in Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross added a comment that this "some ingenious gentleman" was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962, p.72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhewell" class="citation journal cs1">Whewell, William. Murray, John (ed.). 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Cambridge. p. cxiii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+the+Inductive+Sciences+Volume+1&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=cxiii&rft.aulast=Whewell&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhewell1847" class="citation book cs1">Whewell, William (1847). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyinduc01whewgoog"><i>The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2</i></a>. New York, Johnson Reprint Corp. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyinduc01whewgoog/page/n580">560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+the+Inductive+Sciences%3A+Founded+Upon+Their+History%2C+Vol.+2&rft.pages=560&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Johnson+Reprint+Corp.&rft.date=1847&rft.aulast=Whewell&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophyinduc01whewgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span>. In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/science/whewell.html">"William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070625171128/http://www.victorianweb.org/science/whewell.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-06-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Editorial (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnj7677-549a">"Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>550</b>: 549–552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnj7677-549a">10.1038/nj7677-549a</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Many+junior+scientists+need+to+take+a+hard+look+at+their+job+prospects&rft.volume=550&rft.pages=549-552&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnj7677-549a&rft.aulast=Woolston&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnj7677-549a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woolston2017-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woolston2017_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeDennisCampbell2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnj7677-549a">"Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>550</b> (7677): 549–552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnj7677-549a">10.1038/nj7677-549a</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Graduate+survey%3A+A+love%E2%80%93hurt+relationship&rft.volume=550&rft.issue=7677&rft.pages=549-552&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnj7677-549a&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft.au=Dennis%2C+Carina&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnj7677-549a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stockton2014-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stockton2014_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStockton2014" class="citation cs2">Stockton, Nick (7 October 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet">"How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth?"</a>, <i>Wired</i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=How+did+the+Nobel+Prize+become+the+biggest+award+on+Earth%3F&rft.date=2014-10-07&rft.aulast=Stockton&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2014%2F10%2Fwhats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234155/"><i>Foreword</i></a>. National Academies Press (US). 1992.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreword&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK234155%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stanfordmag.org/contents/the-brain-the-final-frontier">"The Brain: The Final Frontier?"</a>. November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Brain%3A+The+Final+Frontier%3F&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstanfordmag.org%2Fcontents%2Fthe-brain-the-final-frontier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cmu.edu/homepage/health/2010/summer/the-last-frontier.shtml">"The Last Frontier - Carnegie Mellon University | CMU"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Last+Frontier+-+Carnegie+Mellon+University+%26%23124%3B+CMU&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cmu.edu%2Fhomepage%2Fhealth%2F2010%2Fsummer%2Fthe-last-frontier.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noorden2015-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Noorden2015_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noorden2015_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Noorden2015" class="citation journal cs1">van Noorden, Richard (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F521142a">"India by the numbers"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>521</b> (7551): 142–143. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.521..142V">2015Natur.521..142V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F521142a">10.1038/521142a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25971491">25971491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=India+by+the+numbers&rft.volume=521&rft.issue=7551&rft.pages=142-143&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25971491&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F521142a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.521..142V&rft.aulast=van+Noorden&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F521142a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Employment: Male majority". <i>Nature</i>. <b>542</b> (7642): 509. 2017-02-22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnj7642-509b">10.1038/nj7642-509b</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256770781">256770781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Employment%3A+Male+majority&rft.volume=542&rft.issue=7642&rft.pages=509&rft.date=2017-02-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnj7642-509b&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256770781%23id-name%3DS2CID&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_A._Eisenhart,_Elizabeth_Finkel1998" class="citation book cs1">Margaret A. Eisenhart, Elizabeth Finkel (1998). <i>Women's Science: Learning and Succeeding from the Margins</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%27s+Science%3A+Learning+and+Succeeding+from+the+Margins&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Margaret+A.+Eisenhart%2C+Elizabeth+Finkel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientist" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_articles">External articles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientist&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Further reading</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Gopnik" title="Alison Gopnik">Alison Gopnik</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf">"Finding Our Inner Scientist"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412053853/http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-04-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a>, Winter 2004.</li> <li>Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=in8qAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA600">Science and the Church</a></i>. The Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i>, 1962.</li> <li>Arthur Jack Meadows. <i>The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession</i>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7123-0894-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7123-0894-6">0-7123-0894-6</a>.</li> <li>Science, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QwcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511">The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research</a></i>. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Websites</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061019045704/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/connected/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2006/08/29/ecteach29.xml">For best results, add a little inspiration</a> – The Telegraph about <i>What Inspired You?</i>, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/284/5411/55">Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosinductsci01wewrich">The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Audio-Visual</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548jq">"The Scientist"</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh Pennington (<i>In Our Time</i>, Oct. 24, 2002)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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