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id="toc-Intergovernmental_treaty_secretariats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intergovernmental_treaty_secretariats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Intergovernmental treaty secretariats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intergovernmental_treaty_secretariats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Challenges</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Challenges-sublist" 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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_environmental_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Global environmental governance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Global_environmental_governance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Global environmental governance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Global_environmental_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Nations_Environmental_Programme_(UNEP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations_Environmental_Programme_(UNEP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations_Environmental_Programme_(UNEP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Proposed reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_conventions_and_agreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_conventions_and_agreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>International conventions and agreements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_conventions_and_agreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aspects_of_Global_North_and_Global_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspects_of_Global_North_and_Global_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Aspects of Global North and Global South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspects_of_Global_North_and_Global_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.1</span> <span>Climate governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protecting_the_ozone_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protecting_the_ozone_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5.2</span> <span>Protecting the ozone layer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protecting_the_ozone_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_health_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_health_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Global health governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_health_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governan%C3%A7a_mundial" title="Governança mundial – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Governança mundial" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Governance" title="Global Governance – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Global Governance" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobernanza_mundial" title="Gobernanza mundial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gobernanza mundial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DA%A9%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="حکمرانی جهانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حکمرانی جهانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouvernance_mondiale" title="Gouvernance mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gouvernance mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84_%EA%B1%B0%EB%B2%84%EB%84%8C%EC%8A%A4" title="세계 거버넌스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세계 거버넌스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemerintahan_global" title="Pemerintahan global – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemerintahan global" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governance_globale" title="Governance globale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Governance globale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasaulinis_valdymas" title="Pasaulinis valdymas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pasaulinis valdymas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Global governance" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%90%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AC%E3%83%90%E3%83%8A%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9" title="グローバル・ガバナンス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グローバル・ガバナンス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governan%C3%A7a_global" title="Governança global – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Governança global" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Глобальное управление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Глобальное управление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%AD%DA%AA%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="عالمي حڪمراني – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عالمي حڪمراني" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Governance" title="Category:Governance">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Models</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_by_algorithm" title="Government by algorithm">Algorithmic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bad_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bad governance">Bad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_governance" title="Collaborative governance">Collaborative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-Governance" class="mw-redirect" title="E-Governance">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_governance" title="Good governance">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multistakeholder_governance_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Multistakeholder governance model">Multistakeholder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_governance" title="Open-source governance">Open-source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Private governance">Private</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">By level</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Local governance">Local</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">By field</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_governance" title="Clinical governance">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_governance" title="Cultural governance">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_governance" title="Data governance">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Ecclesiastical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_governance" title="Environmental governance">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governance_in_higher_education" title="Governance in higher education">Higher education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_governance" title="Information governance">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_governance" title="Network governance">Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_governance" title="Ocean governance">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Political party governance">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_sector_governance_and_reform" title="Security sector governance and reform">Security sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulation_governance" title="Simulation governance">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_governance" title="Soil governance">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_governance" title="Technology governance">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_governance" title="Transnational governance">Transnational</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Measures</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Governance_Index" title="World Governance Index">World Governance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Governance_Indicators" title="Sustainable Governance Indicators">Sustainable Governance Indicators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertelsmann_Transformation_Index" title="Bertelsmann Transformation Index">Bertelsmann Transformation Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_uncertainty" title="Policy uncertainty">Policy uncertainty</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_governance_officer" title="Chief governance officer">Chief governance officer</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Governance,_risk_management,_and_compliance" title="Governance, risk management, and compliance">Governance, risk management<br />and compliance</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_corporate_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental, social, and corporate governance">Environmental, social, and<br />corporate governance</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_governance_mechanism" title="Market governance mechanism">Market governance mechanism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Governance" title="Template:Governance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Governance" title="Template talk:Governance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Governance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Governance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Global governance</b> (or <b>world governance</b>) refers to institutions that coordinate the behavior of <a href="/wiki/Transnationality" title="Transnationality">transnational</a> actors, facilitate cooperation, resolve disputes, and alleviate collective action problems.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Global governance broadly entails making, monitoring, and enforcing rules.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within global governance, a variety of types of actors – not just states – exercise power.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to the traditional meaning of <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a>, the term <i>global governance</i> is used to denote the regulation of interdependent relations in the absence of an overarching political authority.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The best example of this is the international system or relationships between independent states. </p><p>The concept of global governance began in the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It became particularly prominent in the aftermath of World War I, and more so after the end of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since World War II, the number of <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a> has increased substantially.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of actors (whether they be states, non-governmental organizations, firms, and epistemic communities) who are involved in governance relationships has also increased substantially.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various terms have been used for the dynamics of global governance, such as <a href="/wiki/Complex_interdependence" title="Complex interdependence">complex interdependence</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_regime" title="International regime">international regimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multi-level_governance" title="Multi-level governance">multilevel governance</a>, global constitutionalism, and ordered anarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stronger international cooperation is needed to tackle the interconnected global governance challenges such as health, trade, and the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>global governance</i> is broadly used to designate all regulations intended for organization and centralization of human societies on a global scale. <i>Global governance</i> has also been defined as "the complex of formal and informal institutions, mechanisms, relationships, and processes between and among states, markets, citizens and organizations, both inter- and non-governmental, through which collective interests on the global plane are articulated, rights and obligations are established, and differences are mediated".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, <i><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a></i> has been associated with <i>governing</i>, or with political authority, institutions, and, ultimately, control. <i><a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a></i> denotes a process through which institutions coordinate and control independent social relations, and that have the ability to enforce their decisions. However, <i>governance</i> is also used to denote the regulation of interdependent relations in the absence of an overarching political authority, such as in the international system.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some now speak of the development of <i>global public policy</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The definition is flexible in scope, applying to general subjects such as <a href="/wiki/Global_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Global security">global security</a> or to specific documents and agreements such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Marketing_of_Breast-milk_Substitutes" title="International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes">Code on the Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes</a>. The definition applies whether the participation is bilateral (e.g. an agreement to regulate usage of a river flowing in two countries), function-specific (e.g. a commodity agreement), regional (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tlatelolco" title="Treaty of Tlatelolco">Treaty of Tlatelolco</a>), or global (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Non-Proliferation_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Proliferation Treaty">Non-Proliferation Treaty</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the light of the unclear meaning of the term <i>global governance</i> as a concept in international politics,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some authors have proposed defining it not in substantive, but in disciplinary and methodological terms. For these authors, <i>global governance</i> is better understood as an analytical concept or optic that provides a specific perspective on world politics different from that of conventional <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> theory. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Weiss" title="Thomas G. Weiss">Thomas G. Weiss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rorden_Wilkinson" title="Rorden Wilkinson">Rorden Wilkinson</a> have even argued that global governance has the capacity to overcome some of the fragmentation of <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> as a discipline<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly when understood as a set of questions about the governance of world orders.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other authors conceptualized global governance as a field of practice in which diverse stakeholders, such as public, private, and supra-governmental actors can compete for influence about issues that are not bound to national boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conceptualization allows to better understand the principles of exclusions of specific stakeholders from the negotiation field as some actors lack the economic, social, cultural and symbolic resources required to gain enough influence.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> (founded in 1920), the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, was one of the first organizations to promote global governance.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While attempts of intergovernmental coordination of policy-making can be traced back to ancient times, comprehensive search for effective formats of international coordination and cooperation truly began after the end of the WWI. It was during that post-war period that some of the still existing international institutions (or their immediate predecessors) were founded. Among thinkers who made major contributions to the period discussions on the goals and forms of international governance and policy coordination were <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">J.M. Keynes</a> with his "<a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Cassel" title="Gustav Cassel">G. Cassel</a> with his works on the post-war development of the global monetary system.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991 marked the end of <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian sovereignty">a long period of international history</a> based on a policy of <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of powers</a>. Since this historic event, the planet has entered a phase of geostrategic breakdown. The national-security model, for example, while still in place for most governments, is gradually giving way to an emerging collective conscience that extends beyond the restricted framework it represents.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In its initial phase, world governance was able to draw on themes inherited from <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a> and the theory of <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>, such as peace, defense, <a href="/wiki/Geostrategy" title="Geostrategy">geostrategy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomatic</a> relations, and <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">trade relations</a>. But as <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> progresses and the number of interdependencies increases, the global level is also highly relevant to a far wider range of subjects, such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> in general.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 20th century, the risks associated with nuclear fission raised global awareness of environmental threats. The 1963 <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing marked the beginning of the globalization of environmental issues. Environmental law began to be modernized and coordinated with the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm Conference">Stockholm Conference</a> (1972), backed up in 1980 by the Vienna Convention on the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of treaties">Law of Treaties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_the_Ozone_Layer" title="Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer">Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer</a> was signed and ratified in 1985. In 1987, 24 countries signed the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal Protocol</a> which imposed the gradual withdrawal of <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon"> CFCs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "cooperative problem-solving arrangements" of global governance may be formal. In that case they take the shape of laws or formally constituted institutions for a variety of actors (such as state authorities, <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organizations">intergovernmental organizations</a> (IGOs), <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-governmental organizations">non-governmental organizations</a> (NGOs), <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a> entities, <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> actors) to manage collective affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-globall_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globall-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may also be informal (as in the case of practices or guidelines) or <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a> entities (as in the case of coalitions).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Global governance can be roughly divided into four stages:<sup id="cite_ref-:5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14–16">: 14–16 </span></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_building" title="Agenda building">agenda-setting</a> (or global goal-setting<sup id="cite_ref-:52_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policymaking</a>,</li> <li>implementation and <a href="/wiki/Enforcement" title="Enforcement">enforcement</a>, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaluation" title="Evaluation">evaluation</a>, monitoring, and adjudication.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_goal-setting">Global goal-setting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Global goal-setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A "new central approach in global governance" is <i>global goal-setting</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governance of this kind is based on goals that are not legally binding, allow flexibility for each country, and do not come with strong institutional arrangements.<sup id="cite_ref-:53_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:53-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (to be achieved during the years 2015 to 2030) are one example of global goal setting. They were "expected to have a major impact on the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_System" title="United Nations System">United Nations System</a>" which is a key actor within the global governance concept.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previously, another attempt at "global governance by goal-setting" were the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a> from the year 2000 to 2015. Even earlier examples of global goal-setting include the "Plan of Action of the 1990 <a href="/wiki/World_Summit_for_Children" title="World Summit for Children">World Summit for Children</a>" and the "first Development Decade that dates as far back as 1961".<sup id="cite_ref-:52_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> However, results from a meta-analysis found that the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) had so far (as of 2023) failed to integrate the system of global governance and to bring <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a> together. By and large, the SDGs have not become a shared set of connecting goals, and their uptake in global governance has been limited.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SDGs are not taken up by a enough of the international organizations. Instead, international organizations cherry-pick only those SDGs that best fit their interest. In particular, they often cherry-pick <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_8" title="Sustainable Development Goal 8">SDG 8</a> (on decent work and economic growth), <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_9" title="Sustainable Development Goal 9">SDG 9</a> (on industry and innovation), and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_12" title="Sustainable Development Goal 12">SDG 12</a> (on consumption and production).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png/220px-Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png/330px-Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png/440px-Share-voting-rights-international-organizations.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Indicator for Target 18.8 of <a href="/wiki/SDG_16" class="mw-redirect" title="SDG 16">SDG 16</a>: Share of voting rights in <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Least_Developed_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Least Developed Countries">Least Developed Countries</a> (LDCs), as of 2022<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>One of the SDGs, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_16" title="Sustainable Development Goal 16">Sustainable Development Goal 16</a> on "peace, justice and strong institutions", has a target and indicator regarding global governance (to be achieved by 2030). The wording of this Target 16.8 is: "Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance."<sup id="cite_ref-:17_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indicator 16.8.1 is used to measure this target by monitoring the “proportion of members and voting rights of developing countries in international organizations”.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A UNDP report of 2024 reported that this indicator had made no progress since 2015: "No significant changes in these countries’ voting rights were registered since 2015 at any of the international economic institutions".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intergovernmental_treaty_secretariats">Intergovernmental treaty secretariats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Intergovernmental treaty secretariats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>International bureaucracies, such as intergovernmental treaty secretariats, play an independent role in global affairs. An example is the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a>. Research suggests that these kinds of treaty secretariats have significant influence. They carry out important tasks in global policy-making. Unlike national governments, they lack the power to enforce laws. Instead, they use softer approaches, such as persuasion and coordination, to impact both global and domestic policy-making.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>International bureaucracies can work as <i>orchestrators</i> that interact with non-state actors, such as civil society groups, non-profit entities, or the private sector. They can encourage national governments to agree on a more ambitious response to global problems and encourage application of global environmental politics. <i>Orchestration</i> is an indirect mode of governance whereby an actor (e.g. an international organization or a national government) mobilizes one or more intermediaries to take influence on a certain target group. As of 2022, new alliances are being formed between intergovernmental treaty secretariats and <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">non-state actors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A single organization may take the nominal lead on an issue, for example the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO) in world trade affairs. Therefore, global governance is thought to be an international process of consensus-forming which generates guidelines and agreements that affect national governments and international corporations. Examples of such consensus would include WTO policies on health issues. </p><p>World authorities including international organizations and corporations achieve <a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">deference</a> to their agenda through different means. Authority can derive from <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutional</a> status, <a href="/wiki/Expertise" class="mw-redirect" title="Expertise">expertise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capacity_building" title="Capacity building">capacity</a>, or perceived competence.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9–14">: 9–14 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fragmentation">Fragmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Global governance for <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> is highly fragmented, consisting of many international organizations, states, and other actors working in separate clusters. A study from 2022 identified 335 international organizations active in this field.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These organizations are often weakly connected. They compete for resources and focus on their own mandates. Proposed reforms include clustering institutions, embracing complexity, or centralizing global sustainability governance under strong coordinating authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fragmentation contributes to the complexity of global environmental governance. It occurs when multiple public and private institutions operate in the same policy area, leading to overlapping responsibilities and potential inefficiencies. For example, the theme complex of climate change is no longer governed solely by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">UN Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC) but also by institutions like the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO), the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">International Maritime Organization</a> (IMO), which do not have climate change as their main focus.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the negative consequences of fragmentation is the emergence of conflicting institutional centers within regime complexes. This can make it harder to establish legally binding, internationally accepted regulation. For example, the UNFCCC and International Maritime Organization (IMO) have both addressed the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_shipping#Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Environmental impact of shipping">greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping</a> but without reaching consensus for solving the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United Nations' <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs), adopted in 2015, aimed to improve <a href="/wiki/Policy_coherence_for_development" title="Policy coherence for development">policy coherence</a> and institutional integration among the myriad of international institutions. However, research suggests that this aim has not been achieved: Fragmentation has not decreased. Instead, institutions have become more isolated, forming silos around their specific SDG issues and around the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars have discussed the formation of an overarching institutional framework as a means to improve institutional interaction, more effectively address transboundary environmental problems, and advance <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>. The idea for the creation of a new, overarching <i>World Environment Organization</i> (WEO) was first discussed around the year 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others have argued for modifying existing decision-making procedures and institutional boundaries in order to enhance their effectiveness instead of creating new—likely dysfunctional—overarching frameworks.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, they have said that instead of creating a WEO to safeguard the environment, environmental issues should be directly incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some academics also argue that multiple institutions and some degree of overlap and duplication in policies is necessary to ensure maximum output from the system.<sup id="cite_ref-Najam_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Najam-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inclusiveness">Inclusiveness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Inclusiveness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is an ambition of modern global governance to have a higher level of <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">inclusiveness</a> with regards to advancing the interests of low-income countries. This applies in particular to <a href="/wiki/Least_developed_countries" title="Least developed countries">least developed countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Small_Island_Developing_States" title="Small Island Developing States">small island developing states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landlocked_developing_countries" title="Landlocked developing countries">landlocked developing countries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_environmental_governance">Global environmental governance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Global environmental governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Earth_system_governance" title="Earth system governance">Earth system governance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_governance" title="Environmental governance">Environmental governance</a></div> <p>The most pressing transboundary environmental challenges include <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A publication of 2020 described global environmental governance as "one of the institutionally most dynamic areas in world politics" in the last thirty years.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous new international institutions and actors have emerged in this field since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This growth has resulted in overlapping institutional roles, contributing to both fragmentation and complexity. However, it also creates opportunities for cooperation and productive interactions between institutions, involving multiple actors and levels of governance.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations_Environmental_Programme_(UNEP)"><span id="United_Nations_Environmental_Programme_.28UNEP.29"></span>United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environmental_Programme" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Environmental Programme">United Nations Environmental Programme</a> (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_System" title="United Nations System">United Nations System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:23_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, UNEP has played a key role as a coordinator for a range of <a href="/wiki/Multilateral_Environmental_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilateral Environmental Agreement">multilateral environmental agreements</a> (MEAs).<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, UNEP has been widely considered as a weak international organization. Many institutional arrangements for regulating environmental matters have become increasingly independent of UNEP over the past decades (as of 2022). These arrangements now resemble a loosely and sometimes poorly coordinated network. Scholars have also doubted the effectiveness of a centralized overarching institutional framework to govern global environmental governance and law.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsässer_36-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsässer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposed_reforms">Proposed reforms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Proposed reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme#Reform" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme § Reform</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Institute_for_Sustainable_Development" title="International Institute for Sustainable Development">International Institute for Sustainable Development</a> proposed a reform agenda for global environmental governance (GEG) in 2006. They formulated five goals that "can be the basis of a shared global vision for the global environmental governance system":<sup id="cite_ref-Najam_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Najam-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 72">: 72 </span></sup> leadership, knowledge ("science should be the authoritative basis of sound environmental policy"), coherence (see also <a href="/wiki/Policy_coherence_for_development" title="Policy coherence for development">policy coherence for development</a>), performance, mainstreaming ("incorporate environmental concerns and actions within other areas of international policy and action, and particularly so in the context of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>"). </p><p>Political scientists have said that structural changes in global environmental governance are urgently needed both within and outside United Nations (UN) institutions. This applies to fully fledged international organizations, specialized bodies and programs, as well as secretariats of <a href="/wiki/International_environmental_agreement" title="International environmental agreement">international environmental agreements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three examples of intergovernmental treaty secretariats include the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (climate secretariat), the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (biodiversity secretariat), and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a> (desertification secretariat). These secretariats can reach out to <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">non-state actors</a> in order to pursue specific policy goals.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Treaty secretariats can help break <a href="/wiki/Political_deadlock" class="mw-redirect" title="Political deadlock">political deadlock</a> by gaining support from transnational and sub-national actors. They can engage with non-state actors to encourage national governments to adopt more ambitious international agreements.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_conventions_and_agreements">International conventions and agreements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: International conventions and agreements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/International_environmental_agreement" title="International environmental agreement">International environmental agreement</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">List of international environmental agreements</a></div> <p>The <i>International Environmental Agreement Database Project</i> currently (as of 2020) comprises almost 1300 multilateral agreements and over 2200 bilateral agreements (see also <a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">list of international environmental agreements</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until now, the formulation of environmental policies at the international level has been divided by theme, sector or territory, resulting in treaties that overlap or clash. International attempts to coordinate environment institutions, include the Inter-Agency Coordination Committee and the <a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Sustainable_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission for Sustainable Development">Commission for Sustainable Development</a>, but these institutions are not powerful enough to effectively incorporate the three aspects of sustainable development.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main three multilateral conventions, also known as <a href="/wiki/Rio_Convention" title="Rio Convention">Rio Conventions</a> (because they were agreed at the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">Earth Summit</a> held in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> in June 1992), are as follows: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (CBD) (1992–1993): aims to conserve biodiversity. Related agreements include the <a href="/wiki/Cartagena_Protocol_on_Biosafety" title="Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety">Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCC) (1992–1994): aims to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would <a href="/wiki/Avoiding_dangerous_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Avoiding dangerous climate change">stabilize the climate system</a> without threatening food production, and enabling the pursuit of sustainable economic development; it incorporates the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a> (UNCCD) (1994–1996): aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought and desertification, in developing countries (though initially the convention was primarily meant for Africa).</li></ol> <p>Further international conventions: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention_on_Wetlands_of_International_Importance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance">Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Flora_and_Fauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna">Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</a> (CITES) (entered into force on 1 July 1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonn_Convention_on_the_Conservation_of_Migratory_Species_of_Wild_Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals">Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species</a> (entered into force in 1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Protection_and_Use_of_Transboundary_Watercourses_and_International_Lakes" title="Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes">Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes</a> (Water Convention) (entered into force on 6 October 1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basel_Convention_on_the_Control_of_Transboundary_Movements_of_Hazardous_Wastes_and_their_Disposal" class="mw-redirect" title="Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal">Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal</a> (entered into force on 5 May 1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention_on_the_Prior_Informed_Consent_Procedure_for_Certain_Hazardous_Chemicals_and_Pesticides_in_International_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade">Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedures for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade</a> (effective as of 24 February 2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants" title="Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (COP)</a> (entered into force on 17 May 2004)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aspects_of_Global_North_and_Global_South">Aspects of Global North and Global South</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aspects of Global North and Global South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars have noted that unindustrialized countries in the Global South sometimes are disconnected from environmentalism and perceive environmental governance to be a "luxury" priority for the Global North.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, environmental governance priorities in the Global North have been at odds with the desire to focus on <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> in the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some analysts propose a shift towards "non-state" actors for the development of environmental governance.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental politics researcher <a href="/wiki/Karin_B%C3%A4ckstrand" title="Karin Bäckstrand">Karin Bäckstrand</a> claims this will increase transparency, accountability, and legitimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, scholars have noted that environmental governance in the Global North has had adverse consequences on the environment in the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental and economic priorities in the Global North do not always align with those in the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tension between countries in the Global North and Global South has caused some academics to criticize global environmental governance for being too slow of a process to enact policy change.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climate_governance">Climate governance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Climate governance</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_governance&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Climate governance</a> is the diplomacy, mechanisms and response measures "aimed at steering social systems towards preventing, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigating</a> or <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adapting</a> to the risks posed by <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_governance_Jagers2003_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_governance_Jagers2003-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A definitive interpretation is complicated by the wide range of political and social science traditions (including <a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multilevel_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilevel governance">multilevel governance</a>) that are engaged in conceiving and analysing climate governance at different levels and across different arenas. In academia, climate governance has become the concern of <a href="/wiki/Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographers">geographers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropologists">anthropologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Economists">economists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">business studies</a> scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_governance_Bulkeley2010_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_governance_Bulkeley2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climate governance – that is, effective management of the global climate system – is thus of vital importance. However, building effective collective mechanisms to govern impacts on the climate system at the planetary level presents particular challenges, e.g. the complexity of the relevant science and the progressive refinement of scientific knowledge about our global climate and planetary systems, and the challenge of communicating this knowledge to the general public and to policy makers. There is also the urgency of addressing this issue; the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> has underlined that the international community has a narrow window of opportunity to act to keep global temperature rise at safe levels. Modern international climate governance is organized around three pillars: mitigation, adaptation and means of implementation. Under each pillar are many issues and policies, illustrating the many ways climate change affects society.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> In the first decade of the 21st century, a paradox had arisen between rising awareness about the causes and <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">consequences of climate change</a> and an increasing concern that the issues that surround it represent an intractable problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_governance_Bulkeley2009_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_governance_Bulkeley2009-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, climate change was approached as a global issue, and climate governance sought to address it on the international stage. This took the form of <a href="/wiki/Multilateral_Environmental_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilateral Environmental Agreement">Multilateral Environmental Agreements</a> (MEAs), beginning with the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC) in 1992. With the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="International agreements">international agreements</a> between nations had been largely ineffective in achieving legally binding emissions cuts.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_governance_Andonova,_L._B.,_Betsill,_M._M._&_Bulkeley,_H_2009_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_governance_Andonova,_L._B.,_Betsill,_M._M._&_Bulkeley,_H_2009-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the end of the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period in 2012, between 2013 and 2015 there was no legally binding <a href="/wiki/Global_climate_regime" title="Global climate regime">global climate regime</a>. This inertia on the international political stage contributed to alternative political narratives that called for more flexible, cost effective and participatory approaches to addressing the multifarious problems of climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_governance_Backstrand2007_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_governance_Backstrand2007-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These narratives relate to the increasing diversity of methods that are being developed and deployed across the field of climate governance.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_governance_Andonova,_L._B.,_Betsill,_M._M._&_Bulkeley,_H_2009_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_governance_Andonova,_L._B.,_Betsill,_M._M._&_Bulkeley,_H_2009-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protecting_the_ozone_layer">Protecting the ozone layer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Protecting the ozone layer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 16 September 1987 the United Nations General Assembly signed the Montreal Protocol to address the declining <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a>. Since that time, the use of <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorofluorocarbons">chlorofluorocarbons</a> (industrial refrigerants and aerosols) and farming fungicides such as <a href="/wiki/Methyl_bromide" class="mw-redirect" title="Methyl bromide">methyl bromide</a> has mostly been eliminated, although other damaging gases are still in use.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_health_governance">Global health governance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Global health governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Governance#Health_governance" title="Governance">Governance § Health governance</a></div> <p>Where governance refers to institutional arrangements between state and non-state actors, global health governance refers to such institutional arrangements that have a direct and indirect impact on health. Prior to 2002, the term "global health governance" did not exist; it emerged as a description of cross-border initiatives (structures and processes) tackling global health. Global health governance (GHG) has come to replace an earlier term "international health governance" (IHG) which worked in a more state-centric system and era.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a call for a clearer definition and “conceptual clarity” for GHG due to its multiple meanings and varied uses.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Global health governance foregrounds the interconnectivity that is needed between state and non-state actors. This interconnectivity differs from former global health systems in the greater role for non-state actors whose numbers are also increasing. Non-state actors are seen as vital at a time when state actors alone cannot address the many health challenges. Global health governance gives new roles for both non-state and state actors, in areas such as agenda setting, resource mobilization and allocation, and dispute settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These changing roles have generated new kinds of partnerships such as the global campaign against the marketing of breast milk substitutes: collaboration between <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a>, the <a href="/wiki/International_Baby_Food_Action_Network" title="International Baby Food Action Network">International Baby Food Action Network</a>, and other like-minded <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> (NGOs) came together to address this issue.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the diversity found within the NGO community, specific NGOs can work in collaboration with state actors on specific issues, forming a more permanent yet fluid collaboration between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_theory" title="Engaged theory">Engaged theory</a> – Comprehensive critical theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> – Idea that all people have rights and responsibilities from being a member of the world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a> – Conspiracy theory regarding a totalitarian world government<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Network_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Network Analysis">Social Network Analysis</a> – Analysis of social structures using network and graph theory<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Global_Compact" title="United Nations Global Compact">United Nations Global Compact</a> – Non-binding United Nations pact</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_community" title="World community">World community</a> – political or humanitarian term referring to the entire global civilization created by mankind or aggregate of nation-states<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">World government</a> – Notion of a single common political authority for all of humanity</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_governance&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarnettPevehouseRaustiala2021" class="citation cs2">Barnett, Michael N.; Pevehouse, Jon C.W.; Raustiala, Kal (2021), Pevehouse, Jon C. W.; Raustiala, Kal; Barnett, Michael N. (eds.), "Introduction", <i>Global Governance in a World of Change</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>47, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108915199.001">10.1017/9781108915199.001</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-90670-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-90670-8"><bdi>978-1-108-90670-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244865423">244865423</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Governance+in+a+World+of+Change&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244865423%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108915199.001&rft.isbn=978-1-108-90670-8&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Michael+N.&rft.au=Pevehouse%2C+Jon+C.W.&rft.au=Raustiala%2C+Kal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+governance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1994" class="citation book cs1">Young, Oran R. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qb6IsDqCSQ8C"><i>International Governance: Protecting the Environment in a Stateless Society</i></a>. Cornell University Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8176-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8176-5"><bdi>978-0-8014-8176-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Governance%3A+Protecting+the+Environment+in+a+Stateless+Society&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8176-5&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Oran+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQb6IsDqCSQ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+governance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnettDuvall2004" class="citation cs2">Barnett, Michael; Duvall, Raymond (2004), Barnett, Michael; Duvall, Raymond (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/power-in-global-governance/power-in-global-governance/1B1DD8519CB9FD9F43D27442E4EBEFEF"><i>Power in global governance</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>32, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84024-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84024-8"><bdi>978-0-521-84024-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+in+global+governance&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84024-8&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Duvall%2C+Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fpower-in-global-governance%2Fpower-in-global-governance%2F1B1DD8519CB9FD9F43D27442E4EBEFEF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+governance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLake2021" class="citation journal cs1">Lake, David A (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1354066120959407">"The organizational ecology of global governance"</a>. <i>European Journal of International Relations</i>. <b>27</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">345–</span>368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1354066120959407">10.1177/1354066120959407</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1354-0661">1354-0661</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224930498">224930498</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Relations&rft.atitle=The+organizational+ecology+of+global+governance&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E345-%3C%2Fspan%3E368&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224930498%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1354-0661&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1354066120959407&rft.aulast=Lake&rft.aufirst=David+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1354066120959407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+governance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James N. 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class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeKamradt-Scott2014" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Kelley; Kamradt-Scott, Adam (2014-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4036464">"The multiple meanings of global health governance: a call for conceptual clarity"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-10-28">10.1186/1744-8603-10-28</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-8603">1744-8603</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4036464">4036464</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24775919">24775919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=The+multiple+meanings+of+global+health+governance%3A+a+call+for+conceptual+clarity&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28&rft.date=2014-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4036464%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1744-8603&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24775919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1744-8603-10-28&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Kelley&rft.au=Kamradt-Scott%2C+Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4036464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+governance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbragimova2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ibragimova, Irina (2022-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHG-12-2021-0121">"Governance for global health: the role of Nordic countries"</a>. <i>International Journal of Health Governance</i>. <b>27</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">150–</span>179. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022IJHG...27..150I">2022IJHG...27..150I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FIJHG-12-2021-0121">10.1108/IJHG-12-2021-0121</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2059-4631">2059-4631</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247368519">247368519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Health+Governance&rft.atitle=Governance+for+global+health%3A+the+role+of+Nordic+countries&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E150-%3C%2Fspan%3E179&rft.date=2022-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FIJHG-12-2021-0121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247368519%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2059-4631&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022IJHG...27..150I&rft.aulast=Ibragimova&rft.aufirst=Irina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1108%2FIJHG-12-2021-0121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+governance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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taxation system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic mundialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_apartheid" title="Global apartheid">Global apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_governance" title="Transnational governance">Transnational governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_currency" title="World currency">World currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizens_movement" title="Global citizens movement">Global citizens movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federalist_Movement/Institute_for_Global_Policy" title="World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy">World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Service_Authority" title="World Service Authority">World Service Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_for_World_Government" title="Campaign for World Government">Campaign for World Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Constitution_and_Parliament_Association" title="World Constitution and Parliament Association">World Constitution and Parliament Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Provisional government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_World_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional World Government">Provisional World Government</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Globalization493" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_globalization" title="Outline of globalization">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alter-globalization" title="Alter-globalization">Alter-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deglobalization" title="Deglobalization">Deglobalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_globalization" title="Environmental globalization">Environmental globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship_education" title="Global citizenship education">education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">Global migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">Global politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">Global workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_globalization" title="History of globalization">History of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_globalization" title="Military globalization">Military globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_globalization" title="Political globalization">Political globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_globalization" title="Trade globalization">Trade globalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Global</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">Brain drain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_brain_drain" title="Reverse brain drain">reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_drain" title="Care drain">Care drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">Development aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor-state_dispute_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Investor-state dispute settlement">Investor-state disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldization" title="McDonaldization">McDonaldization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_international_division_of_labour" title="New international division of labour">New international division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">Offshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">Race to the bottom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_organized_crime" title="Transnational organized crime">Transnational crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_localism" title="Fiscal localism">Fiscal localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modernisation_theory" title="History of modernisation theory">history of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable<br />scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Economics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Autor" title="David Autor">David Autor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baldwin_(economist)" title="Richard Baldwin (economist)">Richard Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Batra" title="Ravi Batra">Ravi Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Robert Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayati_Ghosh" title="Jayati Ghosh">Jayati Ghosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Milanovi%C4%87" title="Branko Milanović">Branko Milanović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke" title="Kevin O'Rourke">Kevin O'Rourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Political <br />economy</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cox" title="Robert W. Cox">Robert W. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_(political_scientist)" title="Stephen Gill (political scientist)">Stephen Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wade_(scholar)" title="Robert Wade (scholar)">Robert Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Politics/<br />sociology</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">K. Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred Crosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_George_(political_scientist)" title="Susan George (political scientist)">Susan George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Held" title="David Held">David Held</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hirst" title="Paul Hirst">Paul Hirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._M._Ling" title="L. H. M. Ling">L. H. M. Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">George Ritzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskia_Sassen" title="Saskia Sassen">Saskia Sassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Urry_(sociologist)" title="John Urry (sociologist)">John Urry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Non–academic</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Friedman" title="Thomas Friedman">Thomas Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Klein" title="Naomi Klein">Naomi Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul" title="John Ralston Saul">John R. Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandana_Shiva" title="Vandana Shiva">Vandana Shiva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Globalization" title="Category:Globalization">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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