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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Peace psychology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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</nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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class="mw-redirect" title="Peace research">peace research</a> that deals with the psychological aspects of <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conflict_(process)" title="Conflict (process)">conflict</a>, <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>. Peace psychology can be characterized by four interconnected pillars: (1) research, (2) education, (3) practice, and (4) advocacy.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first pillar, research, is documented most extensively in this article. </p><p>Peace psychological activities are based on psychological models (theories) and methods; they are usually normatively bound in their means and objectives by working towards the ideal of sustainable peace using <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent">nonviolent</a> means. Violence and peace can be defined in terms of <a href="/wiki/Johan_Galtung" title="Johan Galtung">Johan Galtung's</a> extended conceptualization of peace,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to which peace is not merely the absence of personal (direct) violence and war (= negative peace), but also the absence of structural (indirect) and cultural violence (= <a href="/wiki/Positive_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive peace">positive peace</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ideal of peace can also be conceptualized as the comprehensive implementation of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> (civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights); this should, among other purposes, ensure the satisfaction of basic human needs, such as positive personal and social identity, sense of control, security, (social) justice, well-being, a safe environment, and access to adequate food and shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peace psychological research can be analytically (research <i>on</i> peace) or normatively (research <i>for</i> peace) oriented. Regardless of its analytical or normative orientation, peace psychological research mainly deals with the <i>psychological aspects of the formation, escalation, reduction, and resolution of conflicts</i> (including war), the <i>psychosocial conditions conducive or detrimental to a sustainable peace</i>, and the <i>psychosocial effects of war and violence</i>. In each case, different levels of analysis and explanation are relevant: from the level of individuals to groups, social organizations and institutions, states and state systems (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>), military alliances (e.g., <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>), and collective security systems (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe">Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe</a> [OSCE]). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_and_escalation_of_conflict">Formation and escalation of conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation and escalation of conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peace psychology focuses on the psychological aspects of the formation, escalation, reduction, and resolution of conflicts. A <a href="/wiki/Conflict_(process)" title="Conflict (process)">conflict</a> exists when the expectations, interests, needs, or actions of at least two parties to the conflict are perceived by at least one of the parties to be incompatible. Peace psychology is mainly concerned with conflicts between social groups (intergroup conflicts, such as between ethnic groups, clans, religious groups, states etc.), in terms of domains like power, wealth, access to raw materials and markets, cultural or religious values, honor, dignity, or recognition. In conflicts one has to distinguish between (overt) positions (e.g., "we don't negotiate with X") and underlying interests (e.g., power, spheres of influence and wealth) as well as between current triggers (e.g., violence at a political protest) and systematic, enduring, structural causes (e.g., deprivation of a group's political participation or access to professional employment). Although conflicts are inevitable and can lead to positive change when dealt with constructively,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the escalation of conflicts and in particular the occurrence of violence are preventable. Psychological processes of information processing (attention, perception, memory, thinking, judgment), emotion, and motivation influence substantially how a conflict is handled, and in particular whether conflicts escalate to violent episodes. An important factor is the different points of view of the conflict parties, such as when behavior that is based on positive intentions is perceived by the opponent as aggressive and therefore contributes to escalation. Conflicts can easily escalate. A cycle of violence can arise in which both parties are involved, and original victims can become perpetrators, without realizing it ("victim myth").<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conflicts can be intensified specifically through the construction of <a href="/wiki/Enemy_Image" title="Enemy Image">enemy images</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> promulgated by the media, political elite, educational systems, socialization, cultural symbols and other means. Enemy images may have a kernel of truth, but overstate the negative sides of the opponent. The core features of a strong enemy image include: (1) a negative evaluation of the opponent (e.g., aggressive, immoral, but also inferior), (2) a one-sided blame for negative events, and (3) a different evaluation of similar actions of one's own side than the enemy ("double standard"; e.g., build-up of arms on one’s own side is self-defense, on the enemy's it is aggression). These constructions can cause <a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">dehumanization</a> of the opponent, so that moral standards no longer apply. In extreme cases, it may seem acceptable, even desirable, for the opponent to suffer and be killed. The construction of the enemy image has the central function of justifying armament, violence, and war. In addition, it enhances the individual and collective self-image.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a> includes methods of generating or strengthening war support among the civilian population and the military. These methods include disinformation using the media (war propaganda), but also sabotage, displacement, murder, and terror. War propaganda consists of two complementary strategies: (1) repeating, highlighting, and embellishing with detail information that functions to intensify the enemy image or threat perceptions, and (2) ignoring and devaluing information that may lead to de-escalation. In addition, negative behavior of the adversary may be provoked (e.g., by maneuvers at the state borders) or charges that the enemy engaged in heinous acts may be entirely invented (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Nayirah_(testimony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nayirah (testimony)">Nayirah testimony</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_reduction_and_resolution_(peace_psychological_strategies)"><span id="Conflict_reduction_and_resolution_.28peace_psychological_strategies.29"></span>Conflict reduction and resolution (peace psychological strategies)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conflict reduction and resolution (peace psychological strategies)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different peace psychological strategies for non-violent conflict resolution are discussed (conflict de-escalation, <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">conflict resolution</a>, conflict transformation). One can distinguish between strategies on the <i>official level</i> (e.g., measures of tension reduction and trust build such as Charles E. Osgood's "Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction" [GRIT], <a href="/wiki/Negotiations" class="mw-redirect" title="Negotiations">negotiations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">mediation</a>), approaches of <i>unofficial diplomacy</i> (interactive problem-solving workshops), and strategies at the level of peace and conflict <i>civil society</i> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Peace_journalism" title="Peace journalism">peace journalism</a>, contact between social groups). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Official_level">Official level</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Official level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Osgood's GRIT model was designed as a counter-concept to the <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a> in the East-West conflict, in which the former superpowers, USA and USSR, constantly increased the quantity and quality of their arms so that the destruction of humankind by a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear war">nuclear war</a> seemed increasingly possible. The GRIT model, in contrast, aimed to de-escalate and create an atmosphere of mutual trust. One party publicly announces and performs a verifiable, concrete step to reduce tension, and asks or invites the other side to do something similar (developing a spiral of trust). Care is taken so that each step does not endanger the safety of one's own side. GRIT was designed to reverse the tension involved in the nuclear arms race by having each side engage in graduated and reciprocal inititiatives.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there is no firm evidence, it has been suggested that U.S. President Kennedy and the Soviet leader Khrushchev based their negotiations after the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> on this concept.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When conflicted parties are engaged in long-lasting, severe conflicts, it can be difficult to have constructive bilateral negotiations. In this case, a third party (e.g., a social scientist or reputed politician) can serve as a mediator in order to facilitate conflict management. Mediators must be well aware of the conflict and its history, should have the confidence of both conflict parties, and need to be familiar with conflict analysis and communication strategies. Important strategies include establishing trust, working out the essential elements of conflict, and possibly dividing the problem so that at least partial solutions can be achieved and violence can be prevented or stopped. Problems arise when mediators are biased and have strong individual interests. Mediation success is more likely if the conflict is moderately intense, the power difference between the parties is low, and the mediators have high prestige (as a person or because of organizational affiliation).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unofficial_level">Unofficial level</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Unofficial level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In severe, long-lasting conflicts, it may be advisable to intervene at a level below official <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>. Interactive problem solving is such an informal approach to bring members of the conflict parties together.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These can include citizens who are well-respected from different areas of society, such as media, business, politics, education, or religion. A team of social scientists (e.g., psychologists) initiate and promote a problem-solving process with the elements of conflict diagnosis, generation of alternatives, and development of nonviolent solutions that results in outcomes that are satisfactory to all parties involved. There is the expectation or hope that the participants influence their governments and public opinion so that official negotiations can follow. Psychologically important components of the process are that the respective self and enemy images are corrected. Interactive problem solving was used in particular in the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israel-Palestine conflict</a> by the U.S. psychologist <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kelman" title="Herbert Kelman">Herbert Kelman</a> and his team.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_society_level">Civil society level</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Civil society level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Media are often involved in the formation of enemy images and escalation of conflict. <a href="/wiki/Peace_journalism" title="Peace journalism">Peace journalism</a>, in contrast, has the objective of investigating and using the influence of the media as a means of encouraging the constructive, non-violent resolution of conflict. Key strategies include representing the conflicting parties as well as the conflict and its history appropriately, identifying propaganda, and articulating the suffering of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> and peaceful demonstrations of the population toward peaceful and socially just ends can have an influence on the decisions of those in power – particularly in democracies. Citizens' commitment depends, among other factors, on the existence of opportunities in society, individual value orientations (e.g., valuing non-violence, social justice), the presence of role models, and the perceived probability of success of one's actions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contacts between opposing groups (e.g., on the level of municipalities, associations, universities, trade unions) can contribute to building positive relationships and the reduction of prejudice (see <a href="/wiki/Contact_hypothesis" title="Contact hypothesis">contact hypothesis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PGG18_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PGG18-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conditions associated with the improvement of intergroup relations when groups come in contact with one another include: The actors involved have similar social status; there are common goals that can be achieved through cooperation; and the contacts are supported by authorities in society. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymmetric conflicts">asymmetric conflicts</a>, where one conflict party is politically, economically, and/or militarily clearly superior, the stronger party may not be interested in a truly sustainable conflict resolution. Under asymmetric conditions, when the root causes of the conflict cannot be sufficiently addressed, structural violence persists. For such situations, approaches have been developed such as <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberation_psychology" title="Liberation psychology">liberation psychology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which originated in Latin America and is related to <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">liberation theology</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a> refers to public, <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent">nonviolent</a> behavior directed against injustice; it involves publicly explicating one's own intentions, committing to communicate with the other side, and the willingness to endure negative consequences of one's own actions.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methods of nonviolent resistance range from protests (e.g., demonstrations) to non-cooperation (e.g., strikes, boycotts) to <a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">civil resistance</a>. Particularly well known are the actions, speeches, and writings of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_war_and_violence">Effects of war and violence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects of war and violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peace psychology examines war and violence between groups also with the aim of illustrating the psychological and social costs of war and violence and to document the human suffering caused. The psychological consequences include, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">traumatization</a> (mainly of the civilian population, but also members of the military), cognitive and emotional damage, and the destruction of trustful social relationships. Wars often do not resolve the underlying problems; they often provoke new violence and wars. For example, in post-war societies an increased level of family and community violence can be observed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, resources necessary to deal with civilian issues (e.g., education, health, social welfare) are lost. There is still little comprehensive and objective research on the consequences and costs of war.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychosocial_conditions_of_sustainable_peace">Psychosocial conditions of sustainable peace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Psychosocial conditions of sustainable peace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even when violence has been stopped or a <a href="/wiki/Peace_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace Treaty">Peace Treaty</a> reached, to prevent the risk of a renewed escalation, physical and economic reconstruction as well as socio-political and psychosocial interventions are required. These interventions aim to cure psychosocial wounds of war, build trust, develop a common <a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">collective memory</a>, recognize past wrongdoing, and achieve <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">reconciliation</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">forgiveness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples are trauma therapy and <a href="/wiki/Truth_commission" title="Truth commission">Truth and Reconciliation Commissions</a>. </p><p>Also, irrespective of any specific conflict and violence, peace psychological research looks at the psychosocial conditions that hamper or promote sustainable peace. The basic aim is to transform cultures of violence into cultures of <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Rivera_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Rivera-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following cultural characteristics are obstacles to the development of sustainable peace: the view of one's own group (ethnicity, religion, nation, etc.) to be superior and more valuable and others as inferior and of little value (or in the extreme case: no value); the development of enemy images, <a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">dehumanization</a> of others, legitimization of violence and damage; underlying beliefs (ideologies) such as <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">ethnocentrism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation" title="Social dominance orientation">social dominance orientation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarism</a>, and an education system that promotes these ideologies; power differentials that are defended or increased by the powerful and that create unequal conditions in areas such as wealth, health, education, and political participation (<a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">structural violence</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among factors conducive to the development of sustainable peace are: the fundamental belief that conflicts are frequent, but that they can be solved without violence and for the benefit of the various conflict parties; the concept of <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> with the features of human dignity, <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">respect</a>, tolerance and <a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">solidarity</a>, and respect for all people or for humanity as a whole; critical proximity to one's own group that – in addition to positive identification – also integrates own weaknesses, mistakes, and committed wrongdoings in the collective self-concept.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Rivera_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Rivera-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the transformation of cultures of violence into cultures of peace the focus on <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> is of high importance. Human rights are inalienable rights that apply to all human beings, without distinction as to sex, color, ethnicity, language, religion, political opinion, or social origin (prohibition of discrimination). The UN Human Rights Charter contains the essential documents of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> (UDHR, 1948) and the Twin Covenants (1966, <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>). The UDHR consists of 30 articles with more than 100 individual rights, including civil and political rights (e.g., right to life, prohibition of torture, right to fair and public trial, right to asylum, freedom of speech, regular elections), but also social, economic, and cultural rights (including the right to work, rest, holidays with pay, protection from unemployment, the right to food, clothing, housing, medical care, and free primary education). Of particular importance in the UN's human rights concept is that all human rights are significant (indivisibility) and that they apply to all people (universality). Psychological research on human rights has mainly examined knowledge, attitudes, and readiness to act in support of human rights. Representative surveys in Germany show that the realization of human rights is considered to be very important, but at the same time knowledge of human rights is low and inaccurate. The results show a "halving" of human rights: Some civil rights are known, while economic and social rights are hardly considered human rights.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of importance in peace psychology are also analyses of whether human rights are used in the sense of peace or whether they are abused for the construction of enemy images or to prepare wars. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_education">In education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peace psychological findings are used in the content and practice of <a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">peace education</a> at various levels, from primary school to secondary and tertiary education (e.g., in the form of peace psychology courses at universities<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to vocational training. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peace psychology practice refers, for example, to trauma therapeutic work, the implementation of trainings in nonviolent conflict resolution, and activities in such roles as <a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">conflict mediator</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peace_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace worker">civil peace worker</a>. Of particular importance is the cooperation between research and practice, such as in the form of <a href="/wiki/Evaluation_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaluation research">evaluation research</a>, to contribute to the continuous improvement of practice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Justice_Research" title="International Society for Justice Research">International Society for Justice Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_literature">Overview literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Overview literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bar-Tal, D. (2013). <i>Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Bar-Tal, D. (Ed.) (2011). <i>Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: A social psychological perspective.</i> New York: Psychology Press.</li> <li>Blumberg, H. H., Hare, A. P., & Costin, A. (2006). <i>Peace psychology: A comprehensive introduction.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Bretherton, D., & Balvin, N. (Eds.) (2012). <i>Peace psychology in Australia.</i> New York: Springer.</li> <li>Christie, D. J. (Ed.) (2012). <i>The encyclopedia of peace psychology.</i> Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.</li> <li>Christie, D. J., & Pim, J. E. (Eds.) (2012). <i>Nonkilling Psychology.</i> Honolulu, HI: Center for Global Nonkilling. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://nonkilling.org/pdf/nkpsy.pdf">http://nonkilling.org/pdf/nkpsy.pdf</a></li> <li>Christie, D. J., Wagner, R. V., & Winter, D. D. (Eds.) (2001). <i>Peace, conflict, and violence: Peace psychology for the 21st century.</i> Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140625170938/http://academic.marion.ohio-state.edu/dchristie/Peace%20Psychology%20Book.html">https://web.archive.org/web/20140625170938/http://academic.marion.ohio-state.edu/dchristie/Peace%20Psychology%20Book.html</a></li> <li>Coleman, P. T., & Deutsch, M. (Eds.) (2012). <i>Psychological components of sustainable peace.</i> New York: Springer.</li> <li>Deutsch, M., Coleman, P. T., & Marcus, E. C. (2007). <i>The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice</i> (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</li> <li>Gal-Ed, H., Dr. (2016). <i>Garden of Peace: Responding to the challenge of a civilization of peace.</i>Journal of Applied Arts & Health, 7(2), 275-288.</li> <li>Gal-Ed, H., Dr. (2009). <i>Art and Meaning: ARTiculation as a Modality in Processing Forgiveness and Peace Consciousness</i>, in Kalayjian, A., & Paloutzian, R.F. (Eds.). Peace psychology book series. Forgiveness and reconciliation: Psychological pathways to conflict transformation and peace building.<i> New York: Springer Science + Business Media. </i></li> <li>MacNair, R. M. (2011). <i>The psychology of peace: An introduction</i> (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.</li> <li>Montiel, C. J., & Noor, N. M. (Eds.) (2009). <i>Peace psychology in Asia.</i> New York: Springer.</li> <li>Simić, O., Volčič, Z., & Philpot, C. R. (Eds.) (2012). <i>Peace psychology in the Balkans: Dealing with a violent past while building peace.</i> New York: Springer.</li> <li>Sommer, G. & Fuchs, A. (Hrsg.) (2004). <i>Krieg und Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie.</i> Weinheim: Beltz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/es/2013/0003/">http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/es/2013/0003/</a></li> <li>Staub, E. (2013). <i>Overcoming evil: Genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Tropp, L. R. (Ed.) (2012). <i>The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_series">Book series</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Book series"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/series/7298">Peace Psychology Book Series</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/pac/">Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology</a></i></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jspp.psychopen.eu/index.php/jspp">Journal of Social and Political Psychology</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.peacepsych.org/peace-resources.htm">http://www.peacepsych.org/peace-resources.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. <i>Journal of Peace Research, 6</i> (3), 167-191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. <i>Journal of Peace Research, 27</i> (3), 291-305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christie, D. J., Wagner, R. V., & Winter, D. D. (2001). Introduction to peace psychology. In D. J. Christie, R. V. Wagner, & D. D. Winter (Eds.), <i>Peace, conflict, and violence: Peace psychology for the 21st century</i> (pp. 1-13). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tropp, L. R. (2012). Understanding and responding to intergroup conflict: Toward an integrated analysis. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.), <i>The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict</i> (pp. 3-10). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kriesberg, L. (2007). <i>Constructive conflicts: From escalation to resolution</i> (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bar-Tal, D. & Hammack, P. L. (2012). Conflict, delegitimization, and violence. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.), <i>The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict</i> (pp. 29-52). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Psychologists for Social Responsibility (2004). Enemy images: A resource material for reducing enmity. Washington, DC: Psychologists for Social Responsibility. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.psysr.org/about/pubs_resources/Enemyimagesmanual.pdf">http://www.psysr.org/about/pubs_resources/Enemyimagesmanual.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jaeger, S. (2004). Propaganda und Kriegsberichterstattung. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (Eds.), <i>Krieg und Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie</i> (pp. 317-329). Weinheim: Beltz.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osgood, C. E. (1962). <i>An alternative to war or surrender.</i> Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tzeng, O., Landis, D., & Tzeng, D. Y. (2012). Charles E. Osgood's continuing contributions to intercultural communication and far beyond!. <i>International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36</i>, 832-842.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hardy, S. (2012). Mediation. In D. Christie (Ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of peace psychology.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelman, H. C. (2002). Interactive problem solving: Informal mediation by the scholar-practitioner. In J. Bercovitch (Ed.), <i>Studies in international mediation: Essays in honor of Jeffrey Z. Rubin</i> (pp. 167-193). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/node/831">http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/node/831</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">d' Estrée, T. P. (2012). Addressing intractable conflict through interactive problem-solving. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.), <i>The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict</i> (pp. 229-251). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kempf, W. (2012). Peace journalism. In D. Christie (Ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of peace psychology.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boehnke, K., & Shani, M. (2012). Activism, antiwar. In D. Christie (Ed.), <i>Encyclopidia of peace psychology.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allport, G. W. (1954). <i>The nature of prejudice.</i> Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2011). <i>When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup contact.</i> New York, NY: Psychology Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner, U., & Hewstone, M. (2012). Intergroup contact. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.), <i>The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict</i> (pp. 193-209). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PGG18-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PGG18_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPaluckGreenGreen2018" class="citation journal cs1">Paluck, Elizabeth Levy; Green, Seth Ariel; Green, Donald (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbpp.2018.25">"The contact hypothesis re-evaluated"</a>. <i>Behavioural Public Policy</i>: 1–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbpp.2018.25">10.1017/bpp.2018.25</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioural+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=The+contact+hypothesis+re-evaluated&rft.pages=1-30&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fbpp.2018.25&rft.aulast=Paluck&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Levy&rft.au=Green%2C+Seth+Ariel&rft.au=Green%2C+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fbpp.2018.25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeace+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montero, M., & Sonn, C. C. (Eds.) (2009). <i>Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications.</i> New York: Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bläsi, B. (2004). Gewaltfreier Widerstand. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (Eds.), <i>Krieg und Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie</i> (pp. 412-424). Weinheim: Beltz.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macnair, R. M. (2012). Traumatic stress, perpetration-induced. In D. Christie (Ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of peace psychology.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kantner, E. (2007). <i>Shock and awe hits home: U.S. health costs of the war in Iraq.</i> Washington, DC: Physicians for Social Responsibility. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090521100631/http://www.psr.org/assets/pdfs/shock-and-awe.pdf">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamber, B. (2009). <i>Transforming societies after political violence: Truth, reconciliation, and mental health.</i> New York: Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-De_Rivera-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-De_Rivera_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-De_Rivera_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">De Rivera, J. (2012). Culture of peace. In D. Christie (Ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of peace psychology.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fuchs, A. (2004). Kultur und Krieg In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (Eds.), <i>Krieg und Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie</i> (pp. 383-396). Weinheim: Beltz.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stellmacher, J., & Sommer, G. (2012). Human rights and human rights violations, psychological aspects of. In D. Christie (Ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of peace psychology</i> (Vol. 2, pp. 514-518). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Citation_signal" title="Citation signal">See</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://peacepsychology.org/peace-course-syllabi/">http://peacepsychology.org/peace-course-syllabi/</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_psychology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.PeacePsychology.org">Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence</a> (Peace Psychology Division [Division 48] der American Psychological Association)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psysr.org/">Psychologists for Social Responsibility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inpsysr.org/">International Network of Psychologists for Social Responsibility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.friedenspsychologie.de/">Forum Friedenspsychologie e.V.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.psychology.org.au/pfp/">Psychologists for Peace</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-war" title="Template:Anti-war"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-war" title="Template talk:Anti-war"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-war" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-war"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-war_and_peace_movement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">peace movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace advocates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_organizations" title="Anti-nuclear organizations">Anti-nuclear organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_organizations" title="List of anti-war organizations">Anti-war organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycott,_Divestment_and_Sanctions" title="Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions">Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition_of_Women_for_Peace" title="Coalition of Women for Peace">Coalition of Women for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Pink" title="Code Pink">Code Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Peace" title="Culture of Peace">Culture of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECOPEACE_Party" title="ECOPEACE Party">ECOPEACE Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenham_Common_Women%27s_Peace_Camp" title="Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp">Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War_resisters_in_Canada" title="Iraq War resisters in Canada">Iraq War resisters in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pacifist_organisations" title="List of pacifist organisations">List of pacifist organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Socialist_Party_of_Japan" title="New Socialist Party of Japan">New Socialist Party of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifist_Socialist_Party" title="Pacifist Socialist Party">Pacifist Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_camp" title="Peace camp">Peace camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_churches" title="Peace churches">Peace churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_commission" title="Peace commission">Peace commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_conference" title="Peace conference">Peace conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_congress" title="Peace congress">Peace congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Peace psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceworker" title="Peaceworker">Peaceworker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/React,_Include,_Recycle" title="React, Include, Recycle">React, Include, Recycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Social Democratic Party (Japan)">Social Democratic Party (Japan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_(Swedish_political_party)" title="Unity (Swedish political party)">Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Women%27s_Peace_Crusade" title="The Women's Peace Crusade">The Women's Peace Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_International_League_for_Peace_and_Freedom" title="Women's International League for Peace and Freedom">Women's International League for Peace and Freedom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li>Anarchism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-pacifism" title="Anarcho-pacifism">Anarcho-pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-punk" title="Anarcho-punk">Anarcho-punks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Antimilitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Christian pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finvenkismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Finvenkismo">Finvenkismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">Isolationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern-war_pacifism" title="Modern-war pacifism">Modern-war pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">Non-interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonkilling" title="Nonkilling">Nonkilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacificism" title="Pacificism">Pacificism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_influence_on_the_peace_movement" title="Soviet influence on the peace movement">Soviet influence on the peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony_of_peace" title="Testimony of peace">Testimony of peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">World peace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media and cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anti-war_art" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Anti-war art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_with_anti-war_themes" title="List of books with anti-war themes">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_Yutel_for_Peace" title="Concert Yutel for Peace">Concert Yutel for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dances_of_Universal_Peace" title="Dances of Universal Peace">Dances of Universal Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_for_Peace" title="Festival for Peace">Festival for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_films" title="List of anti-war films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagine_Piano_Peace_Project" title="Imagine Piano Peace Project">Imagine Piano Peace Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Non-Violence" title="International Day of Non-Violence">International Day of Non-Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Peace" title="International Day of Peace">International Day of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Among_Civilizations" title="Dialogue Among Civilizations">Dialogue Among Civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_prizes" title="List of peace prizes">List of peace prizes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_peace" title="List of places named after peace">List of places named Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peace_monuments_and_memorials" title="Category:Peace monuments and memorials">Monuments and memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother%27s_Day_Proclamation" title="Mother's Day Proclamation">Mother's Day Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize_Concert" title="Nobel Peace Prize Concert">Nobel Peace Prize Concert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_museum" title="Peace museum">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_%26_Love_(festival)" title="Peace & Love (festival)">Peace & Love (festival)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_journalism" title="Peace journalism">Peace journalism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peace_News" title="Peace News">Peace News</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promoting_Enduring_Peace" title="Promoting Enduring Peace">Promoting Enduring Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_One_Day" title="Peace One Day">Peace One Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plays_with_anti-war_themes" title="List of plays with anti-war themes">Plays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promoting_Enduring_Peace" title="Promoting Enduring Peace">Promoting Enduring Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_Peace_Concert" title="Show of Peace Concert">Show of Peace Concert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_songs" title="List of anti-war songs">Songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_symbols" title="Peace symbols">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Non-Violence_Project" title="The Non-Violence Project">The Non-Violence Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_for_Peace" title="University for Peace">University for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Peace_Bell_Association" title="World Peace Bell Association">World Peace Bell Association</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Peace_Bell" title="Japanese Peace Bell">Japanese Peace Bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Black" title="Women in Black">Women in Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_March_for_Peace_and_Nonviolence" title="World March for Peace and Nonviolence">World March for Peace and Nonviolence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slogans and tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bed-in" title="Bed-in">Bed-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Park_be-ins" title="Central Park be-ins">Central Park be-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">Conflict resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">Counter-recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-escalation" title="De-escalation">De-escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demilitarisation" title="Demilitarisation">Demilitarisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Peace" title="Department of Peace">Department of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draft_evasion" title="Draft evasion">Draft evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die-in" title="Die-in">Die-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">Economic sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower_power" title="Flower power">Flower power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Day_of_Action_on_Military_Spending" title="Global Day of Action on Military Spending">Global Day of Action on Military Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Be-In" title="Human Be-In">Human Be-In</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_of_Munich" title="Lesson of Munich">Lesson of Munich</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Make_love,_not_war" title="Make love, not war">Make love, not war</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non_Violent_Resistance_(psychological_intervention)" title="Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)">Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_walk" title="Peace walk">Peace walk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_serve_in_the_Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces">Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Soldiers_are_murderers" title="Soldiers are murderers">Soldiers are murderers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swords_to_ploughshares" title="Swords to ploughshares">Swords to ploughshares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teach-in" title="Teach-in">Teach-in</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_whole_world_is_watching" title="The whole world is watching">The whole world is watching</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_Non-violent_Intervention" title="Third Party Non-violent Intervention">Third Party Non-violent Intervention</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Turning_the_other_cheek" title="Turning the other cheek">Turn the other cheek</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Violence_begets_violence" title="Violence begets violence">Violence begets violence</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">War tax resisters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opposition to specific<br />wars or their aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>War of 1812 (<a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_Britain" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in Britain">UK</a>; <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_the_United_States" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in the United States">US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Opposition to the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Second_Boer_War" title="Opposition to the Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protests_against_the_Vietnam_War" title="List of protests against the Vietnam War">list of protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_war_on_terror" title="Criticism of the war on terror">War on Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Iraq_War" title="Opposition to the Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Iraq_War" title="Criticism of the Iraq War">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_Iraq_War" title="Protests against the Iraq War">Protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="Opposition to the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">Afghanistan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_military_action_against_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to military action against Iran">Military action in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Protests against the Sri Lankan civil war">Sri Lankan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya">2011 intervention in Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_anti-war_protests_in_Russia" title="2014 anti-war protests in Russia">Anti-war protests in Russia (2014)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Protests against the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_anti-war_protests_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 anti-war protests in Russia">in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Far_Eastern_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Far Eastern protests">in Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Ban_Landmines" title="International Campaign to Ban Landmines">Landmines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_to_military_taxation" title="Conscientious objection to military taxation">Military taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Nuclear disarmament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Total_Elimination_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons">International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_convention" title="Nuclear weapons convention">Nuclear weapons convention</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacifism_in_Canada" title="Category:Pacifism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_12_of_the_Constitution_of_Costa_Rica" title="Article 12 of the Constitution of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_Germany" title="Pacifism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement#Israel" title="Peace movement">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_9_of_the_Japanese_Constitution" title="Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacifism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Category:Pacifism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_Spain" title="Pacifism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Professionals_Association" title="Sudanese Professionals Association">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_neutrality" title="Swiss neutrality">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacifism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Pacifism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_the_United_States" title="Pacifism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir" title="Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir">Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a 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