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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Purpose and scope</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose_and_scope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Principles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Medical ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medical sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perspectives_and_methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perspectives_and_methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Perspectives and methodology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Perspectives_and_methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Perspectives and methodology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Perspectives_and_methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islamic_bioethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_bioethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Islamic bioethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_bioethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_bioethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_bioethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Christian bioethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_bioethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminist_bioethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminist_bioethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Feminist bioethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminist_bioethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_bioethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_bioethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Environmental bioethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_bioethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_issues_in_gene_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_issues_in_gene_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Ethical issues in gene therapy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_issues_in_gene_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Professional practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Models_of_bioethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Models_of_bioethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Models of bioethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Models_of_bioethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learned_societies_and_professional_associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learned_societies_and_professional_associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Learned societies and professional associations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learned_societies_and_professional_associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-etiek" title="Bio-etiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bio-etiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="أخلاقيات علم الأحياء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أخلاقيات علم الأحياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9tica" title="Bioética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bioética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="জীবনীতিশাস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীবনীতিশাস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биоетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A8tica" title="Bioètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bioètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetik" title="Bioetik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bioetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethik" title="Bioethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bioethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioeetika" title="Bioeetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bioeetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B7%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Βιοηθική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιοηθική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9tica" title="Bioética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bioética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetiko" title="Bioetiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bioetiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="اخلاق زیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخلاق زیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9thique" title="Bioéthique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bioéthique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9tica" title="Bioética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bioética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AA%85%EC%9C%A4%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="생명윤리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생명윤리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%A7%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Բիոէթիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բիոէթիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="जैवनैतिकता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैवनैतिकता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetiko" title="Bioetiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Bioetiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetica" title="Bioetica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bioetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="ביואתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביואתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಜೈವಿಕ ನೀತಿಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೈವಿಕ ನೀತಿಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоэтика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биоэтика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethica" title="Bioethica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bioethica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C4%93tika" title="Bioētika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bioētika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-ethiek" title="Bio-ethiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bio-ethiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生命倫理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生命倫理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetyka" title="Bioetyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bioetyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9tica" title="Bioética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bioética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetic%C4%83" title="Bioetică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bioetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоэтика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биоэтика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоэтика – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Биоэтика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bioethics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоетика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биоетика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetika" title="Bioetika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bioetika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetiikka" title="Bioetiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bioetiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioetik" title="Bioetik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bioetik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிரி அறவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரி அறவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoetik" title="Biyoetik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyoetik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Біоетика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біоетика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_%C4%91%E1%BB%A9c_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Đạo đức sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đạo đức sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoetika" title="Biyoetika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyoetika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生物倫理學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生物倫理學" data-language-autonym="中文" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Bioethics_(journal)" title="Bioethics (journal)"><i>Bioethics</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#b6e3c9;;padding-top:0.4em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_ethics" title="Category:Medical ethics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#b6e3c9;;padding-top:0;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Values</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">Primum non nocere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">Beneficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Conflicts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_(law)" title="Capacity (law)">Capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_to_warn" title="Duty to warn">Duty to warn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_to_protect" title="Duty to protect">Duty to protect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Cases</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Frameworks</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_healthcare_directive" title="Advance healthcare directive">Advance healthcare directive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker" title="Surrogate decision-maker">Surrogate decision-maker</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Related Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_profession" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical profession">Medical profession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_law" title="Medical law">Medical law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioethics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b6e3c9;;border-top:1px #b6e3c9 solid;"> Critiques</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medical_ethics_sidebar" title="Template:Medical ethics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medical_ethics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Medical ethics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_ethics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical ethics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bioethics</b> is both a field of study and professional practice, interested in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical issues</a> related to health (primarily focused on the human, but also increasingly includes <a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">animal ethics</a>), including those emerging from advances in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, and technologies. It proposes the discussion about moral discernment in society (what decisions are "good" or "bad" and why) and it is often related to medical policy and practice, but also to broader questions as <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>. Bioethics is concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among <a href="/wiki/Life_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Life sciences">life sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. It includes the study of values relating to primary care, other branches of medicine ("<a href="/wiki/Primary_care_ethics" title="Primary care ethics">the ethics of the ordinary</a>"), ethical education in science, animal, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a>, and public health. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>bioethics</i> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">bios</i></span>, "life"; <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">ethos</i></span>, "moral nature, behavior"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was coined in 1927 by <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Jahr" title="Fritz Jahr">Fritz Jahr</a> in an article about a "bioethical imperative" regarding the use of animals and plants in scientific research.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970, the American biochemist, and oncologist <a href="/wiki/Van_Rensselaer_Potter" title="Van Rensselaer Potter">Van Rensselaer Potter</a> used the term to describe the relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> and a growing human population. Potter's work laid the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Global_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Global ethics">global ethics</a>, a discipline centered around the link between biology, ecology, medicine, and human values.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19684372_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19684372-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sargent_Shriver" title="Sargent Shriver">Sargent Shriver</a>, the spouse of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, claimed that he had invented the term "bioethics" in the living room of his home in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1970. He stated that he thought of the word after returning from a discussion earlier that evening at Georgetown University, where he discussed with others a possible Kennedy family sponsorship of an institute focused around the "application of moral philosophy to concrete medical dilemmas".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose_and_scope">Purpose and scope</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Purpose and scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The discipline of bioethics has addressed a wide swathe of human inquiry; ranging from debates over the boundaries of lifestyles (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a>), surrogacy, the allocation of scarce health care resources (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">organ donation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care_rationing" title="Health care rationing">health care rationing</a>), to the right to refuse medical care for religious or cultural reasons. Bioethicists disagree among themselves over the precise limits of their discipline, debating whether the field should concern itself with the ethical evaluation of all questions involving biology and medicine, or only a subset of these questions.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some bioethicists would narrow ethical evaluation only to the <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> of medical treatments or <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technological</a> innovations, and the timing of medical treatment of humans. Others would increase the scope of moral assessment to encompass the morality of all moves that would possibly assist or damage organisms successful of feeling fear. </p><p>The scope of bioethics has evolved past mere biotechnology to include topics such as <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">cloning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">life extension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genetic engineering">human genetic engineering</a>, astroethics and life in space,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA, <a href="/wiki/Xeno_nucleic_acid" title="Xeno nucleic acid">XNA</a> and proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These (and other) developments may affect future evolution and require new principles that address life at its core, such as <a href="/wiki/Biotic_ethics" title="Biotic ethics">biotic ethics</a> that values life itself at its basic biological processes and structures, and seeks their propagation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bioethics_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bioethics-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moving beyond the biological, issues raised in public health such as <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resource_allocation" title="Resource allocation">resource allocation</a> have also encouraged the development of novel ethics frameworks<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to address such challenges. A study published in 2022 based on the corpus of full papers from eight main bioethics journals demonstrated the heterogeneity of this field by distinguishing 91 topics that have been discussed in these journals over the past half a century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles">Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_(original).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_%28original%29.JPG/220px-Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_%28original%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_%28original%29.JPG/330px-Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_%28original%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_%28original%29.JPG/440px-Hippocrate_refusant_les_pr%C3%A9sents_d%27Artaxerx%C3%A8s_%28original%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1539" data-file-height="1113" /></a><figcaption><i>Hippocrates Refusing the Gifts of Artaxerxes</i> by <a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet-Trioson" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson">Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first areas addressed by modern bioethicists was human experimentation. According to the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a> published by the <a href="/wiki/World_Medical_Association" title="World Medical Association">World Medical Association</a>, the essential principles in medical research involving human subjects are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. The autonomy of individuals to make decisions while assuming responsibility for them and respecting the autonomy of others ought to be respected. For people unable to exercise their autonomy, special measures ought to be taken to protect their rights and interests. </p><p>In US, the <a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_the_Protection_of_Human_Subjects_of_Biomedical_and_Behavioral_Research" title="National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research">National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research</a> was initially established in 1974 to identify the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. However, the fundamental principles announced in the <a href="/wiki/Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a> (1979)—namely, <a href="/wiki/Respect_for_persons" title="Respect for persons">respect for persons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">beneficence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>—have influenced the thinking of bioethicists across a wide range of issues. Others have added non-maleficence, <a href="/wiki/Human_dignity" class="mw-redirect" title="Human dignity">human dignity</a>, and the sanctity of life to this list of cardinal values. Overall, the Belmont Report has guided lookup in a course centered on defending prone topics as properly as pushing for transparency between the researcher and the subject. Research has flourished within the past 40 years and due to the advance in technology, it is thought that human subjects have outgrown the Belmont Report, and the need for revision is desired.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another essential precept of bioethics is its placement of cost on dialogue and presentation. Numerous dialogue based bioethics organizations exist in universities throughout the United States to champion precisely such goals. Examples include the Ohio State Bioethics Society<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Bioethics Society of Cornell.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professional level versions of these organizations also exist. </p><p>Many bioethicists, in particular scientific scholars, accord the easiest precedence to autonomy. They trust that every affected person ought to decide which direction of motion they think about most in line with their beliefs. In other words, the patient should always have the freedom to choose their own treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_ethics">Medical ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Medical ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medical ethics is a utilized department of ethics that analyzes the exercise of clinical medicinal drug and associated scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values. These values consist of the appreciation for autonomy, beneficence, and justice. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></div> <p>Ethics affects medical decisions made by healthcare providers and patients.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Moral_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral value">moral values</a> and judgments as they apply to <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. The four main moral commitments are respect for autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. Using these four principles and thinking about what the physicians' specific concern is for their scope of practice can help physicians make moral decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. </p><p>Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as applied professional ethics; whereas bioethics has a more expansive application, touching upon the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> and issues of <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>. The two fields often overlap, and the distinction is more so a matter of style than professional consensus. Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a> ethics, such as <a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">nursing ethics</a>. A bioethicist assists the health care and research community in examining moral issues involved in our understanding of life and death, and resolving ethical dilemmas in medicine and science. Examples of this would be the topic of equality in medicine, the intersection of cultural practices and medical care, ethical distribution of healthcare resources in pandemics,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and issues of <a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">bioterrorism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medical ethical concerns frequently touch on matters of life and death. Patient rights, informed consent, confidentiality, competency, advance directives, carelessness, and many other topics are highlighted as serious health concerns. </p><p>The proper actions to take in light of all the circumstances are what ethics is all about. It discusses the difference between what is proper and wrong at a certain moment and a particular society. Medical ethics is concerned with the duties that doctors, hospitals, and other healthcare providers have to patients, society, and other health professionals. </p><p>The health profession has a set of ethical standards that are relevant to various organizations of health workers and medical facilities. Ethics are never stagnant and always relevant. What is seen as acceptable ethics now may not be so one hundred years ago. The hospital administrator is required to have a thorough awareness of their moral and legal obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_sociology">Medical sociology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medical sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The practice of bioethics in clinical care have been studied by <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">medical sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many scholars consider that bioethics arose in response to a perceived lack of accountability in medical care in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> Studying the clinical practice of ethics in medical care, Hauschildt and Vries found that ethical questions were often reframed as clinical judgments to allow clinicians to make decisions. Ethicists most often put key decisions in the hands of physicians rather than patients.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p><p>Communication strategies suggested by ethicists act to decrease patient autonomy. Examples include, clinicians discussing treatment options with one another prior to talking to patients or their family to present a united front limited patient autonomy, hiding uncertainty amongst clinicians. Decisions about overarching goals of treatment were reframed as technical matters excluding patients and their families. Palliative care experts were used as intermediaries to guide patients towards less invasive end-of-live treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> In their study, Hauschild and Vries found that 76% of ethical consultants were trained as clinicians.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> </p><p>Studying <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent#Medical_sociology" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, Corrigan found that some social processes resulted in limitations to patients choice, but also at times patients could find questions regarding consent to medical trials burdensome.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most prevalent subject is how social stratification (based on SES, gender, class, ethnicity, and age) affects patterns of behavior related to health and sickness, illness risk, disability, and other outcomes related to health care. The study of health care organization and provision, which encompasses the evolving organizational structures of health care organizations and the social psychology of health and health care, is another important approach. These latter research cover topics including connections between doctors and patients, coping mechanisms, and social support. The description of other important fields of medical sociology study emphasizes how theory and research have changed in the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perspectives_and_methodology">Perspectives and methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Perspectives and methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bioethicists come from a wide variety of backgrounds and have training in a diverse array of disciplines. The field contains individuals trained in philosophy such as <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Brody" title="Baruch Brody">Baruch Brody</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Savulescu" title="Julian Savulescu">Julian Savulescu</a> of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">the University of Oxford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Caplan" title="Arthur Caplan">Arthur Caplan</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">NYU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a> of <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Kamm" title="Frances Kamm">Frances Kamm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Callahan" title="Daniel Callahan">Daniel Callahan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hastings_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Hastings Center">Hastings Center</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Brock" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Brock">Daniel Brock</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>; medically trained clinician ethicists such as <a href="/wiki/Mark_Siegler" title="Mark Siegler">Mark Siegler</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fins" title="Joseph Fins">Joseph Fins</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>; lawyers such as <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Neveloff_Dubler" title="Nancy Neveloff Dubler">Nancy Dubler</a> of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_College_of_Medicine" title="Albert Einstein College of Medicine">Albert Einstein College of Medicine</a> or Jerry Menikoff of the federal <a href="/wiki/Office_for_Human_Research_Protections" title="Office for Human Research Protections">Office for Human Research Protections</a>; political scientists like <a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a>; religious studies scholars including <a href="/wiki/James_Childress" title="James Childress">James Childress</a>; and theologians like Lisa Sowle Cahill and Stanley Hauerwas. </p><p>The field, formerly dominated by formally trained philosophers, has become increasingly <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a>, with some critics even claiming that the methods of analytic philosophy have harmed the field's development. Leading journals in the field include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Medicine_and_Philosophy" title="The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy">The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Hastings_Center_Report" title="Hastings Center Report">Hastings Center Report</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Bioethics" title="American Journal of Bioethics">American Journal of Bioethics</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Medical_Ethics" title="Journal of Medical Ethics">Journal of Medical Ethics</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Bioethics_(journal)" title="Bioethics (journal)">Bioethics</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Institute_of_Ethics_Journal" title="Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal">Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Ethics" title="Public Health Ethics">Public Health Ethics</a>,</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Quarterly_of_Healthcare_Ethics" title="Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics">Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics</a></i>. Bioethics has also benefited from the <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another discipline that discusses bioethics is the field of feminism; the <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Feminist_Approaches_to_Bioethics" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics">International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics</a></i> has played an important role in organizing and legitimizing feminist work in bioethics.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many religious communities have their histories of inquiry into bioethical issues and have developed <a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">rules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guideline_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guideline (medical)">guidelines</a> on how to deal with these issues from within the <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(cognitive)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (cognitive)">viewpoint</a> of their respective <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faiths</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_medical_ethics" title="Jewish medical ethics">Jewish</a>, Christian and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics#Medical_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Muslim</a> faiths have each developed a considerable body of literature on these matters.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of many non-Western cultures, a strict separation of religion from philosophy does not exist. In many Asian cultures, for example, there is a lively discussion on bioethical issues. Buddhist bioethics, in general, is characterized by a naturalistic outlook that leads to a rationalistic, pragmatic approach. <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> bioethicists include <a href="/wiki/Damien_Keown" title="Damien Keown">Damien Keown</a>. In India, <a href="/wiki/Vandana_Shiva" title="Vandana Shiva">Vandana Shiva</a> is a leading bioethicist speaking from the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> tradition. </p><p>In Africa, and partly also in Latin America, the debate on bioethics frequently focuses on its practical relevance in the context of underdevelopment and geopolitical power relations.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Africa, their bioethical approach is influenced by and similar to Western bioethics due to the colonization of many African countries.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some African bioethicists are calling for a shift in bioethics that utilizes indigenous African philosophy rather than western philosophy. Some African bioethicists also believe that Africans will be more likely to accept a bioethical approach grounded in their own culture, as well as empower African people.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (April 2015)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Masahiro_Morioka" title="Masahiro Morioka">Masahiro Morioka</a> argues that in Japan the bioethics movement was first launched by disability activists and feminists in the early 1970s, while academic bioethics began in the mid-1980s. During this period, unique philosophical discussions on brain death and disability appeared both in the academy and journalism.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chinese culture and bioethics, there is not as much of an emphasis on autonomy as opposed to the heavy emphasis placed on autonomy in Western bioethics. Community, social values, and family are all heavily valued in Chinese culture, and contribute to the lack of emphasis on autonomy in Chinese bioethics. The Chinese believe that the family, community, and individual are all interdependent of each other, so it is common for the family unit to collectively make decisions regarding healthcare and medical decisions for a loved one, instead of an individual making an independent decision for his or her self.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some argue that <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> and understanding one another as spiritual beings and moral agents is an important aspect of bioethics, and that spirituality and bioethics are heavily intertwined with one another. As a healthcare provider, it is important to know and understand varying world views and religious beliefs. Having this knowledge and understanding can empower healthcare providers with the ability to better treat and serve their patients. Developing a connection and understanding of a patient's moral agent helps enhance the care provided to the patient. Without this connection or understanding, patients can be at risk of becoming "faceless units of work" and being looked at as a "set of medical conditions" as opposed to the storied and spiritual beings that they are.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11660133_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11660133-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_bioethics">Islamic bioethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Islamic bioethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bioethics in the realm of Islam differs from Western bioethics, but they share some similar perspectives viewpoints as well. Western bioethics is focused on rights, especially individual rights. Islamic bioethics focuses more on religious duties and obligations, such as seeking treatment and preserving life.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic bioethics is heavily influenced and connected to the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a> as well as the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. These influences essentially make it an extension of Shariah or Islamic Law. In Islamic bioethics, passages from the Qur'an are often used to validate various medical practices. For example, a passage from the Qur'an states "whosoever killeth a human being ... it shall be as if he had killed all humankind, and whosoever saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he saved the life of all humankind." This excerpt can be used to encourage using medicine and medical practices to save lives, but can also be looked at as a protest against euthanasia and assisted suicide. A high value and worth are placed on human life in Islam, and in turn, human life is deeply valued in the practice of Islamic bioethics as well. Muslims believe all human life, even one of poor quality, needs to be given appreciation and must be cared for and conserved.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Islamic education on sensible problems associated to existence in normal and human lifestyles in unique can be sought in Islamic bioethics. As we will see later, due to the fact of interconnectedness of the Islamic regulation and the Islamic ethics, the Islamic bioethics has to reflect on consideration on necessities of the Islamic regulation (Shari‘ah) in addition to ethical considerations. </p><p>To react to new technological and medical advancements, informed Islamic jurists regularly will hold conferences to discuss new bioethical issues and come to an agreement on where they stand on the issue from an Islamic perspective. This allows Islamic bioethics to stay pliable and responsive to new advancements in medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11202669_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11202669-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standpoints taken by Islamic jurists on bioethical issues are not always unanimous decisions and at times may differ. There is much diversity among Muslims varying from country to country, and the different degrees to which they adhere by Shariah.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences and disagreements in regards to jurisprudence, theology, and ethics between the two main branches of Islam, Sunni, and Shia, lead to differences in the methods and ways in which Islamic bioethics is practiced throughout the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An area where there is a lack of consensus is brain death. The Organization of Islamic Conferences Islamic Fiqh Academy (OIC-IFA) holds the view that brain death is equivalent to cardiopulmonary death, and acknowledges brain death in an individual as the individual being deceased. On the contrary, the Islamic Organization of Medical Sciences (IOMS) states that brain death is an "intermediate state between life and death" and does not acknowledge a brain dead individual as being deceased.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islamic bioethicists look to the Qur'an and religious leaders regarding their outlook on reproduction and abortion. It is firmly believed that the reproduction of a human child can only be proper and legitimate via marriage. This does not mean that a child can only be reproduced via sexual intercourse between a married couple, but that the only proper and legitimate way to have a child is when it is an act between husband and wife. It is okay for a married couple to have a child artificially and from techniques using modern biotechnology as opposed to sexual intercourse, but to do this out of the context of marriage would be deemed immoral. </p><p>Islamic bioethics is strongly against abortion and strictly prohibits it. The IOMS states that "from the moment a zygote settles inside a woman's body, it deserves a unanimously recognized degree of respect." Abortion may only be permitted in unique situations where it is considered to be the "lesser evil".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islamic bioethics may be used to find advice on practical matters relating to life in general and human life in particular. As we will see later, Islamic bioethics must take into account both moral concerns and the requirements of the Islamic law (Shari'ah) due to the interdependence of Islamic law and Islamic ethics. In order to avoid making a mistake, everything must be thoroughly examined, first against moral criteria and then against legal ones. It appears that many writers on Islamic bioethics have failed to distinguish between the two. </p><p>Despite the fact that Islamic law and morality are completely in agreement with one another, they may have distinct prescriptions because of their diverse ends and objectives. One distinction, for instance, is that Islamic ethics seeks to teach those with higher desires how to become more perfect and closer to God, but Islamic law seeks to decrease criteria for perfection or pleasure in both realms that are doable for the average or even lower than average. </p><p>So whatever is deemed essential or required by Islamic law is undoubtedly viewed the same way by Islamic ethics. However, there may be situations where something is not against Islamic law but is nonetheless condemned by Islamic ethics. Or there can be circumstances that, while not required by Islamic law, are essential from an ethical standpoint. For instance, while idle conversation is not strictly forbidden by Islamic law, it is morally unacceptable since it wastes time and is detrimental to one's spiritual growth. The night prayers are another illustration (which should be performed after midnight and before dawn). </p><p>Islamic bioethics' first influences Islamic bioethics is founded on the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and reason (al-'aql), much like any other inquiry into Islam. Sunni Muslims may use terms like ijmaa' (consensus) and qiyas in place of reason (analogy). Ijmaa' and qiyas as such are not recognized by Shi'a since they are insufficient proofs on their own.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_bioethics">Christian bioethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Christian bioethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Christian bioethics it is noted that the Bible, especially the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, teaches about healing by faith. Healing in the Bible is often associated with the ministry of specific individuals including <a href="/wiki/Elijah" title="Elijah">Elijah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involves cures, the Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times, he employs material such as spit and mud.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christian physician Reginald B. Cherry views faith healing as a pathway of healing in which God uses both the natural and the supernatural to heal.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being healed has been described as a privilege of accepting Christ's redemption on the cross.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth200132_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth200132-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pentecostal writer Wilfred Graves Jr. views the healing of the body as a physical expression of <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Matthew%208:17">Matthew 8:17</a>, after describing <a href="/wiki/Jesus_exorcising_at_sunset" title="Jesus exorcising at sunset">Jesus exorcising at sunset</a> and healing all of the sick who were brought to him, quotes these miracles as a fulfillment of the prophecy in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Isaiah%2053:5">Isaiah 53:5</a>: "He took up our infirmities and carried our diseases". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> endorsed the use of the medical assistance of the time (medicines of oil and wine) when he told the parable of the <a href="/wiki/Good_Samaritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Samaritan">Good Samaritan</a> (Luke 10:25–37), who "bound up [an injured man's] wounds, pouring on oil and wine" (verse 34) as a physician would. Jesus then told the doubting teacher of the law (who had elicited this parable by his self-justifying question, "And who is my neighbor?" in verse 29) to "go, and do likewise" in loving others with whom he would never ordinarily associate (verse 37).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principle of the sacredness of human life is at the basis of Catholic bioethics.<sup id="cite_ref-faculty.cua.edu_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faculty.cua.edu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the subject of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_abortion" title="Christianity and abortion">abortion</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox</a> are on very similar positions. Catholic bioethics insists on this concept,<sup id="cite_ref-faculty.cua.edu_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faculty.cua.edu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> without exception, while <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a> have positions closer to secular ones, for example with regard to the end of life.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-universityofcalifornia_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-universityofcalifornia-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936, Ludwig Bieler argued that Jesus was stylized in the New Testament in the image of the "divine man" (Greek: <a href="/wiki/Theios_aner" title="Theios aner">theios aner</a>), which was widespread in antiquity. It is said that many of the famous rulers and elders of the time had divine healing powers.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary bioethical and health care policy issues, including abortion, the distribution of limited resources, the nature of appropriate hospital chaplaincy, fetal experimentation, the use of fetal tissue in treatment, genetic engineering, the use of critical care units, distinctions between ordinary and extraordinary treatment, euthanasia, free and informed consent, competency determinations, the meaning of life, are being examined within the framework of traditional Christian moral commitments.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminist_bioethics">Feminist bioethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Feminist bioethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Feminist_bioethics" title="Feminist bioethics">Feminist bioethics</a> critiques the fields of bioethics and medicine for its lack of inclusion of women's and other marginalized group's perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This lack of perspective from women is thought to create power imbalances that favor men.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These power imbalances are theorized to be created from the androcentric nature of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of a lack of consideration of women is in clinical drug trials that exclude women due to hormonal fluctuations and possible future birth defects.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has led to a gap in the research on how pharmaceuticals can affect women.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist bioethicists call for the necessity of feminist approaches to bioethics because the lack of diverse perspectives in bioethics and medicine can cause preventable harm to already vulnerable groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This study first gained prevalence in the field of reproductive medicine as it was viewed as a "woman's issue".<sup id="cite_ref-:02_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, feminist approaches to bioethics has expanded to include bioethical topics in mental health, <a href="/wiki/Disability_rights_movement" title="Disability rights movement">disability advocacy</a>, healthcare accessibility, and <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">pharmaceuticals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lindemann notes the need for the future agenda of feminist approaches to bioethics to expand further to include healthcare organizational ethics, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell research</a>, and more.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable figures in feminist bioethics include <a href="/wiki/Carol_Gilligan" title="Carol Gilligan">Carol Gilligan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Sherwin" title="Susan Sherwin">Susan Sherwin</a>, and the creators of the <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Feminist_Approaches_to_Bioethics" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics">International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics</a></i>, Mary C. Rawlinson and Anne Donchin. Sherwin's book <i>No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics in Health Care</i> (1992) is credited with being one of the first full-length books published on the topic of feminist bioethics and points out the shortcomings in then-current bioethical theories.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sherwin's viewpoint incorporates models of oppression within healthcare that intend to further marginalize women, people of color, immigrants, and people with disabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since created in 1992, the <i>International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics</i> has done much work to legitimize feminist work and theory in bioethics.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By pointing out the male marking of its purportedly generic human subject and the fact that the tradition does not see women's rights as human rights, feminist bioethics challenges bioethics. This article explores how the other gender becomes mute and invisible as a result of this unseen gendering of the universal. It demonstrates how the dehumanization of "man" is a root cause of illness on a social and personal level. Finally, it makes many recommendations for how representations of women's experience and bodies could help to constructively reconsider fundamental ethical principles.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_bioethics">Environmental bioethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Environmental bioethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bioethics, the ethics of the life sciences in general, expanded from the encounter between experts in medicine and the laity, to include organizational and social ethics, environmental ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2019 textbooks of green bioethics existed.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_issues_in_gene_therapy">Ethical issues in gene therapy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ethical issues in gene therapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gene therapy involves ethics, because scientists are making changes to genes, the building blocks of the human body.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, therapeutic gene therapy is available to treat specific genetic disorders by editing cells in specific body parts. For example, gene therapy can treat hematopoietic disease.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a controversial gene therapy called "germline gene therapy", in which genes in a sperm or egg can be edited to prevent genetic disorder in the <a href="/wiki/Future_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Future generation">future generation</a>. It is unknown how this type of gene therapy affects long-term human development. In the United States, federal funding cannot be used to research germline gene therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ethical challenges in gene therapy for rare childhood diseases underscore the complexity of initiating trials, determining dosage levels, and involving affected families. With over a third of gene therapies targeting rare, genetic, pediatric-onset, and life-limiting diseases, fair participant selection and transparent engagement with patient communities become crucial ethical considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concern involves the use of virus-derived vectors for gene transfer, raising safety and hereditary implications. Additionally, the ethical dilemma in gene therapy explores the potential harms of human enhancement, particularly regarding the birth of disabled individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Addressing these challenges is vital for responsible development, application, and equitable access to gene therapies. The experience with human growth hormone further illustrates the blurred lines between therapy and enhancement, emphasizing the importance of ethical considerations in balancing therapeutic benefits and potential enhancements, especially in the rapidly advancing field of genomic medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As gene therapies progress towards FDA approval, collaboration with clinical genetics providers becomes essential to navigate the ethical complexities of this new era in medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_practice">Professional practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Professional practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bioethics as a subject of expert exercise (although now not a formal profession) developed at the beginning in North America in the Nineteen Eighties and Nineteen Nineties, in the areas of clinical / <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">research ethics</a>. Slowly internationalizing as a field, since the 2000s professional bioethics has expanded to include other specialties, such as <a href="/wiki/Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">organizational ethics</a> in health systems, <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> ethics, and more recently <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Ethics of artificial intelligence</a>. Professional ethicists may be called <a href="/wiki/Consultant" title="Consultant">consultants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethicists" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethicists">ethicists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facilitator" title="Facilitator">coordinators</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Industry_analyst" title="Industry analyst">analysts</a>; and they may work in healthcare organizations, government agencies, and in both the public and private sectors. They may also be full-time employees, unbiased consultants, or have cross-appointments with educational institutions, such as lookup centres or universities.<sup id="cite_ref-Bioethics_jbs_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bioethics_jbs-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Models_of_bioethics">Models of bioethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Models of bioethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Igor Boyko's book "Bioethics", there are three models of bioethics in the world: </p> <ul><li>Model 1 is "liberal" when there are no restrictions.</li> <li>Model 2 is "utilitarian", when what is prohibited is allowed for one person or a group of persons, if it is useful and beneficial for the majority of people.</li> <li>Model 3 is "personalistic", where the human person is considered a supernatural and inviolable integrity.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Learned_societies_and_professional_associations">Learned societies and professional associations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Learned societies and professional associations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of bioethics has developed national and international learned societies and professional associations, such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Bioethics_and_Humanities" title="American Society for Bioethics and Humanities">American Society for Bioethics and Humanities</a>, the Canadian Bioethics Society,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Canadian Association of Research Ethics Boards,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Association of Bioethics Program Directors,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Bangladesh Bioethics Society and the International Association of Bioethics.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bioethics is taught in courses at the undergraduate and graduate level in different academic disciplines or programs, such as Philosophy, Medicine, Law, Social Sciences. It has become a requirement for <a href="/wiki/Professional_certification" title="Professional certification">professional accreditation</a> in many health professional programs (Medicine, Nursing, Rehabilitation), to have obligatory training in ethics (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">professional ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical ethics">clinical ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">nursing ethics</a>). Interest in the field and professional opportunities<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have led to the development of dedicated programs with concentrations in Bioethics, largely in the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canada (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_bioethics_programs" title="List of Canadian bioethics programs">List of Canadian bioethics programs</a>) and Europe, offering undergraduate majors/minors, graduate certificates, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_masters_programs_in_bioethics" title="List of masters programs in bioethics">master's</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_doctoral_programs_in_bioethics" title="List of doctoral programs in bioethics">doctoral</a> degrees. </p><p>Training in bioethics (usually clinical, medical, or professional ethics) are part of <a href="/wiki/Core_competency" title="Core competency">core competency</a> requirements for health professionals in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nursing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">rehabilitation</a>. For example, every medical school in Canada teaches bioethics so that students can gain an understanding of biomedical ethics and use the knowledge gained in their future careers to provide better patient care. Canadian residency training programs are required to teach bioethics as it is one of the conditions of accreditation, and is a requirement by the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Family_Physicians_of_Canada" title="College of Family Physicians of Canada">College of Family Physicians of Canada</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_of_Canada" title="Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada">Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11338804_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11338804-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a field of study, bioethics has also drawn criticism. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Farmer" title="Paul Farmer">Paul Farmer</a> noted that bioethics tends to focus its attention on problems that arise from "too much care" for patients in industrialized nations while giving little or no attention to the ethical problem of too little care for the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-Farmer_2004_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farmer_2004-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 196–212">: 196–212 </span></sup> Farmer characterizes the bioethics of handling morally difficult clinical situations, normally in hospitals in industrialized countries, as "quandary ethics".<sup id="cite_ref-Farmer_2004_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farmer_2004-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 205">: 205 </span></sup> He does not regard quandary ethics and clinical bioethics as unimportant; he argues, rather, that bioethics must be balanced and give due weight to the poor. </p><p>Additionally, bioethics has been condemned for its lack of diversity in thought, particularly concerning race. Even as the field has grown to include the areas of <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">public opinion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Policymaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Policymaking">policymaking</a>, and medical decision-making, little to no academic writing has been authored concerning the intersection between race–especially the cultural values imbued in that construct–and bioethical literature. John Hoberman illustrates this in a 2016 critique, in which he points out that bioethicists have been traditionally resistant to expanding their discourse to include sociological and historically relevant applications.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central to this is the notion of white normativity, which establishes the dominance of white <a href="/wiki/Hegemonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemonic">hegemonic</a> structures in bioethical academia<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tends to reinforce existing biases. </p><p>These points and critiques, along with the neglect of women's perspectives within bioethics, have also been discussed amongst feminist bioethical scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, differing views on bioethics' lack of diversity of thought and social inclusivity have also been advanced. For example, one historian has argued that the diversity of thought and social inclusivity are the two essential cornerstones of bioethics, albeit they have not been fully realized.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to practice critical bioethics, bioethicists must base their investigations in empirical research, refute ideas with facts, engage in self-reflection, and be skeptical of the assertions made by other bioethicists, scientists, and doctors. A thorough normative study of actual moral experience is what is intended.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research in bioethics is conducted by a broad and interdisciplinary community of scholars, and is not restricted only to those researchers who define themselves as "bioethicists": it includes researchers from the humanities, social sciences, health sciences and health professions, law, the fundamental sciences, etc. These researchers may be working in specialized <a href="/wiki/List_of_bioethics_centers_and_institutes" title="List of bioethics centers and institutes">bioethics centers and institutes</a> associated with university bioethics training programs; but they may also be based in disciplinary departments without a specific bioethics focus. Notable examples of research centers include, amongst others, <a href="/wiki/The_Hastings_Center" title="The Hastings Center">The Hastings Center</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Institute_of_Ethics" title="Kennedy Institute of Ethics">Kennedy Institute of Ethics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yale_Interdisciplinary_Center_for_Bioethics" title="Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics">Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Human_Bioethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre for Human Bioethics">Centre for Human Bioethics</a>. </p><p>Areas of bioethics research that are the subject of published, peer-reviewed bioethical analysis include: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">Artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">Artificial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_womb" title="Artificial womb">Artificial womb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">Assisted suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocentrism_(ethics)" title="Biocentrism (ethics)">Biocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">Biological patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorisk" title="Biorisk">Biorisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_ethics" title="Biotic ethics">Biotic ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">Blood transfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">Body modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimera_(genetics)" title="Chimera (genetics)">Chimeras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medical_records" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical records">medical records</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest_in_the_healthcare_industry" title="Conflict of interest in the healthcare industry">Conflict of interest in the healthcare industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">Contraception</a> (<a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-of-life_care" title="End-of-life care">End-of-life care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a> (human, non-human animal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_tube" title="Feeding tube">Feeding tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gain-of-function_research" title="Gain-of-function research">Gain-of-function research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_theft" title="Gene theft">Gene theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HeLa_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="HeLa cells">HeLa cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_cloning" title="Human cloning">Human cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_enhancement" title="Human enhancement">Human enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation in the United States">Human experimentation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genetic engineering">Human genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility treatments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_support" title="Life support">Life support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">Lobotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">Medicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_malpractice" title="Medical malpractice">Medical malpractice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">Medical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_torture" title="Medical torture">Medical torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_donation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial donation">Mitochondrial donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_obligation" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral obligation">Moral obligation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_status_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral status of animals">Moral status of animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroenhancement" title="Neuroenhancement">Neuroenhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Nazi human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_and_extraordinary_care" title="Ordinary and extraordinary care">Ordinary and extraordinary care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtreatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Overtreatment">Overtreatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">Organ transplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">Parthenogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patients%27_Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Patients' Bill of Rights">Patients' Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">Placebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_control" title="Population control">Population control</a> (non-human animals)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procreative_beneficence" class="mw-redirect" title="Procreative beneficence">Procreative beneficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)" title="Quality of life (healthcare)">Quality of life (healthcare)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_prevention" title="Quaternary prevention">Quaternary prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">Recreational drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reprogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Reprogenetics">Reprogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_allocation" title="Resource allocation">Resource allocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_reassignment_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex reassignment therapy">Sex reassignment therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_donation" title="Sperm donation">Sperm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egg_donation" title="Egg donation">egg donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_drug_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual drug use">Spiritual drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_controversy" title="Stem cell controversy">Stem cell research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">Sterilization (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transsexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Transsexuality">Transsexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transplant_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Transplant trade">Transplant trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triage" title="Triage">Triage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_ligation" title="Tubal ligation">Tubal ligation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaccination controversy">Vaccination controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenotransfusion" title="Xenotransfusion">Xenotransfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenotransplantation" title="Xenotransplantation">Xenotransplantation</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bioethics_centers_and_institutes" title="List of bioethics centers and institutes">List of bioethics centers and institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bioethics_journals" title="List of bioethics journals">List of bioethics journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_bioethics_programs" title="List of Canadian bioethics programs">List of Canadian bioethics programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> – Existential threat from biological sources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic transfer">Cytoplasmic transfer</a> – Special form of in vitro fertilisation<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hastings_Center" title="The Hastings Center">The Hastings Center</a> – Non-profit organization in the USA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_law" title="Medical law">Medical law</a> – Area of law dealing with the practice of medicine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a> – Ethics of neuroscience, and the neuroscience of ethics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a> – Genetic profiling of embryos prior to implantation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resources_for_clinical_ethics_consultation" title="Resources for clinical ethics consultation">Resources for clinical ethics consultation</a></li> <li>{{annotated link|Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine|The Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine}</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethos">"Definition of ETHOS"</a>. <i>merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279940">the original</a> on 27 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whitehead-The+Algebra+of+Metaphysics.&rft.edition=Les+%C3%A9ditions+Chromatika&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F279940&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonchin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Donchin A (2008). "Remembering Fab's Past, Anticipating Our Future". <i>International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 145–160. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-4585">1937-4585</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40339216">40339216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Feminist+Approaches+to+Bioethics&rft.atitle=Remembering+Fab%27s+Past%2C+Anticipating+Our+Future&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=145-160&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40339216%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1937-4585&rft.aulast=Donchin&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As regards the Christian Orthodox perspective see e.g. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_B._Scouteris" title="Constantine B. Scouteris">Constantine B. Scouteris</a>, <i>Bioethics in the light of orthodox anthropology</i>, Polytechnic School of Crete (ed), <i>First International Conference: Christian Anthropology and Biotechnological Progress</i> (Financially Supported by CTNS, U.S.A.), Orthodox Academy of Crete, 26–29 September 2002, pp. 75–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBobyrovVazhnichaDevyatkina2012" class="citation book cs1">Bobyrov VM, Vazhnicha OM, Devyatkina TO (2012). <i>Basics of Bioethics and Safety</i>. 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"Why Bioethics Has a Race Problem". <i>The Hastings Center Report</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 12–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhast.542">10.1002/hast.542</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27120279">27120279</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hastings+Center+Report&rft.atitle=Why+Bioethics+Has+a+Race+Problem&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-18&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhast.542&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27120279&rft.aulast=Hoberman&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarsjensJohnson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Karsjens KL, Johnson JM (2003). "White normativity and subsequent critical race deconstruction of bioethics". <i>The American Journal of Bioethics</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 22–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F152651603766436144">10.1162/152651603766436144</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12859809">12859809</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9386244">9386244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Bioethics&rft.atitle=White+normativity+and+subsequent+critical+race+deconstruction+of+bioethics&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=22-23&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9386244%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12859809&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F152651603766436144&rft.aulast=Karsjens&rft.aufirst=KL&rft.au=Johnson%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxén2017" class="citation book cs1">Saxén H (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trepo.tuni.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/101926/978-952-03-0523-9.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"><i>A Cultural Giant: An interpretation of bioethics in light of its intellectual and cultural history</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Tampere: Tampere University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9520305239" title="Special:BookSources/978-9520305239"><bdi>978-9520305239</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+Giant%3A+An+interpretation+of+bioethics+in+light+of+its+intellectual+and+cultural+history&rft.place=Tampere&rft.pub=Tampere+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-9520305239&rft.aulast=Sax%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrepo.tuni.fi%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10024%2F101926%2F978-952-03-0523-9.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxénSaxén2021" class="citation journal cs1">Saxén H, Saxén S (1 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioethics.hms.harvard.edu/news/what-organic-bioethics">"What is Organic Bioethics?"</a>. <i>Harvard Medical School Bioethics Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Medical+School+Bioethics+Journal&rft.atitle=What+is+Organic+Bioethics%3F&rft.date=2021-04-01&rft.aulast=Sax%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Sax%C3%A9n%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbioethics.hms.harvard.edu%2Fnews%2Fwhat-organic-bioethics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHedgecoe2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hedgecoe, Adam M. (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15146853">"Critical bioethics: beyond the social science critique of applied ethics"</a>. <i>Bioethics</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 120–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8519.2004.00385.x">10.1111/j.1467-8519.2004.00385.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0269-9702">0269-9702</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15146853">15146853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bioethics&rft.atitle=Critical+bioethics%3A+beyond+the+social+science+critique+of+applied+ethics&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=120-143&rft.date=2004-04&rft.issn=0269-9702&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15146853&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8519.2004.00385.x&rft.aulast=Hedgecoe&rft.aufirst=Adam+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F15146853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworth2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._F._Bosworth" title="F. F. Bosworth">Bosworth, Fred</a> (2001). <i>Christ the Healer</i>. Revell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8007-5739-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8007-5739-4"><bdi>0-8007-5739-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christ+the+Healer&rft.pub=Revell&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8007-5739-4&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFry-Revere2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sigrid_Fry-Revere" title="Sigrid Fry-Revere">Fry-Revere, Sigrid</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n21.xml">"Bioethics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 33–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n21">10.4135/9781412965811.n21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bioethics&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=33-35&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n21&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Fry-Revere&rft.aufirst=Sigrid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn21.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Ігор Бойко</i>, <i>Біоетика</i>, скрипти для студентів, Український Католицький Університет, Львів 2008. – 180 с./Ihor Boyko, Bioethics, scripts for students, Ukrainian Catholic University, Lviv 2008. – 180 p./</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioethics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Bioethics</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Bioethics">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Bioethics&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/bioethic/">Bioethics</a> entry in the <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-bioethics/">"Feminist Bioethics"</a> at the <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioethics.io">"MyBioethics"</a> – a free online resource (app) for learning bioethics through real cases.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bioethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medical_ethics" title="Template:Medical ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medical_ethics" title="Template talk:Medical ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bioethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classic principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">Beneficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">Non-maleficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Doctrine of double effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Gender assignment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Death, dying, and <br />emergent situations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">Arbitration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac death">Cardiac death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Court_intervention&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Court intervention (page does not exist)">Court intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ethics committee (disambiguation)">Ethics committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">Executor</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Family_meeting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Family meeting (page does not exist)">Family meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next_of_kin" title="Next of kin">Next of kin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_proxy" title="Healthcare proxy">Health care proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Transplant_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transplant ethics (page does not exist)">Transplant ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural differences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_medical_ethics" title="Jewish medical ethics">Jewish medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal conduct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Position_of_trust" title="Position of trust">Abuse of trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuity of care">Continuity of care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift" title="Gift">Gifts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">Liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">Lying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misconduct" title="Misconduct">Misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">Scientific misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_misconduct&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medical misconduct (page does not exist)">Medical misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(law)" title="Competence (law)">Competence (law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">Competency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompetency" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompetency">Incompetency</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Termination_of_the_patient-physician_relationship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Termination of the patient-physician relationship (page does not exist)">Termination of the patient-physician relationship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_challenge_study" title="Human challenge study">Human challenge study</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Research_participant_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Research_participant_rights" title="Template:Research participant rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Research_participant_rights" title="Template talk:Research participant rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Research_participant_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Research participant rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Research_participant_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Research_participant" title="Research participant">Research participant</a> rights</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">Beneficence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice (ethics)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect_for_persons" title="Respect for persons">Respect for persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_for_research_participants" title="Privacy for research participants">Privacy for research participants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_withdraw" title="Right to withdraw">Right to withdraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_of_results" title="Return of results">Return of results</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">Biobank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethical systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical research ethics">Clinical research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biobank_ethics" title="Biobank ethics">Biobank ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Guidelines_for_human_subject_research" title="Guidelines for human subject research">Guidelines for human subject research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">List of medical ethics cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Rule" title="Common Rule">Common Rule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monitoring_in_clinical_trials" title="Monitoring in clinical trials">Monitoring in clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee" title="Ethics committee">Ethics committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_monitoring_committee" title="Data monitoring committee">Data monitoring committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_advisory_board" title="Community advisory board">Community advisory board</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medical_ethics_cases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medical_ethics_cases" title="Template:Medical ethics cases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medical_ethics_cases" title="Template talk:Medical ethics cases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_ethics_cases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical ethics cases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medical_ethics_cases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Medical ethics cases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Assisted <br /> suicide</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betty_and_George_Coumbias" title="Betty and George Coumbias">Betty and George Coumbias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dax_Cowart" title="Dax Cowart">Dax Cowart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Nuvoli" title="Giovanni Nuvoli">Giovanni Nuvoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Rodriguez" title="Sue Rodriguez">Sue Rodriguez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Sampedro" title="Ramón Sampedro">Ramón Sampedro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piergiorgio_Welby" title="Piergiorgio Welby">Piergiorgio Welby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kevorkian" title="Jack Kevorkian">Jack Kevorkian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Euthanasia/<br />Withholding<br /> treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bedner" title="Andrew Bedner">Andrew Bedner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Bland" title="Tony Bland">Tony Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Brophy" title="Paul Brophy">Paul Brophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Carr" title="Carol Carr">Carol Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_Doe_Law" title="Baby Doe Law">Baby Doe Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluana_Englaro" title="Eluana Englaro">Eluana Englaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Hartley" title="June Hartley">June Hartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Lambert" class="mw-redirect" title="Vincent Lambert">Vincent Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Latimer" title="Robert Latimer">Robert Latimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_M_(Australia)" title="Baby M (Australia)">Baby M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haleigh_Poutre" title="Haleigh Poutre">Haleigh Poutre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Ann_Quinlan" title="Karen Ann Quinlan">Karen Ann Quinlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terri_Schiavo" class="mw-redirect" title="Terri Schiavo">Terri Schiavo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Taylor_(patient)" title="Gloria Taylor (patient)">Gloria Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Medical opinion against<br />parent/patient/guardian</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Betancourt_v._Trinitas_Hospital" title="Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital">Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Twitchell" title="Commonwealth v. Twitchell">Commonwealth v. Twitchell</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordechai_Dov_Brody" title="Mordechai Dov Brody">Mordechai Dov Brody</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantz_v._Coleman" title="Lantz v. Coleman">Lantz v. Coleman</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfie_Evans_case" title="Alfie Evans case">Alfie Evans case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Battersbee_case" title="Archie Battersbee case">Archie Battersbee case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Gard_case" title="Charlie Gard case">Charlie Gard case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhas_Habtegiris" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirhas Habtegiris">Tirhas Habtegiris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rom_Houben" title="Rom Houben">Rom Houben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Hudson_case" title="Sun Hudson case">Sun Hudson case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_K" title="Baby K">Baby K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashya_King_case" title="Ashya King case">Ashya King case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Koochin" title="Jesse Koochin">Jesse Koochin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Maraachli_case" title="Joseph Maraachli case">Joseph Maraachli case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahi_McMath_case" title="Jahi McMath case">Jahi McMath case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Murnaghan_lung_transplant_controversy" title="Sarah Murnaghan lung transplant controversy">Sarah Murnaghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Nikolouzos_case" title="Spiro Nikolouzos case">Spiro Nikolouzos case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruna_Shanbaug_case" title="Aruna Shanbaug case">Aruna Shanbaug case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Vetter" title="David Vetter">David Vetter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a><br />to treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Treatment" title="Ashley Treatment">Ashley Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillick_competence" title="Gillick competence">Gillick competence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marion%27s_Case" class="mw-redirect" title="Marion's Case">Marion's Case</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schloendorff_v._Society_of_New_York_Hospital" title="Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital">Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiane_V%C3%B6lling" title="Christiane Völling">Christiane Völling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_v._Pfizer,_Inc." title="Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.">Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Stevens" title="Albert Stevens">Albert Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kligman" title="Albert Kligman">Albert Kligman's dermatology experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Reimer" title="David Reimer">David Reimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sleep_therapy" title="Deep sleep therapy">Deep sleep therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_Trial" title="Doctors' Trial">Doctors' Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemala_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemala syphilis experiment">Guatemala syphilis experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Lacks" title="Henrietta Lacks">Henrietta Lacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">Human radiation experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Marion_Sims" title="J. Marion Sims">J. Marion Sims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Gelsinger" title="Jesse Gelsinger">Jesse Gelsinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gilbert_Hamilton" title="Joseph Gilbert Hamilton">Joseph Gilbert Hamilton</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Moore v. Regents of the University of California">Moore v. Regents of the University of California</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhouse:_A_Tragic_Tale_of_Megalomania_and_Modern_Medicine" title="Madhouse: A Tragic Tale of Megalomania and Modern Medicine">Surgery to try to improve mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Apartheid" title="Medical Apartheid">Medical Experimentation on Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monster_Study" title="Monster Study">Monster Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Radioactive iodine experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skid_Row_Cancer_Study" title="Skid Row Cancer Study">Skid Row Cancer Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_329" title="Study 329">Study 329</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Plutonium_Files" title="The Plutonium Files">Plutonium injections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study" title="Tuskegee Syphilis Study">Tuskegee Syphilis Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willowbrook_State_School" title="Willowbrook State School">Willowbrook State School</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenberg_v._Miami_Children%27s_Hospital_Research_Institute" title="Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute">Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Emerging_technologies" title="Template talk:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging_technologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Emerging technologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emerging_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology 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